The use of water enters into each detail of the affairs of everyday life and forms a part of every article of food; its quality has much to do with the health of the family, and its convenience of distribution lends greatly to the contentment of its members. The family water supply should be as carefully guarded as means will permit, and judicious care should be exercised to prevent the possibility of its pollution. Where the source of the water is known, it should be the subject of unremitting attention.

Water comes originally from rain or snow and as it falls, it is pure. Water, however, in falling through the air absorbs the contained vapors and washes the air free from suspended organic matter in the form of dust, so that when it reaches the earth rain water contains some impurities.

As the water is absorbed by the earth, it comes into contact with the mineral matter and organic materials of animal and vegetable origin contained in the soil; and as water is a most wonderful solvent, it soon contains mineral salts and possibly the leachings from the organic substances through which it passes. The impurities usually found in well water are in the form of mineral salts that have been taken up from the earth, but other contaminating materials may come from the surface and be carried into the well by accidental drainage.

Water that is colorless and odorless is usually considered good for drinking and in the absence of more accurate means of determination may be used as a test of excellence; but it often happens that water possessing these qualities is so heavily freighted with mineral salts as to be the direct cause of impaired health. Again, water that appears pure may be polluted with disease-producing bacteria to such an extent as to endanger the lives of all who use it. The fact that a source of drinking water bears a local reputation for purity, because of long usage, cannot be taken as a test of its actual purity until it has been subjected to chemical and bacterial examination.

It must not be inferred that all water is likely to be unsuitable for drinking; there is, however, a possibility of the water being polluted from natural sources and from accidental causes, that are sometimes preventable; and the only means of determining the purity of water is by chemical and bacterial examining.

Water Analysis.

—In order to be assured as to the quality of drinking water, it should be subjected to analysis and the result of the analysis inspected by a physician of good standing. Such analysis may usually be obtained free of charge from the State Board of Health and if asked, the Chief Chemist will usually give his opinion regarding the quality as drinking water.

In chemical water analysis, the total amount of solids, regardless of their nature is taken as indicative of its excellence for drinking purposes. These solids may be either in suspension and give the water a color or produce a turbidity, or they may be entirely in solution and the water appear colorless. English authorities on the subject place the allowable proportion of solids at 500 parts to the million. Any water that contains more than 500 parts to the million is condemned for drinking purposes. Water containing 500 parts or less to the million is considered good. The Standard of the American Board of Health permits the use of water for city supply that contains 1000 parts of solid matter to the million.

The amount of solids contained in water is not at all a definite indication of its quality for drinking purposes, as may be inferred from the widely varying amounts permitted by the different authorities, but it gives an indication of its character because of the known physiological action of the contained solids.

Chemical analysis alone cannot be taken as a complete indication of the character of water, because such analysis shows nothing of the bacteria that may be present. The organic matter may indicate the possible presence of bacteria, but microscopic examination will be required to determine its harmful properties.

As examples of the chemical constituents of potable waters, the following furnish illustrations of different types of water in general use.

Pokegama Water.

—The water from Pokegama Spring at Detroit, Minn. is used widely through the Northwest as a table water. It is considered to be a very excellent drinking water because of the low amount of solids and the absence of any deleterious constituents. The complete chemical analysis as reported by the North Dakota Pure Food Laboratory is as follows:

The total solids, 20.2611 grains per gallon, equivalent to 346.85 parts per million, is very low and composed of carbonates of sodium, calcium and magnesium, none of which are in any way harmful even in much larger quantities. The amount of organic matter is practically nothing.

River Water.

—The water supply of the city of Fargo, N. D., is taken from the Red River of the North, which after being filtered through a mechanical filtration plant is supplied to the water system of the city. The river water in its raw state is considered unfit for drinking because of the amount of organic matter present at different times of the year.

Analysis of raw water from intake pipe, April 14, 1913:

In this water neither the solids nor the organic matter are at all high but during a part of each year there are many pathogenic germs present, the contained typhoid bacillus being the most feared. The following is an analysis after the water has been filtered, April 14, 1913:

It will be noticed that in the process of filtration there has been removed from the water 35 parts to the million of organic matter and with probably 99 per cent. of the pathogenic bacteria. In addition there has been removed 40 parts to the million of mineral solids, the removal of which has changed a very hard water to that which is reasonably soft. The process of filtration has changed water that is generally condemned for drinking to one that is considered remarkably good.

Artesian Water.

—The analysis of the sample of artesian water given below is an example of the water analysis made by the North Dakota Pure Food Laboratory. It furnishes an illustration of the type of reports that are returned from samples of water submitted for examination. This report was in the form of a letter which was taken at random from the files of the laboratory.

Sample of artesian water No. 1936 from Moorhead, Minn.:

“The solids in this water are made up of sodium chloride, salt, 116 parts; volatile and organic matter, 90 parts; lime sulphate, a trace; lime carbonate, a slight amount; magnesium carbonate, a slight amount; and the balance of the solids are all wholly made up of sodium bicarbonate. This water is low in solids and of good quality.”

Medical Water.

—The solids that occur most commonly in spring and well water appear in the form of mineral salts. It frequently happens that salts giving a cathartic action are present in sufficient quantity to render the water objectionable when used for drinking. Sodium chloride or common salt frequently occurs in quantity sufficient to be distinctly noticeable. Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) and sodium sulphate (Glauber salts), both of which are well-known laxative salts, very commonly occur in well water. The carbonates of calcium and sulphur also frequently found in well water are inert in physical action when taken in drinking water. The presence of laxative salts in spring water has given great celebrity to many springs both in Europe and America that are famous as cures for all manner of human ills. Such curative value as these springs possess is derived from the cathartic salts contained by the water.

The table of contents of the Saratoga Congress Water as given by Dr. Woods Hutchinson shows the solids of one of the most celebrated of America’s medicinal waters.

When reduced to ordinary measure and given their common names the mineral solids in a gallon of this water will be approximately:

The total solids, 570 grains per gallon, contained in Saratoga water, gives the remarkably high content in total solids, of 9758 parts per million; this is almost ten times the limit of the American standard. While such water would not do for constant consumption, it is taken for considerable periods of time with beneficial results and is recommended by many authorities as a water of great medicinal potency.

While most medical authorities condemn the use of water high in solids, the ideal drinking water is neither soft water nor distilled water—that is, water that is perfectly free from any saltiness—but one that contains a moderate amount of the ordinary constituents of the earth. It is reasonably safe to assume that any unpolluted water containing as high percentage of solids as 1000 parts of total solids to the million, and that is agreeable to the taste, would be safe for drinking.

“Chemical analysis in general indicates the possible pollution of water. A relatively high content of organic substances, nitrate, chlorides and sulphates, might indicate contamination, particularly when ammonia is also present. On the other hand, a high content of just one of the above-mentioned substances, be it organic, chloride, nitrate or sulphate, may originate from the natural soil strata.”

Organic Matter.

—Organic matter may come from peat swamps, decaying leaves and grasses; or it may come from decayed animal matter which finds its way into the soil; or worst of all it may come from cesspools or other sewage. While the presence of organic matter does not necessarily indicate the presence of disease-producing bacteria, it is a medium in which such germs live and multiply; for that reason it is an indicator of possible harm.

Ammonia.

—In the analysis of water the presence of ammonia is an indicator of organic matter. Ammonia is not of itself injurious but it indicates the presence of matter in which bacteria find conditions suited to their growth. Free ammonia is usually considered an indicator of recent pollution, while albuminoid ammonia indicates the presence of nitrogenous matter that has not undergone sufficient decomposition to form ammonia compounds.

Hardness in water may occur in two forms—as temporary hardness or as permanent hardness. When bicarbonate predominates as the hardening agent, the water is said to be temporarily hard because, when heated to boiling, the bicarbonate is precipitated and the water is thus softened. When softening of such water is to be done on a large scale, chemical treatment is more satisfactory. Water containing bicarbonate of lime may be softened by adding a pound of lime to 1000 gallons or 1 pound of lime to 165 cubic feet of the water. This quantity of lime is sufficient to remove 10 grains of the bicarbonate to the gallon.

When the mineral matter is in the form of sulphates, mainly sulphate of lime or magnesia, the water is said to be permanently hard, because boiling will not soften it. Such water may be softened by adding soda ash or impure carbonate of soda. One pound to 1¼ pounds of “washing soda” to each 1000 gallons of water will render such water soft; by its action the sulphate of lime is precipitated and settles to the bottom of the container; the water may then be siphoned off leaving the precipitate in the bottom.

Iron in Water.

—Water containing iron is found in many wells and springs. While iron is not harmful, it is objectionable to taste and stains most things with which it is long in contact. It may be precipitated with lime and removed as the sulphate of magnesia described in the preceding paragraph.

Chlorine.

—The presence of chlorine in water may indicate the presence of polluting matter in the form of sewage but only when the amount is considerably above the normal amount of chlorine that is contained in the soil in the community from which the water is taken. An increase of the chlorine in the water would indicate a probable pollution from sewage.

Pollution of Wells.

—The water from wells is often polluted by seepage through the earth from sources that might be prevented. Fig. 123 illustrates some of the commonest sources of contamination that through carelessness or ignorance are located in the neighborhood of the family water supply. The drainage from such sources of pollution is often directed toward the well and many cases of ill-health, disease or death are the direct consequences of drinking its water. It may be readily observed, in the case of the well illustrated, that the more water that is pumped from the well, the greater will be the tendency of the water from each of the sources of pollution to reach the well.

Another common cause of contamination of well water is that of imperfect well curbs that allow the waste water or surface water to flow into the well. The area about the well should be graded to allow no standing water, and the waste should be conducted away without permitting it to collect in standing pools.

Drainage from manured fields or other places where disintegrating animal or vegetable matter may be absorbed by water is often the cause of temporary pollution, where the water is carried to low-lying wells. Wells located in low areas that receive the drainage from such places may be suspected of pollution during the spring or early summer, when during the remainder of the year the water is pure.

In connection with any water suspected of pollution, it is well to remember that by boiling the water used for drinking, its harmful properties are entirely destroyed.

Safe Distance in the Location of Wells.

—In the location of a well, the distance of safety from sources of pollution will depend, in a considerable measure, on the character of the soil and the quantity and concentration of the pollution material entering the ground water. When coming from the surface, the danger is usually neither great nor difficult to avoid; but when cesspools and privies in the neighborhood are sunk to a considerable depth in porous earth, from which the supply of water is drawn, the polluting material may reach the well undiluted. No absolute radius of safety can be given, but certain generalizations as to conditions may be made as to character of soil and the different topographical conditions which surround a safe location.

In ordinary clay, or in clay mixed with pebbles and in soils of the same general nature, through which the water circulates by seepage, the pollution is not likely to be carried to a distance of 100 feet. Clay offers marked resistance to the passage of water, which in beds of 3 to 5 feet thick will act as protection from pollution from above. In sandy soils the movement of water is faster than in clayey soils, but 150 feet may be taken as a safe distance, unless the downward slope of the land carries the polluting material directly to the well.

Surface Pollution of Wells.

—In dug wells, pollution from the surface is due most commonly to careless construction and lack of care. In Fig. 124 is indicated the most common cause of surface pollution. The figure represents a well that has been curbed with planks. Through lack of care the earth has sunken at the top, permitting the surface water to flow into the well. The top of the well is on a level with the surface and covered with loosely laid boards which allow the waste water to drip through the joints. Such a well, even though the source of supply is good, will likely yield water of inferior quality.

In bored wells, polluting water may enter through the uncemented joints of the tiling or through the joints in the staves of wooden tubing; in drilled or driven wells, through leaky joints or holes eaten in the iron casing by corrosive waters. By cementing the interior surface of stone-or brick-curbed wells, by replacing wood with cement or other impervious curbs and by substituting new pipes for leaky iron casings, the entrance of polluting water may be prevented.

In the average home the water supply is most commonly taken from a well, the water from which comes through the earth from unknown sources, and the character of chemical salts or organic matter the water contains will depend on the kind of soil through which it passes before reaching the well.

The water from wells, whether deep or shallow, is generally of relatively local origin, it being absorbed by the soil and carried to the water stratum by percolation. If the soil contains soluble mineral salts the water will contain these materials in quantities depending on the amount of the salts present in the earth. If the earth contains organic matter as pathogenic bacteria the water is likely to contain these bacteria in like numbers as they are present in the soil through which the water filters.

As usually encountered, the water-bearing earth occurs in sheets rather than in veins or streams. The movement of the water in such areas follows the contour of the earth and is influenced by the varying amount of rain or snowfall and the atmospheric pressure. The lateral movement is often only a few inches a day and in some places no lateral movement occurs at all. Underground streams of any kind are not usually found except in limestone regions.

As a rule, a well is formed by digging or boring into the earth until a stratum of water-bearing soil is encountered, the type of the well being determined by the character of the earth and the location of the water-bearing soil. The water from the surrounding area fills the opening to the height of the saturated soil. As the water is pumped from the well it is replenished by the flow from the surrounding earth. If the soil is porous, as in the case of gravel, the water will refill the well almost as fast as it is taken away by the pump. If the soil is dense and the inward flow is slow, the well when once exhausted may be a long time in refilling.

Water Table.

—The upper level of the saturated portion of the soil is known as the water table. It has a definite surface that conforms to the broader surface irregularities. While a definite, determinable water table appears only in porous soil, it exists even in dense rocks. It rises and falls in wet seasons and in drought. In exceptionally wet seasons the water table may be at or above the surface. Under such conditions the opportunities for the pollution of wells is much increased. In particularly dry seasons the water table may sink below the bottom of the well, when it is said to “go dry.” The water table follows the surface contour in a manner depending on the character of the soil. It is flattest in sand or gravel areas but in clay it follows the contour of deep slopes with but slight variation.

In most cases the operators are entirely honest in their belief and in a large proportion of trial their efforts have been successful in locating desirable wells; but it has many times been proven that the movement of the rod is due to an unconscious muscular movement of the arms and hands, in places where the operator has previously suspected the presence of water. The operator of the devining rods is most successful in regions where water occurs in sheets, such as often occur in gravel or pebbly clay. The successful use of the devining rod cannot be explained by any scientific reasons. There have been invented a number of devining rods, claimed by their inventors to be based on scientific laws; but the government has not yet granted patents to appliances of the kind.

Selection of a Type of Well.

—The chief factor which controls the selection of a type of well is the nature of the water-bearing earth, the amount of water required, the cost of construction and the care of the resulting supply.

If a large amount of water is to be demanded of a well, to be dug in soil through which the water percolates slowly, the well must be large in diameter, in order that the necessary supply may be accumulated. If the earth is porous and yields its water readily, a small iron pipe driven into the ground may supply the desired amount.

The character of the water-bearing material is of the greatest importance in determining the yield of the well. In quicksand, water is usually present in ample quantities, yet owing to the extremely fine particles of which the quicksand is composed, its presence as a water-bearing soil is highly undesirable.

Flowing Wells.

—Flowing wells are obtained in places where water is confined in the earth, under sufficient pressure to lift it to the surface, through an opening made to the water-bearing stratum. These are known as artesian wells, from the fact that they were first used in Artois (anciently called Artesium) in France. In order that water may have sufficient head to lift it to the surface, it must be confined under impervious clay or other bed of earth, and with its source at a level considerably higher than its point of exit. The source of supply for flowing wells is often at a great distance. Because of the fact that flowing wells are shut off from the surface by an impervious layer of earth, the possibility of pollution from the surface is effectively prevented. Any contamination of the water must come from a distance and enter the water at its source. As pollution rarely extends through the ground to any great lateral distance, artesian waters are seldom polluted. The water from artesian wells often is heavy with mineral matter and in many cases is unfit for drinking on that account.

CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS

Wells are constructed by different methods, depending on the character of the soil in which they are sunk. Their excavation is usually accomplished by one of three general methods: by digging; by driving a pipe into the earth until it penetrates the water-bearing stratum; or by boring a hole with an enlarged earth auger, into the water-bearing soil. Artesian wells are made by drilling with a device suitable for making a small and very deep hole.

Dug Wells.

—In shallow wells the water seeps through the soil from local precipitation. Deep wells are those from which the water is brought to the surface through an impervious geologic formation, as a bed of clay or rock, and from a depth greater than that from which water may be lifted by atmospheric pressure. The fact that a deep well originates from a source that entirely differs from that of the shallow well accounts for the difference in chemical composition which frequently exists in the water from the two types of wells in the same neighborhood.

The form of the dug well is generally that of a cylindrical shaft 4 feet or more in diameter and of depth depending on the location of the water-bearing stratum. Where the character of the soil is such that the seepage is slow and the water does not flow into the well as fast as the pump will remove it, the well must contain a considerable volume to supply the period of greatest demand. Wells of this kind are commonly walled with brick or stone to keep the sides in place and to prevent the entrance of surface waters. The top of this curb should be brought above the surface of the ground and should be made water-tight to prevent the entrance of surface waters. The space around the curb, at the surface, should be graded to drain the water away from the well. There should be no chance for the water to collect in pools about the well; it should be conducted away in a gutter to the place of final disposal. The well should be covered with a platform of concrete or planking which will allow no water to enter from the surface.

Wells of this order are sometimes dug to great depth before the water-bearing stratum is encountered; this may sometimes be reached only after a great amount of expense and labor. The historic Joseph Well, near Cairo, Egypt, is an open shaft, 18 by 24 feet in area, sunk through solid rock 160 feet.

Open Wells.

—Open wells have long been condemned as insanitary. The familiar open well of the “Old Oaken Bucket” type is an inviting receptacle for the deposit of all manner of refuse, which once inside remains until it is disintegrated. These wells become the final resting place of many small animals and all manner of creeping things, in search of water. The open top receives wind-blown matter in the form of leaves and dust, much of which is in the nature of polluting material.

The pressure and amount of flow from these wells is sometimes sufficient to permit the water being used for the generation of power. Small waterwheels are not uncommonly driven in this way and the power used for the generation of electricity for lighting and running small household appliances.

Driven Wells.

—In localities where the nature of the soil gives opportunity, wells are made by driving a pipe to the required depth. Wells of this character are usually made in places where the water-bearing soil is of sand or gravel. The pipe terminates in a sand-point such as that of Fig. 128. This sand-point is a perforated pipe with a pointed end, that facilitates driving. The perforations, as shown in the point P, form a strainer which allows the water to enter the pipe but prevents the sand from filling the opening.

In the use of driven wells, the water-bearing soil must be sufficiently open to allow the water to flow into the pipe as fast as the pump takes it away.

Bored Wells.

—In many localities the water-bearing stratum is of such nature as to give a ready flow of water but yet not sufficient to permit of the use of a sand-strainer; if, however, the opening is somewhat enlarged, the water will enter with sufficient rapidity to supply a pump. In such cases bored wells are quite generally used. They are made by boring a hole of the required size with an earth auger. These wells are made of any size up to 2 feet in diameter. They are often called tubular wells because they are lined with iron tubing or tile, to prevent the earth from refilling the hole.

Cleaning of Wells.

—Very few dug wells are so constructed as to exclude dust and washings from the ground. It is, therefore, necessary that they be occasionally cleaned. Accumulations from these causes may be sufficient to hinder the entrance of the water to the well and thus lessen its capacity.

PUMPS

Pumps for lifting and elevating water are made of both wood and iron in almost endless variety; but for domestic purposes they are of two general types—the lift pump and the force pump—which include features that are common to all. The lift pump is intended for use in lifting water from low-head cisterns and wells, the depth of which is not beyond the head furnished by atmospheric pressure. The force pump performs the work of a lift pump and in addition forces the water from the outlet at a pressure to suit any domestic application. These pumps are made by manufacturers in a great variety of forms, but the essential parts are the same in all pumps intended for a single purpose. The principle of operation is the same in all pumps of any type. The difference in mechanism of pumps intended for the same purpose is only in the form and arrangement of the parts.

The Lift Pump.

—The kitchen pump is an example of the lift pump. It is universally used for household purposes where water is to be raised from cisterns, etc., and is most commonly made throughout of cast iron. Fig. 129 illustrates one form, sometimes called the pitcher pump, because of the slight resemblance to the article. It frequently carries the name cistern pump from the fact that it very generally is used to lift water from cisterns.

Although water may be raised 34 feet with a theoretically perfect pump and with a barometric pressure of 30 inches the actual limit is much lower. In use, 20 feet is probably about the limit and 10 feet or less is that of common practice. A pump that requires “priming” would raise water 15 feet with considerable difficulty for reasons that will appear later. In Fig. 129 is shown a sectional view of the working parts of the kitchen pump, the action and general form of which apply to any lift pump. The body of the pump contains a cylinder, in which closely fits a piston P, containing a valve A. At the bottom of the cylinder is an additional valve B. The piston and two valves constitute the working parts of the pump. The water is lifted through the pipe S, and is discharged at D.

The action of the pump is as follows: With the piston at the bottom of the cylinders and with no water in the pump, the handle is forced down, which action raised the piston. In so doing the air below it is rarefied. The reduction of pressure due to the rarefication of the air allows the water to rise in the pipe S correspondingly. After repeated strokes of the piston, the water reaches the valve B, which raises to let it pass, but immediately closes at the end of the upward stroke. When the space between the piston and the valve B is filled with water, each descent of the piston forces the water through the valve A; and when the piston is raised, the water is lifted out through the spout.

The valve A is a loose piece of cast iron, surfaced on the lower side to make good contact with the piston. The valve B is of cast iron fastened to a piece of leather by a screw. The leather makes a joint with the valve-seat and furnishes an excellent valve for its use. In order to keep the plunger P tight in the cylinder, it is surrounded with a leather gasket. Should this gasket become worn, as it will in time, the plunger fits loosely in the cylinder and the pump will lift the water with difficulty, because of the leakage around the gasket. Should the valve B leak, the water will gradually run back into the pipe S, and the pump when left idle will lose its “priming.” The plunger and the valve B are the parts most likely to get out of order. If the gasket around the piston P is very much worn, and there is no water in cylinder, the pump will require priming before the water can be raised. If the pump contains no water and is left standing for a considerable time, the leather parts of the valve dry out and shrink; when the pump is again put into use, the valves will fail to work properly, until the leathers are again water-soaked. Water is poured into the top of the pump until the cylinder is filled, and as soon as the leather becomes water-soaked and fills the cylinder, the piston will again perform its function.

The Force Pump.

—The house force pump is often used in place of the ordinary lift pump, when no other means is at hand for providing water under pressure. It furnishes a limited means for lawn sprinkling and gives some degree of fire protection in isolated places. It may be made a part of the kitchen sink as shown in Fig. 130, by use of the attachment that appears in detail under the sink. This type of pump may be used in small water-supply plants, such as that of Fig. 143; or in connection with small pressure tanks for the same purpose. It differs somewhat in construction from the lift pump, in that it has no valve in the piston and is provided with a check valve and an air chamber for generating pressure to the discharged water.

Fig. 131 shows the essential parts of the force pump and furnishes a means of describing its operation. All force pumps possess the same parts and the operation described applies with equal force to all. A valve A is located in the bottom of the cylinder and the check valve B prevents the return of the water to the cylinder after it has been forced out of the pump. The action of the pump in raising the water is the same as in the lift pump but when the water fills the cylinder and the piston descends, the water is forced through the valve B and out at D. If the outlet pipe is slightly smaller than the opening in the valve B, some of the water will enter the air chamber C and compress the air. The pressure thus generated will immediately tend to force the water out and in course of ordinary pumping will send out a steady stream instead of the intermittent flow of the lift pump. Without the air chamber, the flow from this pump will be a series of pulsations that attain maximum force with each descent of the piston.

Tank Pump.

—The type of pump used with a water-supply plant will depend entirely on the amount of water that is used. If the supply of water to be provided is for only one or two people the house force pump such as that of Fig. 130 will suffice; but when a greater number of people are to be supplied, a force pump of the type shown in Fig. 132 is quite generally used. These pumps are made in a variety of patterns and are commonly termed tank pumps. The one shown in the Fig. 132 is a double-acting force pump in that the cylinder receives and discharges water at each stroke of the piston. The air chamber is located at A. Directly beneath the air chamber is the valve chest in which are located the valves which regulate the entrance and discharge of the water. As used in the average domestic plant the cylinders are 3 or 4 inches in diameter.

WELL PUMPS

The pumps intended for raising water from wells are practically the same in construction as the house pump, except that they are intended to deliver a greater volume of water and sometimes to work under a different condition, as that of the deep well pump. Well pumps have, therefore, assumed certain standard forms that differ only in the styles of mechanism employed by different manufacturers.

The one shown in Fig. 133 furnishes a good example of a general-purpose iron pump which may be used either as a force pump or a lift pump. It represents also the general construction of a deep-well pump, where the water must be lifted from a level, below that at which a lift pump will work.

The piston and valves are enclosed in the cylinder C, placed below the surface of the water in the well. This cylinder also appears in section in the small drawing, showing the details of the valve. The operation of this pump is identical to that of the lift pump already described, but the addition of an air chamber gives it the necessary facility to produce a continuous flow of water. In order to prevent the air in the air chamber from escaping, the pump rod is surrounded with the necessary stuffing-box which is usually packed with candle wicking to assure a good joint. In deep wells the tube is elongated sufficiently to place the cylinder C below the surface of the water in the well. Such pumps are operated either by hand or by power.

The piece at the side of the pump is provided to drain the water from above the piston, as a precaution against freezing during extremely cold weather. The rod, when raised, opens an orifice that leads to the inside of the pump and permits the water to drain into the well.

Pumps for Driven Wells.

—The method of constructing driven wells—that of driving a pipe into the earth to the water-bearing stratum of sand or gravel—requires a special end to prevent the pump tube from becoming stopped. In order that the fine material may not enter and fill the lower end of the tube, a sand-point is used, such as that shown in Fig. 128. It is made of perforated brass tubing and provided with a sharpened end to facilitate driving. The perforations act as a strainer that keeps out all but the fine particles which will pass the pump valves. Sand-points are made with strainers of various degrees of fineness to suit the different conditions of soils. These strainers may in the course of time become filled with particles of the soil that lodge in the perforations and the outside become so encrusted as to prevent the entrance of the water. In such case, the pipe must be pulled out of the ground and the point replaced by a new one. In Fig. 128 is shown a driven well with the sand-point in the water-bearing stratum. If the small particles of earth clog the strainer the pump will “work hard” and yield only a portion of the water the soil is capable of giving when the strainer is clear.

Where water is to be raised from a deep well, the cylinder with its piston is placed near the water and the tube and rod, as that of Fig. 133, connects the cylinder with the pump stock. After the water has passed the valve in the piston, it may be readily lifted to the pump stock. In this way water is raised from wells of great depth.

Tubular-well Cylinders.

—Tubular wells that are cased with iron pipe are provided with a special type of pump cylinder that admits of deep-well operation. The casing of the well being in place, the cylinder shown in Fig. 135 is forced down the casing to its proper place, the spring S holding it in place until it is firmly secured. A special seating tool is now lowered into the casing and attaches at T to the coupling; as the tool is turned, rubber packing R is expanded, locking the cylinder firmly to the casing. This makes a complete pump cylinder, which with the piston P in place is operated as any other pump.

RAIN-WATER CISTERNS

Cisterns for the storage of rain water have been used from the time immemorial and are constructed in a great variety of forms. For household use they are often made in the form of wooden or metal tanks, either elevated or placed in the basement; the greater number, however, are of the underground variety made of brick or concrete.

Wooden cisterns are made by manufacturers in different sizes and shipped to the user “knocked down;” that is, they are taken apart and the staves, bottom and hoops are shipped, packed in small space to save space in transportation. Under some conditions they give good service but are apt to leak at times and require attention on that account. In damp basements they give out the disagreeable odor of damp wood.

Tanks made of galvanized iron are much used as cisterns for temporary use. They are inexpensive and give good service but are short-lived. Possibility of leakage is their greatest disadvantage. Underground cisterns are built either in the basement or outside the house. They are quite generally made jug-shaped, but are often constructed of concrete in square and rectangular form. When built of brick the walls are often made of a single course, but walls made of two courses of brick are considered better practice. The walls and floor are made water-tight by plastering with an inch or more of cement mortar.

When cisterns are made of concrete, the floor should be put in 6 inches in depth and as soon after as possible the walls are put up. In good construction the walls are 8 inches in thickness of concrete, made of 1 part good Portland cement, 2 parts clean sand and 4 parts crushed stone. If the cistern is square or rectangular in form the walls should be reinforced with woven wire or steel rods, to prevent cracking.

The curb of the cistern should extend above the surface of the ground sufficiently to prevent surface water from entering, and the top should be covered with a wood-lined sheet-metal cover to prevent freezing.

Filters.

—Unfiltered cistern water is not, as a rule, fit for drinking purposes because of pollution from dust and impurities washed from the roof, but for bathing and laundry work filtered rain water is greatly to be desired.

As rain water comes from the roofs of buildings, there is washed into the cistern a considerable quantity of dust, leaves, bird droppings and other polluting materials which contaminate and discolor the water. This foreign matter is not injurious for the purposes intended, but to render the water clear it should be filtered before using.

Filters for cisterns are quite generally made of soft brick laid in cement mortar, the face of the brick being left uncovered. Fig. 137 illustrates a simple and efficient form of filter made of a single course of brick. A space one-fourth to one-third of the volume of the cistern is left for the filtered water. The opening at the top of the wall must be large enough to admit a man, for some sediment will collect even in the filtered water and the filter must be occasionally cleaned.

The filter shown in Fig. 138 is dome-shaped and built of brick. The water is pumped from inside the filter and the suction of pumping filters the water as it is used. In this case the filtering action is accelerated by reason of the reduced pressure inside the filter as the water is pumped. The chief disadvantage in this form of filter is the small area exposed for the filtering action and the relatively greater amount of work required for pumping the water, due to the partial vacuum formed as the water is pumped.

The cistern in Fig. 139 is provided with a catch basin which acts as a strainer for removing leaves, etc., that would stain the water. It is made in the form of a concrete basin and partly filled with gravel. The filter in this case is formed by a depression in the cistern floor. A section of tile is placed on the floor, and around it is filled the filtering material of gravel and sand. Filters of this kind are often filled with charcoal or other materials that are expected to purify the water. They are usually inefficient because their value as absorbers of polluting agents is short-lived and unless the materials are frequently renewed they are valueless and sometimes a detriment to rapid filtration.

THE HYDRAULIC RAM

In places where its use is possible, the hydraulic ram is a most convenient and inexpensive means of mechanical water supply. It is simple in construction, requires very little attention and its cost of operation is only the labor necessary to keep it in repair. Whenever a sufficient supply of water will admit of a fall of a few feet, the hydraulic ram may be used as a pump for forcing the water to a distant elevated point, where it may be utilized for all domestic purposes. The water may be used directly from the ram or stored in an elevated tank as a reserve supply; or accumulated in a pressure tank, where additional pressure is required.

The hydraulic ram has been used since 1796, when it was invented by Joseph de Montgolfier. The principle of its operation is that of the utilization of the energy of flowing water. The running water is made to give up a portion of its momentum to elevate a part of the water, and transport it to a considerable distance. If the source of supply and the fall is sufficient, almost any amount may be elevated and carried to a great distance. Large rams are sometimes used as a means of water supply for small towns. In the use of the double-acting ram, one source of water may be used to operate the ram and water from an entirely different source may be delivered. It sometimes happens that a muddy stream and a clear spring are so located, that the water of the stream can be utilized to furnish the energy for conveying the spring water to a point where it is desired for use. This is accomplished by the double-acting ram in a most efficient manner.

Single-acting Hydraulic Ram.

—Fig. 140 represents the installation of a single-acting hydraulic ram, placed to take water from a spring E, and deliver it to an elevated tank at the house on the hill.

In case the ram must be located at a considerable distance from the spring in order to attain the required fall, a standpipe D—slightly larger than the supply pipe—is used to take advantage of the full force of the water. In long pipes, the friction of the flowing water absorbs a considerable amount of the energy of flow and a standpipe, located as indicated at D, in the picture, will assure the full force of the flowing water in the ram.

The ram is commonly placed in an underground pit as protection from freezing during cold weather, and a drain from the bottom of the pit conducts the waste water away. The supply pipe or drive pipe B and delivery pipe C are buried underground below the frost line as a protection from freezing.

In Fig. 141 a sectional view of the ram shows all of the working parts. The air chamber G is shown partly filled with water; the impetus valve D is that part of the ram which checks the flow of the running water and forces a part of it through the valve E, at the bottom of the air chamber.

When inactive the valve D stands open and as the water enters from the pipe A, it flows through the valve to the waste pipe but as soon as the full force of the water bears on the valve it will suddenly close. This sudden stop of the flowing water will lift the valve E, and the energy of flow, due to its sudden stopping, will force some of the water into the chamber G. As this action occurs the upward pressure against the valve D is released and it reopens but immediately closes again as the water begins to flow. This process is kept up, each closure of the valve sending a little water into the air chamber. As the water gradually fills the air chamber, it is subjected to the same action as was described in the pressure tank, the air above the surface being compressed and the pressure developed in the space G forces the water out through the delivery pipe where it attains a force that is a factor of the height of the original fall.

The air in the chamber G, is subject to the same conditions of loss as that of the pressure tank, and to be assured of a supply to give pressure to the water, some air must be carried into the chamber with the water. For this purpose the valve F provided. After the chamber is partially filled, there occurs a reaction in the flow of water at each closure of the valve, which causes a little air to be drawn in through the valve F with each impulse. This air bubbles up through the water and enters the chamber where it assures an elastic cushion for closing the valve E.

The flow of water from the supply pipe is regulated at H by a nut on the stem of the impetus valve which permits its regulation. Closing the valve slightly causes a less supply of water to be delivered; opening the valve wider gives a greater supply.

The Double-acting Hydraulic Ram.

—The diagram of Fig. 142 illustrates the working principle of the double-acting hydraulic ram mentioned above; where the water from a muddy stream is used to drive the ram and that from a separate source, as a spring is delivered.

The construction of the double-acting ram is similar to the single-acting ram, but a separate pipe S discharges spring water directly below the valve which acts just as though it had entered at the drive pipe. The ram in this case is receiving water from the drive pipe D, which operates the valve and furnishes power for elevating the spring water. The spring water enters the ram through the pipe S, to keep the space T filled, directly under the valve. The water which enters the air chamber is, therefore, only that from the spring.

A standpipe is arranged as shown in the figure, with a check valve to prevent the water in the ram from being forced back into the spring water pipe after entering the ram.

DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY PLANTS

Until recent years, no thought was given to private water-supply plants, in any except the more pretentious residences. It was formerly supposed that the cost of machinery and installation of such plants prohibited the use of a water system in the average home. As an item of expense in building, a satisfactory water-supply system may be installed at a lower cost than is paid for plumbing and bathroom fixtures.

In recent years much attention has been given to the design of small water-supply plants for isolated homes, such as are required for suburban and rural dwellings, with the result that the necessary apparatus to suit any conditions may be obtained of any enterprising dealer.

The degree of completeness with which the plant is to be arranged will depend on the funds to be expended, but in the most modest dwelling some form of water-supply plant is possible. Where opportunity is given to make the plant complete, its appointments of construction may be elaborated to almost any extent. A suburban or country residence may be made as perfect in point of toilet, kitchen and laundry conveniences, as where city water and sewer service are available. The water-supply plant may be operated by hand or by power, and if so desired may be made completely automatic in action.

Gravity Water-supply Plant.

—In point of simplicity, the plant shown in Fig. 143 represents a water system that answers every purpose of a cottage and yet is only an elevated tank for storage of water, combined with a house force pump. The tank in this case may be made of wood or metal and is open at the top. The water is sent into the tank by the pump, and gravity furnishes the force for carrying it to the fixtures in the kitchen and bathroom.

In using a tank of the kind shown in the drawing, provision should be made for the possibility of leakage. This is arranged for by having the tank set in a shallow pan, so constructed that in case of accident the water may be carried away without doing damage. This type of plant is not usually employed in cold climates, unless some provision is made to prevent the water in the tank from freezing. Tanks of this kind are sometimes used in cold climates but a much more desirable plant for the purpose is described below. In Fig. 143 the water from the cistern W is raised by the pump P, which also forces it into the tank above the kitchen. The gravitational force given the water, because of its elevated position is all that is necessary to carry the water to the fixtures in the bathroom and kitchen sink. As shown in the drawing, it furnishes a complete water system that will perform all of the requirements of water distribution for a small family.

The pipes from the range boiler are attached to the water heater, which forms a part of the kitchen range as explained on pages 116 to 120. It receives the supply of cold water directly from the tank through the pipe marked C, and the hot water from the range boiler is supplied through the pipe H. Cold water is also taken from the tank directly to each of the cold-water taps.

The pump P is a house pump, such as is shown in Fig. 130. It is a small force pump, designed to suit the conditions of domestic use and is made to send water into the sink or into the supply tank as desired.

Pressure-tank System of Water Supply.

—The water-supply plant shown in Fig. 144 is another simple construction, somewhat more elaborate than the last, so arranged that the danger of freezing is practically eliminated. This is a simple pressure-tank system in which a tightly built metal water tank takes the place of the elevated tank of the previous figure, and a tank pump is used for lifting and giving pressure to the water. It is a more complete plant than the first and intended to accommodate a larger dwelling. The drawing shows all of the fixtures and connecting pipes that are required in the average home. It shows all of the appliances for connecting the pressure tank and range boiler with the wash trays in the basement, with all of the fixtures in the bathroom and with the fixtures in the kitchen sink. The range boiler is the same as those previously described and connected to the heater in an identical manner.

The original source of supply in this case is a cistern, sunk below the basement floor. The water is lifted from the cistern by the pump and forced into the pressure tank through a pipe near the bottom where it furnishes the supply for the house.

The pressure tank may be of any size to suit the requirements of the house and may be placed in either a vertical or horizontal position. It is sometimes galvanized, as a precaution against rust, but this is not a necessary requirement. The pipe which conveys the water from the pump connects with the tank near the bottom. As the water enters, the contained air above its surface is compressed into smaller and smaller space. The pressure that is developed by the compressed air furnishes the force by which the water is driven out of the tank and through the distributing pipes to the various parts of the system.

If the air in the tank when empty is compressed to one-half its original volume, then the gage pressure will be about 15 pounds to the square inch; if the air is compressed to one-third its original volume, that is, when the tank is two-thirds full of water, the gage pressure will be about 30 pounds to the square inch, which is enough to supply water at any point of a two-story building with ample force. By pumping more water into the tank, a pressure of 50 or 60 pounds may be obtained without difficulty; but 40 pounds is generally sufficient for all the demands of a house plant. This is an application of the Boyle’s law which as stated in text books of physics is: “The temperature remaining the same, the pressure on confined gas varies inversely as its volume.” As the volume of such a confined body of gas is made smaller, the pressure increases in like ratio. The desired pressures are easily attained with a hand force pump such as is shown in the drawing.

The gage-glass G on the side of the tank is intended to show the height of the water in the tank at any time, and the pressure gage attached to the supply pipe shows the amount of pressure sustained by the water.

The Pressure Tank.

—The water leaves the tank by a pipe attached near the bottom and branches to supply each fixture, to which the water is to be conducted. In the drawing, the pipe may be traced from the point where it leaves the tank to the various fixtures. The cold-water pipe terminates at the range boiler, for at that point the hot-water system begins. The range boiler is connected by two pipes to the water heater in the kitchen range. The water heater is a part of the fire-box of the kitchen range and so long as the fire is kept burning, water is heated and stored in the range boiler. Where the house is furnace-heated, the furnace fire is sometimes utilized for heating the water by use of a coil of pipe above the fire and which may take the place of the range heater. Various other means are also employed for heating the water as described under range boilers. In Fig. 145 is shown a nearer view of a pressure tank with the pump attached. The pump is in this case identical in its action to the one shown in Fig. 132, but differs slightly in mechanical design. The drawing shows the gage-glass G, for indicating the height of water; the pressure gage P, which indicates the pressure to which the water is subjected; the attachment of the supply pipe S, and the delivery pipe D. The water tap T is provided to draw off the water when the tank is to be emptied.

In operation, the air in the pressure tank furnishes the force which sends the water through the pipes to the various points, and forces it through the taps at the desired rate. If for any reason the air in the tank escapes, the propelling force is destroyed. This may occur by reason of absorption of the air by the water, due to the pressure to which it is subjected; or to small air leaks that may develop in the joints, which allow the air to escape. To overcome the possibility of these occurrences, arrangement is made whereby air may be pumped into the tank by the same pump as that which supplies the water. In this way, the air is introduced with the water, which bubbles up through it to the surface. If at any time the pressure in the tank is lost, it may be replaced by pumping air alone into the tank.

Power Water-supply Plants.

—Where the pump is expected to furnish water to any considerable amount beyond that for household use, it is desirable that the plant be power-driven. If the work of watering stock, lawn sprinkling, etc., is intended, the tank and pump must be enlarged to suit the desired amount of water, and a gasoline engine, windmill or electric motor will be used for power. Where local conditions will permit, a hydraulic ram may be substituted for the pump and the pressure tank used for additional pressure and storage.

Fig. 146 shows a plant in which the pump is driven by a gasoline engine. In the figure, the engine E is shown connected by a belt to a speed-reducing device or “jack,” marked J. The object of this machine is to reduce the speed of rotation and charge it to the required motion for operating the pump. The jack is connected to the pump by a rod attached to a large gear, so as to produce the desired crank motion; and the opposite end of the rod is attached to the pump handle. The rod may be detached at any time and the pump worked by hand.

Electric Power Water Supply.

—Fig. 147 shows another type of power plant in which an electric motor operates the pump. In this style of plant, the pulley on the electric motor M is connected by a belt to the large wheel W, from which the crank motion is secured for driving the pump P. This machine is provided with an automatic starting and stopping device, which automatically controls the supply of water in the system. Whenever the pressure in the tank falls to a certain point, the change of pressure produced on the diaphram valve A starts the motor, and the pump sends water into the tank until the pressure in the tank again reaches the amount for which the valve is set, at which time the valve disconnects the electric contact to the motor and the pump stops working.

As shown in the drawing, the large tank receives its supply of water from the well and aside from providing a reserve supply furnishes power for pumping cistern water. The water from the large tank is piped into the house for use as required, and from the same pipe is taken a hydrant for lawn sprinkling; in addition, this water is piped to the barn where it is used for watering stock. A branch of the same pipe is intended to operate a water lift, which in turn furnishes the house with soft water from the rain-water cistern for bathing, laundry, and kitchen purposes.

The Water Lift.

—The water lift is a combined water engine and pump, the motive power for which is the pressure from the well-water tank. The soft water, pumped by the water lift, is stored in the smaller pressure tank marked Soft Water Pressure Tank in the drawing, and furnishes a supply for the purposes mentioned. The water lift is so constructed that when the pressure in the soft-water tank equals the pressure in the well-water tank, the lift will stop working and will not start again until water has been drawn from the taps. Whenever water is drawn from any part of the system, the pressure will be reduced and the lift will immediately begin pumping more water and will continue until the pressure of the two tanks are the same. The system is entirely automatic, each part depending on the power originally supplied by the windmill. The plant could be just as successfully operated by substituting a gasoline engine or other source of power for the windmill. The machinery for such a plant is not at all complicated neither is it difficult to manage, yet it is complete in every particular and furnishes an almost ideal arrangement for a country or suburban home.

In order to be assured of a supply of water over periods of atmospheric quiet, the well-water tank must be sufficiently large to supply water for 3 or 4 days; but in case of emergency water may be pumped by hand.

A nearer view of the water lift is shown in Fig. 149. In the figure, the right-hand cylinder with its valve V is the water engine which furnishes the power for operating the pump, enclosed in the left-hand cylinder. The water pressure of the main supply furnishes the energy which drives the engine, the piston rod of which is attached to the pump piston. The engine receives its supply of water through the pipe marked Inlet and the waste water is discharged to the sewer by the waste pipe on the opposite side of the cylinder. The operation of the lift is governed by an automatic regulator which so controls the engine that it starts pumping whenever the pressure in the system falls to a certain point. The regulator marked Adjustable Regulator in the drawing may be adjusted to suit the water pressure desired in the distributing system.