The term plumbing is usually understood to cover all piping and fixtures that carry water into the house and remove the waste material in the form of sewage. It does not include the pipes of the heating system. Although the work of installing heating plants is frequently done by plumbers, pipe fitting and plumbing are two distinct trades.

In the process of building a house the rough plumbing is put into place as soon as the structure is enclosed and the rough floors are laid. The rough plumbing includes the soil pipe, into which the waste pipes from the various fixtures empty, and those pipes which must occupy a position inside the partition walls and beneath the floors.

The connections here described are for a city dwelling and apply to the custom of local conditions. The same system might be used for a country residence except in regard to the water supply and method of sewage disposal. Plants of this type are discussed in the chapter on septic tanks.

Fig. 58 shows a cross-section of the street, exposing the sewer S, the water main W, and the connections with the house. The side of the house has been removed to permit a view of the water and sewer pipes, connecting with the bathroom, kitchen, laundry and other basement fixtures.

The lateral sewer or house drain, which connects the house with the street sewer S, is provided with a trap G, located, in this case, just outside the basement wall. The house drain is made of vitrified tile, laid so as to grade into the street sewer with the greatest possible pitch. The sections are laid as true as conditions will permit and the joints are all carefully filled with cement mortar to prevent leakage. The object of the trap G is to prevent sewer gas from entering the house from the main sewer. The trap prevents the gas from passing because the water in the bend of the trap forms a water seal, beyond which the polluted air from the sewer cannot travel.

Next inside the trap is the vent pipe E, that extends to the surface of the ground. In this case it is just outside the basement wall. The top is covered with a metal cap. Another arrangement often made to accomplish the same purpose is shown in Figs. 61 and 62, where a piece of soil pipe in the form of a bend is made to take the place of the cap. Inside the basement and extending up through the partition walls to the roof is the waste stack or soil pipe A. This pipe as is explained in detail later, is made of cast iron and is put together with calked lead joints. The top of the stack at the point where it passes through the roof is shown in Fig. 59. In extending through the roof the pipe A must make a water-tight joint to prevent water from leaking through. This is accomplished by means of the metal plate D, which is set under the shingles and the piece C, that is soldered to D. The joint between C and A is best made with lead the same as the other joints of the stack. In the case of very high stacks, the bottom should be supported by a pier or iron pipe rest. Besides being supported at the base the stack should be secured to the side walls or floor beams at each floor. This is to keep the pipe from moving out of place and the consequent opening of joints.

All of the waste pipes from the bathroom, kitchen and basement drain into the waste stack. The cellar drain for draining the basement is shown at T in Fig. 58. It also appears in detail in Fig. 60. The plate B, in the latter figure, is set flush to the surface of a depression in the floor that serves as a collecting point for water. The floor is constructed to drain toward this point. The plate is perforated to let the water through and is generally hinged so that in case of stoppage the cover may be raised. The bell-shaped piece under the cover surrounds the piece C, to form a water seal when the level of the water is at A. In addition to this water seal there is generally a trap between the drain and the sewer as shown in the drawing.

The method of connecting the bathroom waste pipes with the stack is shown in Fig. 99 and will be described later. All of the sewage of the house is emptied into the stack by the most direct route, and from the stack it is conducted as directly as possible into the sewer. From the drawing it will be seen that all openings to the sewer are sealed in two separate places, once at the outlet to prevent the air from the street sewer entering the house drain G, and again at each opening to prevent escape of the sewer gas from the drain into the house.

The openings at E and A at each end of the stack permit a constant circulation of air for ventilation. The length of the stack and its location causes it to act as a chimney and the draught produced takes the air in at E, and discharges it at the top. In large houses there is sometimes added a vent stack to produce further ventilation, but in the average dwelling the arrangement here shown covers the common practice.

In Figs. 61 and 62 are shown in detail two methods of arranging the sewer connections in the basement to permit of the removal of obstructions in case the pipes at any time become stopped. The trap, vent, etc., are easily recognized. With the arrangement as shown in Fig. 62, the clean-out is so placed as to give access to the inside of the pipe. Should an accumulation or obstruction of any kind become lodged in the pipe, the stop in the clean-out is removed and a flexible metal rod is used to remove the stoppage. The trap outside the wall has an opening through which the obstruction may be reached in case it cannot be removed from the first clean-out. The disadvantage in using the outside trap, as here shown, is that it can be reached only by excavation.

Fig. 61 shows another common method of installation. Here the trap is placed inside the basement wall. This gives an easier means of opening the trap than Fig. 62 affords and accomplishes the same purpose. The connections with the stack are the same as in Fig. 62. Obstructions in the sewer pipe are most likely to become lodged in the trap and for this reason the trap should occupy a position that is reasonably easy of access.

The outside trap as described above is quite generally installed in buildings of all kinds, but its use is by no means universal. In some communities it is not used at all, and many plumbers consider it only an added means of causing stoppage and an extra expense to install.

The object of the outside trap is to keep the air of the street sewer from entering the house drain. It is at once inferred that the air of the street sewer is more dangerous than that of the house drain. The street sewers, however, are ventilated at each street corner and at each manhole. There cannot then be much difference in the air of the two places. The traps on the fixtures that prevent sewer gas from entering the house would be just as efficient if the outside trap did not exist.

While the methods shown in Figs. 61 and 62 are considered good practice, there is considerable objection to the vent being placed near the dwelling, because of the sewer gas that is forced out, whenever a sudden discharge of water goes into the drain. Each time a closet is flushed, a large volume of water enters the stack and completely fills the pipe. When this occurs, the descending water forces out the air of the pipe ahead of it, and a gush of offensive air filled with sewer gases is forced out of the vent. It is evident that such a vent, located near an open window or where it will reach the nostrils of the inhabitants is a thing not greatly to be desired.

Outside traps when placed near the surface sometimes freeze. The circulation of air through the vent is occasionally sufficient in cold weather to freeze the water and stop the trap.

Water Supply.

—The water supply taken from the street main is conducted to the house by the pipe shown in Fig. 58, at C. This pipe is generally of lead as piping of that metal is the most durable for underground work. Iron used under the same conditions will last only a few years. The connection is made with the water main by use of a corporation cock. This is a special style of cock that is shown in Fig. 63. In the figure the cock is connected with a short piece of lead pipe that is used for making connection with the service pipe in the house.

Located at the left of C, in Fig. 58, is the curb-cock, used for shutting off the water from the city lot. The curb-cock, being underground, is reached through an iron tube by means of a wrench attached to a long iron rod. The curb-cock has a protective covering in the form of an iron pipe. The lower end of the pipe screws into the body of the cock. The top end comes just above the grade line of the curb and is covered with an iron screw-cap. The curb-cock is shown in detail in Fig. 64. The pipe B is fastened to the valve at D and A is the screw-cap. In opening and closing the wrench fits over the part C of the valve.

On entering the building the supply pipe should be provided with a stop and waste-cock for shutting off the water from the house and draining the pipes that compose the system of circulation. At V, in Fig. 58, is indicated a stop and waste-cock with the waste pipe B connected with the sewer. This cock is shown in detail in Figs. 65 and 66. The cock is so made that when closed there is a small opening at A, that allows the water from the system to escape through the waste pipe.

From the water supply, the cold-water pipes may be traced in the drawing directly to each of the fixtures of the house. The hot-water pipe leaves the range boiler at the top and connects with each fixture using hot water, thus making the circuit complete. Details of the piping which provides hot water is described under range boiler, page 116.

WATER COCKS

The development of modern plumbing has brought about the use of a great number of household mechanical appliances, that have received trade names little understood by the average person. The lack of distinguishing terms, or language in which to describe plumbing fixtures, often leads to embarrassment, when such articles are to be described to workmen. Common household valves and cocks are so classified by the trade, that mistakes are often made in their designation, because of a limited knowledge of the use of the various articles. A little consideration of the different classes of fixtures will make it possible to state to a tradesman the exact article in question.

The term valve is intended to define an appliance that is used to permit, or prevent, the passage of a liquid through the opening or port which it guards. The term is so general in its application that there are hundreds of different kinds of valves. Even for a single purpose there are many styles of a given kind.

A cock was originally a rotary valve or spigot used for drawing water. Today there are many kinds of cocks that are not rotary in their movement.

It would be impossible in this work to describe in detail all of the kinds of cocks and valves used in household plumbing. It will, therefore, be the aim to confine attention to one article of a type and to choose such examples as are in general use and that are good representatives of their classes.

Bibb-cocks.

—On the kitchen sink, the water faucets, such as those shown in Fig. 66a, are termed bibb-cocks by the plumber. If the nozzle is plain, it is a plain bibb. If the nozzle is threaded so that a hose connection may be attached as in Fig. 67, it is a hose bibb. Bibb-cocks are found in three general styles: compression bibbs, ground-key bibbs, and Fuller bibbs. The compression bibb takes its name from the method of closing the valve. Fig. 68 gives an example of its mechanical construction. This is a plain solder bibb because the shank A is to be attached by a solder joint. If the part A contained a thread to make a screw joint, such as Fig. 67, it would be a plain, compression, screw bibb. Fig. 68 is another style of compression bibb-cock, largely used on sinks; this cock, being finished with a flange, is a compression flange bibb.

Fig. 69 shows quite clearly the mechanical arrangement of the compression cock. When the handle is turned the nut C lifts the valve from its seat B, allowing the water to escape. The piece D is generally made of composition rubber that may be bought at the dealers for a trifling amount but it may be replaced temporarily with a piece of leather. The part E is packing, to keep the water from leaking out around the stem. The packing may be obtained from the dealer especially for the purpose or it may be made of a disc of sheet rubber. In fact, anything that can be put into the space will answer the purpose temporarily. The valve is closed by compression, hence the name compression cock. All cocks made to open and close in the same manner are compression cocks.

Fuller Cocks.

—These cocks take their name from their inventor. They are made to suit every condition for which water cocks are used. Their universal use attests to their utility and excellence in service. Fig. 72 shows the principle on which all Fuller cocks work. The varying conditions under which the cocks are used require a great many forms, but the working principle is the same in all. In these cocks, the valve is a rubber plug or ball that is drawn into the opening by an eccentric piece attached to the handle. The piece D in the drawing is the rubber plug that is drawn against the opening by the crank B, which is worked by the lever handle A. This cock may be repaired, in case it leaks, by unscrewing it at the joint nearest the plug. A wrench and a pair of pliers are all the tools required. The pieces D must be obtained from the dealer. The part J is the packing that keeps the water from leaking out around the stem. The screw-cap H forces a collar I down on the packing to keep it water-tight.

The parts for the Fuller cock that may be obtained for repair are shown in detail on Fig. 73. The ball, which appears in Fig. 73 at D, is the part that receives the greatest amount of wear. If the cock at any time fails to stop the flow of water, a new ball may be put in place by the aid of a wrench and a pair of pliers. The water being first shut off from the system, the cock is unscrewed and the cap E removed with a pair of pliers. The worn ball is then removed and a new one substituted.

Wash-tray Bibbs.

—A special style of cock is made for laundry wash trays in both the Fuller and compression types. Of these the Fuller type is the most convenient as the handle is placed on the side and but one movement is required to open the cock. This style of cock is used on the wash trays shown in Fig. 83.

Basin Cocks.

—Water cocks for wash basins are made in two general types—the compression and the Fuller types of cocks. Their mechanism is much the same as for other similar styles adapted to the use for basins. The self-closing cocks used so largely on wash basins are compression cocks. Fig. 74 is an example of Fuller basin cock in general use. Compression cocks for the same purpose are shown on the wash basin in Fig. 90.

Pantry Cocks.

—In general form, pantry cocks are the same as those used for basins except that the outlet is elongated.

Valves.

—The distinction between a cock and a valve is not at all definite. Custom has determined that in certain places a cock shall stop the flow of a liquid but in another place, perhaps of a similar nature, a valve shall accomplish the same purpose. The chief distinction between a cock and a valve is that of its external form.

In Figs. 77, 78 and 79 are three examples of valves that are very generally used on pipes carrying any kind of fluid. The valves are shown in cross-section to display the arrangement of the mechanism.

Fig. 77 is an example of the common globe-valve. The name was originally intended to define a valve the body of which was in the form of a globe. The hand-wheel H, attached to the screw-stem S, raises the valve A when desired. The valve makes close contact with the seat C, by means of a composition rubber disc B. The disc B may be renewed when worn out as in the case of the radiator valve already described.

Fig. 78 represents an angle globe-valve. In general construction it is quite similar to Figs. 14 and 15, but the valve V in this case is a cone-shaped piece of brass, which makes a seat in a depression provided for it. The valve V and the seat are formed as desired and then ground into contact with emery dust or other abrasive material, to assure a perfectly tight joint. When this valve becomes worn and begins to leak, it may be repaired by regrinding, but such work requires the services of a pipe-fitter. The tendency of modern practice is to use valves with the detachable discs, such as that of Fig. 77, because they are easily repaired.

The valve shown in Fig. 79 is known as a gate-valve. The upper part, including the screw and stem, is the same as the globe style but the valve proper is made in the form of two flat gates A-A. When the valve is closed, as it appears in the drawing, the gates are forced against the seats by the cone-shaped piece B, which acts as a wedge, to tightly close the opening. When the hand-wheel is turned to open the valve, the gates are raised and are taken entirely out of the path of the flowing liquid. Gate-valves are used in places where it is desired to obstruct the flow as little as possible. They are somewhat more expensive than globe-valves but are considered worth the extra expense in service.

Kitchen and Laundry Fixtures.

—The development in modern plumbing has wrought many changes in the styles of household fixtures but none has been so great as that in the kitchen sink. The old style, insanitary, wooden sink has been almost entirely replaced by those made of pressed steel or enameled iron. They are made in every desired size and to suit all purposes. They may be plain or galvanized as occasion may require, or the enameled sink is obtainable at a very slight addition in price. The enameled sink has reached a degree of perfection where its durability is unquestioned, and as a consequence kitchen furniture is vastly improved at but little advance in cost.

A modern kitchen in which gas is used as fuel is shown in Fig. 80. Simplicity and neatness of arrangement are the noticeable features. This kitchen is intended to suit the average-sized dwelling and contains all necessary plumbing, cooking and heating apparatus. The hot-water boiler is here shown attached to an instantaneous heater. The common kitchen sink is supplemented with a slop sink and covered with a drain board. This simple kitchen may be elaborated to any extent. Fig. 81 shows a kitchen sink of white enamel with two enameled drain boards. The drain boards are sometimes covered with perforated rubber mats.

In Fig. 82 is shown an example of the modern basement laundry. The wash-boiler heater is shown on the left. An automatic instantaneous water heater is on the right. The stationary tubs or wash trays occupy the center of the picture. In detail these wash trays appear in Fig. 83. These are enamel-covered ware and are provided with the wash-tray bibb-cocks described above. This type of plumbing represents the most modern of sanitary arrangements.

THE BATHROOM

With the present-day improvements in plumbing, and the perfection in the manufacture of porcelain and enameled iron, the bathrooms of houses of moderate cost have become places of cleanliness, attractive, relatively free from offending odors and supplied with all necessary sanitary fixtures.

Enameled iron has reached a state of perfection where it rivals porcelain in beauty. The forms of the various bathroom pieces have been modeled for convenience in use and grace of form, at the same time the strife of the designer has been to produce articles that not only look well but are convenient and easily kept clean.

Bathrooms need not be expensive in order to be convenient, attractive and useful. The bathroom shown in Fig. 84 is such as is installed in dwellings of moderate price. It possesses every feature necessary to usefulness and comfort. In this room the furnishings are all of enameled iron. The floor is covered with linoleum and the wainscoting with enamel paint.

Bath Tubs.

—Bath tubs are made in sizes that vary in length from 4½ to 6 feet. They are constructed in a variety of forms and of materials to suit all conditions of service. For domestic use they are very generally made of enameled iron. This form of construction produces serviceable and handsome furnishings for the bathrooms of the modest house as well as for the sumptuous bath of the most pretentious residence. An elaboration of Fig. 84 might include the Sitz bath shown in Fig. 85 and the fittings may be chosen from a great variety of forms. The recent styles of enameled tubs are, in design, much handsomer than those with the roll rim and in form such as permits a clean room with the minimum of labor. They are also provided with more convenient water and drainage fixtures.

The tub of Fig. 86 sets flat on the floor and makes a close joint with the wall. It thus prevents the accumulation of dust that is difficult to remove. In addition the fixtures are arranged in a more commodious manner and the general appearance is most pleasing. The arrangement of the fixtures in Fig. 87 gives still greater convenience and being arranged with a shower and protecting curtain, provides all of the conveniences of a luxurious bath without greatly increased cost over the simple tub. The fixtures in this design are all in position of greatest convenience and attached to pipes that are concealed in the wall.

The fixtures usually provided with the tub are double Fuller or compression cocks for hot and cold water, the overflow and strainer, for the discharge of the water into the sewer in case the tub overflows, and a drain and bath plug.

The double Fuller cock is shown in Fig. 88. It is made to open and close by the same sort of mechanism as is shown in Fig. 71, a description of which appears on page 90.

The overflow is shown in detail in Fig. 89. The part A appears inside the tub. It is made water-tight around the edge C by a rubber washer that is clamped tight to the surfaces by the nut B. In case of leakage, the overflow may be removed for repair by unscrewing the union attached to the piece D and removing the nut B.

The drain-pipe connection is shown in Fig. 89a. The plug D and the flange A show inside the tub. The flange is made water-tight by a rubber washer that the nut B clamps tight to the tub. The part C is a union which permits the tub to be detached from the drain pipe. Repairs to this joint may be made as in the overflow.

They are made in marble, porcelain and enameled iron, the last being the most commonly used. They are made to suit the part of the room to be occupied, whether that is against a wall, a corner, or to stand on a pedestal on the floor. Those intended to fasten to the wall may be supported by brackets or suspended at the back from pieces secured in the wall.

In Figs. 90 and 91 are shown samples of marble-finished wash basins. In former years basins of this type were very much in use, and until the introduction of the modern porcelain and enameled ware, it was the highest type of sanitary plumbing. The water cocks and traps are of the same style and grade as appear on the most modern examples of enameled ware of Figs. 92, 93 and 94. The water cocks used in Fig. 90 are of the compression type. All of the others are of the Fuller type. The basin in Fig. 93 is provided with extra shut-off cocks on the water pipe under the basin. They are added to the plumbing merely as a convenient means of shutting off the water for repair. The wash stand is usually provided with hot and cold water cocks, a waste pipe with its traps and overflow connections.

Traps.

—The waste pipes from the wash basin and bath tub are always provided with some form of trap, to prevent air from entering the room from the sewer, charged with offending odors. Traps are made in many forms, but the purpose of all is to prevent the escape of sewer gas. The plain trap S, shown in Fig. 95, is that used under the basin in Fig. 91. It makes a tight joint by means of the nut B and a rubber washer as in the case of other joints of the kind. The parts C and E are unions that permit the pipe or bowl to be removed without disturbing the remainder of the plumbing. From the form of the trap it will be seen that the U-shaped part below the dotted line F will always remain full of water and so prevents the escape of air from the sewer. In case the trap becomes stopped the obstruction will likely become lodged in this part of the pipe. To clean the trap the screw-plug D is taken out with a pair of pliers and the obstruction removed with a wire.

The traps used in Figs. 90 and 92 are the same in principle as Fig. 95 but are made to discharge into a pipe placed in the wall instead of under the floor. The trap in Fig. 94 is a form known as the bottle-trap that is sometimes used in the more expensive plumbing.

Another style much used with lavatories is the Bower trap shown in Fig. 96. In this trap the water comes down the pipe B and pushing aside the hollow rubber ball A, enters the space surrounding it and is discharged at C. The ball, being light, is held against the end of the pipe by the water and acts as a stopper to prevent evaporation from taking place. Open traps, such as Fig. 95, if left standing for a long time, may lose sufficient water by evaporation to destroy the water seal and allow the sewer gas to escape. In the use of the Bower trap such occurrence is much less likely to take place.

Fig. 97 is another trap much used on sinks; it is known under the trade name of the Clean Sweep trap. The part C is much larger than the common trap and the water seal is less likely to be broken. The clean-out is larger and the interior is easy of access in case of stoppage.

The simplest and most commonly used trap in cheap plumbing is that of Fig. 98. It is a lead pipe bent in the form of an S. It is the same in shape as Fig. 95 and performs its work as well but does not have the means of detachment shown in the latter. Traps of many other forms are in use but all have the same function to perform and the mechanical make-up is much the same as those described.

The plan of attachment of the various bathroom fixtures of the soil pipe must always depend on local conditions. The object is to conduct the waste water to the sewer in such a way as to give the least opportunity for stoppage and to prevent sewer gas from escaping into the house. To accomplish this purpose the pipes and traps are arranged according to a plan proposed by the architect, plumber or other person familiar with the principles of plumbing. Since these pipes are placed in the walls and under the floors, where they are not readily accessible, it is necessary that their arrangement be made with care and that the workmanship be such as to assure correct installation.

In Fig. 99 is shown a common method of connecting bathroom fixtures with the sewer. The drawing shows a bathroom with the floor broken away to show the pipe connections with the bath tub, wash basin and closet. The overflow pipes O and V and the drain pipes D and R from the wash basin and bath tub empty into a large lead drum-trap T, set under the floor. This trap takes its name from its shape. It is set in position as dictated by the conditions under which it is used. The nickeled plate P, screwed into the top of the trap, comes just above the bathroom floor. This plate is easily removed in case of stoppage. It is made air-tight by a rubber ring placed under the cover and which makes a joint with the top edge of the drum.

It will be noticed that the waste pipes from the bath tub and wash basin enter the trap near the bottom and discharge at the opposite side near the top. The water will stand in the trap and pipes level with the bottom of the discharge pipe and thus form a seal that prevents the escape of sewer gas. This is a common form of non-siphoning trap. It is non-siphoning because it cannot lose its seal by reason of the siphoning effect of the water as it passes through the waste pipes on its way to the sewer. Another form of non-siphoning trap is the clean sweep trap shown in Fig. 97. Such traps as Figs. 95 and 98 are siphoning traps, since it is possible, in this form of trap, for the water to be so completely siphoned that not enough remains to form a seal. The small drawing, marked Detail L, is another method of connecting the same arrangement of fixtures. The waste pipe enters the trap as before but discharges immediately opposite. The level of the water stands in the pipes as indicated by the dotted line.

Back-venting.

—To prevent the possibility of loss of seal by siphoning and the escape of sewer gas, traps are back-vented to the main stack or to a separate vent stack. The venting is accomplished by joining a pipe to the top of the trap or to some point in its immediate neighborhood, and connecting this with the main stack or the vent stack. The water in a trap so vented will be open to the air from both sides and consequently can never be subject to siphonic action.

In the average-sized dwelling where non-siphoning traps are used, back-venting is not necessary, but in large houses and in plumbing where siphon traps are used, vent pipes must be attached to the traps to assure a satisfactory system.

Fig. 100 furnishes an example of back-venting, applied to the bathroom shown in Fig. 99. In the former figure the bath tub and wash basin are connected with the waste pipe by siphon traps. A siphon trap may lose its seal in two ways: by self-siphonage, or by aspiration caused by the discharge of the water from other fixtures. In the discharge of the siphon trap, such as B, in Fig. 100, the long leg of the siphon, formed by the discharge pipe, may carry away the water so completely that not enough remains in the trap to form a seal. Again, the discharge of the water from the bath tub through the waste pipe tends to form a vacuum above it and in some cases the seal in B is destroyed by the water being drawn into the vertical pipe. The possibility of either of these occurrences is prevented by back-venting.

In Fig. 100, a pipe from the main stack is connected with the bend of the trap at B and also to the waste pipe outside the trap at T. A vent is also taken from the drain C, at a point just below the trap in the closet seat. The object of all of the vents is to prevent the tendency of the formation of a vacuum from any cause that will carry away the water seal of the trap and allow sewer gas to enter the house.

The closet seat also contains a trap which will be described later. It connects with soil pipe S, leading to the sewer by a large lead pipe C.

All of the pipes under the floor, leading to the soil pipe, should be of lead. The pipes above the floor are generally of iron or nickel-plated brass. All of the connections in the lead pipes are made with wiped joints; that is, the connections are made by wiping hot solder about the joint, in a manner peculiar to this kind of work, in such a way as to solder the pipes together. The joints made in this manner are perfectly and permanently tight. Lead pipes are used under such conditions, because lead is the least affected by corrosion of any of the metals that could be used for such work.

Soil Pipe.

—The soil pipe, of which the waste stack or house drain is composed, is made of cast iron and comes from the factory covered with asphaltum paint. It may be obtained in two grades, the standard and extra heavy. The only difference is in the thickness of the pipe. The former is commonly used in the average dwelling. One end passes through the roof and the other end joins to the vitrified sewer tile under the basement floor. The joints must be perfectly tight, because a leak in this pipe would allow sewer gas to escape into the house. One end of each section is enlarged sufficiently to receive the small end of the next section. The joints are made with soft lead. The pipes are set in place and a roll of oakum is packed into the bottom of the joint, after which molten lead is poured into the joint, filling it completely. The oakum is used only to keep the lead in the joint until it cools. After the lead has cooled it is packed solidly into the joint with a hammer and calking tool. The calking is necessary because the lead shrinks on cooling and makes a joint that is not tight. Well-calked joints of this kind are air-tight and permanent. Detail N (Fig. 99) shows the arrangement of the parts of the joint as indicated at A. The blackened portion represents the lead as it appears in the joint.

Detail M (Fig. 99) shows the methods of attaching the closet seat to the lead waste pipe C. The end of the lead pipe is flanged at the level of the floor, as shown at C in the detail drawing. The depression D, around the connection, is then filled with glazier’s putty and the seat is forced down tightly in place and fastened with lag screws.

The pipe C, from the closet, and that from the trap T, being of lead, a special joint is necessary in connecting them with the soil pipe, because a wiped joint cannot be made with cast iron. To make such a connection the end of the lead pipe is “wiped” onto a brass thimble, heavy enough to allow it to be joined to the soil pipe by a calked lead joint. The brass thimble is then joined to the cast-iron pipe by a calked lead joint.

Water Closets.

—Water closets are made in a great number of styles to suit the architectural surroundings and the various conditions under which they are to be used. Many forms of water closets are manufactured to conform to special conditions, but those commonly used in the bathrooms of dwellings are of three general types. The mechanical construction of each is shown in the following drawings, Figs. 101, 102 and 103 showing respectively in cross-section the principle of operation of the washout closet, the washdown closet and the siphon-jet closet.

Washout Closets.—This type of closet has in the past been used to a very great extent. It does not perform the work it has to do, so perfectly as the others, because the shallowness of the water in the bowl allows it to give off odors, and because it is difficult to keep clean. The action of the closet is as follows: When the closet is flushed the water enters the rim at A, and the greater portion of it is washed downward at B to dislodge the contents of the bowl. A lighter flush is sent through the openings in the side, which serves to wash the entire surface. The direction of discharge is forward, where it dashes against the front of the bowl and then falls into the trap. The only force received to carry the water to the trap is from falling through the distance from the point where it strikes the front. The flushing action is obtained from the use of a large volume of water. As the discharged matter is dashed against the front of the bowl, the flushing action of the water is not sufficient to remove all the stains; the result is an accumulation of filth. This part of the bowl is out of sight; hence, it is seldom kept clean. The name washout comes from the action of the water to wash out the contents of the bowl.

Washdown Closets.

—As shown in Fig. 102, the action of this closet is to wash the contents of the bowl directly down the soil pipe. The depth of the water at A is much greater than at the corresponding point in the washout closets; as a consequence fecal matter is almost submerged. The main objection to this closet is that it is noisy. Fig. 104 shows another form of washdown closets. This closet is open to objection because of faulty design; the part A is difficult to keep clean because of its shape.

As illustrations of high flush tanks, those shown in Figs. 105 and 106 furnish examples of a simple and efficient form. The details of the mechanism of this type of tank are shown in Fig. 107. The pipe from the water supply is attached at G to the automatic valve F, which keeps the tank filled with water. The piece F of the valve is held against the opening by the pressure exerted through the float E. The float is a hollow copper ball. As the ball is lifted it exerts a pressure in proportion to the amount it is submerged. When the water reaches the level A-A, the valve is tightly closed. As the water is discharged from the tank the ball follows the level of the water and opens the valve, allowing the water to enter and again fill the tank.

The siphon is made of cast iron, and in the figure is shown cut through the center. The lower end fits loosely in the piece K, and makes a water-tight joint around its outer edge, by resting on a rubber ring C-C. The right-hand side of the siphon is open at H, and when the tank is full, the level of the water is at A-A, which is almost at the top of the division plate. To discharge the tank, the chain L, attached to the lever B, is pulled down; this action raises the siphon from its seat. As soon as the siphon is lifted, the water rushes through the opening around C-C, into the pipe K; this causes a partial vacuum to form in D, and the water is lifted over the division plate K, and flows out at D, forming the siphon. As soon as the siphonic action begins the siphon may be dropped back on the seat and the water will continue to discharge until the tank is empty.

Low-down Flush Tank.

—The low-down flush tank for water closets has met with so much favor that it has to a great extent displaced the high tank. The reason for this is because of its advantages over the other style. The low tank is more accessible, more easily kept clean, and better adapted to low ceilings. It is used successfully as a siphon tank, but other forms are in use with satisfactory results.

Fig. 108 gives a perspective view of one style of this type of tank attached to a siphon-jet closet. Figs. 109 and 110 give the details of the construction of two forms of this type of tank, both of which have given efficient service. The drawing shows the tanks with the front broken away to give a view of the working parts. The water enters the tank and is discharged at the points indicated. The float and supply valve works exactly as described in the high tank. The drawing in Fig. 109 shows the tank in the act of discharging. The discharge valve is raised as shown at E. When the water is completely discharged, the float occupies the position shown dotted. When the float reaches this dotted position, its weight pulls down the piece A. This releases the lever B, and the attached stopper E, which falls and closes the discharge orifice. While the tank is filling with water, a stream flows through the small pipe D, to replenish the water in the closet that has been discharged in siphoning. When the tank is full of water, the pieces A and B occupy the positions shown dotted. To discharge the tank the trip is pushed down. This action raises the lever to the position B, and with it the attached stopper E. The piece C falls and the opposite end A holds B suspended until the tank is completely discharged.

The action of the tank shown in Fig. 110 is the same as the others except that of the discharge mechanism. In the drawing, the tank is full of water ready to be discharged when required. A hollow rubber ball E serves as a stopper for the discharge pipe. The ball is kept in place, when the tank is filling, by the pressure of the water above it. The discharge is started by pressing down the trip on the front of the tank. This raises the ball from its seat, and being lighter than water, it floats, thus leaving the discharge pipe open until the tank is empty, when the ball is again back on its seat. As the tank fills the pressure of the water above prevents the ball from again floating, until lifted from its seat. The supply valve and refilling pipe D is the same in action as in the other tank.

Closet seats furnish an inviting receptacle for waste material of almost every kind. Stoppages are not uncommon and are generally found in the trap. One method of removing obstruction is by use of the plumbers’ friend. This device is shown at P-R, in Fig. 111. It consists of a wooden handle P attached to a cup-shaped rubber piece R.

The plumbers’ friend is shown in the figure, placed to remove an obstruction S that is lodged in the trap. A sudden downward thrust causes the rubber cap R to entirely fill the closet outlet and the resulting pressure to the water is generally sufficient to force the obstruction through the trap to the soil pipe.

The kitchen sink is another place that affords opportunity for accumulation that stops the waste pipe. Accumulation of grease in the trap is a common cause of trouble. This may be remedied to some extent by the use of potash or caustic soda. When the pipe is stopped and the trouble cannot be reached from the trap, a common method of removing the stoppage is that suggested in Fig. 112. A piece of heavy rubber tubing is forced over the water tap and the other end tightly wedged into the drain pipe; the water is then turned on and generally the pressure is sufficient to force the accumulation down the pipe.

Sewer Gas.

—The prevalent fear of the deleterious effect of escaping sewer gas is one that has been magnified to an unwarrantable degree. Among bacteriologists it is very generally recognized that none of the dreaded diseases to which the human kind is susceptible are transmitted by gases. The one possible harmful effect recognized in sewer gas by scientists is that produced by carbon monoxide. Sewer gas often contains, from escaping illuminating gas, sufficient carbon monoxide to produce the poisoning effect characteristic of that gas but the possibility of danger is quite remote. The leakage of sewer gas is detected by the sense of smell sooner than in almost any other way. While leaks in sewer pipes are unhygienic in that they are conducive to undesirable atmospheric conditions, they should not be looked upon as the agents through which transmissible diseases are carried.

To the average person the term sewer gas conveys the impression of a particularly loathsome form of vaporous contagion, capable of distributing every form of communicable disease. To the scientific mind it means no more than a bad odor. Sewer gas is really nothing but ill-smelling air.

RANGE BOILERS

The hot-water supply to the household is of so much importance, that the installation of the range boiler should be made with great care, and an understanding of the principle on which it works should be fully appreciated by all who have to do with its management. The ability of the boiler to supply the demands put upon it depends in a great measure on its size and the arrangement of its parts, but proper management is necessary to assure a supply of hot water when required.

Range boilers are used for storing hot water heated by the water-back of the kitchen range or other water heater, during a period when water is not drawn. It serves as a reserve supply where the heater is not of sufficient size to heat water as fast as is demanded.

As commonly used, range boilers are galvanized-steel tanks made expressly for household use. They are standard in form and may be bought of any dealer in plumbing or household supplies. In capacity they range from 20 to 200 gallons and are made for either high-or low-pressure service. They are said to be tested at the factory to a pressure of 200 pounds to the square inch and are rated to stand a working pressure of 150 pounds. Range boilers are galvanized after they are made and coated both inside and out. The coating of zinc received in the galvanizing process helps to make their seams tight and at the same time renders the surface free from rust.

There is no definite means of determining the size of tank to be used in any given case, because of the varying demands of a household but a common practice is to allow 5 gallons in capacity to each person the house is able to accommodate.

The Water-back.

—The most common method of heating water for the range boiler is by use of the water-back or water-front of the kitchen range. The water-back is a hollow cast-iron piece that is made to take the place of the back fire-box lining of the range. In some ranges the heater occupies the front of the fire-box instead of the back, in which case the heater becomes the water-front.

The arrangement of pipes connecting the source of water supply with the boiler is such that cold water is constantly supplied to the tank as the hot water is drawn. If no water is drawn from the tank, it will continue to circulate through the tank and heater, the water becoming constantly hotter.

The connecting pipes are usually of iron but sometimes pipes of copper or brass are used. The joints should be reamed to remove the burr that is formed in cutting. The angles should be 45-degree bends or better still 90-degree bends in connecting the heater with the tank so as to cut down the amount of friction as much as possible.

In Fig. 113 is shown a standard range boiler connected to the range. The water is brought into the top of the tank through the pipe a-a, and passing through it enters the water-back by means of the pipe b. After passing through the water-back the water again enters the tank through the pipes c and d, as indicated by the arrow. The flow pipe (carrying the out-going water) from the water-back may be connected with the tank at e, as shown dotted or in some cases the connections are made at both places. The velocity of circulation depends on the vertical height of the column of hot water and the greater height will, therefore, improve the circulation and thus increase the efficiency of the heater. The circulation of the water through the tank and heater is produced by its change in weight as the water is heated. As the hot water comes from the water-back it rises in the pipe because it is lighter in weight than the cooler water of the tank. In the case of the pipe shown dotted in Fig. 113 the longer vertical rise will give a greater upward velocity of the hot water and consequently a better circulation through the entire circuit.

The construction of the water-back is shown in the small drawing. The connections are made at b and c as before. A division plate in the water-back causes the water flowing in at b to follow the length of the heater at the bottom and return at the top as indicated by the arrow, when it is discharged at C.

The hottest water is always at the top of the tank and the temperature grades uniformly from the hottest at the top to the coolest at the bottom. The reason for extending the pipe a so far down into the tank is that the cold water may not mingle with the hot water and reduce its temperature on entering the tank. Near the top of the pipe a is a small hole f that is intended to prevent the water from being siphoned from the tank in case a vacuum is formed in the cold-water pipe. In this arrangement the water enters and leaves at the top of the tank. In case the supply is shut off at any time the tank is left almost full of water, because the siphoning effect cannot extend below the small hole f.

Excessive Pressure.

—Accidents due to the explosion of hot-water backs are not at all rare and it should be borne in mind that there is danger of excessive pressure being formed should the pipes b and c become stopped. Under normal conditions the pressure generated by the heated water is relieved by the water in the tank being forced back into the supply pipe. The pressure in the tank, therefore, cannot become greater than that of the source of supply, but if b and c should become stopped with the water-back full of water a dangerous pressure might result. The greatest danger from this cause is that of freezing. It frequently happens that houses are closed during cold weather and the water-back is left undrained. The water freezes and when a fire is started in the range, the ice in the water-back is the first to melt. In a short time steam will be generated that will soon produce a sufficient pressure to burst the water-back. This has happened many times with disastrous results. Such dangers may be avoided by the exercise of a reasonable amount of care in the management of the range. To drain the water-back, the water is first shut off at the point where the supply pipe enters the house. The water in the range boiler is then drawn off by means of the cock h.

Blow-off Cock.

—When a considerable amount of sediment is carried in the water the range boiler acts as a settling tank and the deposit accumulated at the bottom will in time amount to a source of trouble. The accumulation is shown in Fig. 114. The part W, which connects with B, is sometimes provided with a blow-off cock that will admit of a discharge of the sediment. More commonly the piping is arranged as shown in Fig. 113, when sediment is removed by occasionally drawing water from the cock h.

Location of Range Boiler.

—It is sometimes desired to place the range boiler on a different floor, either above or below the range. While such arrangements are entirely possible the circulation of the water is not so good as that described above. The weight of the two columns of water in the connecting pipes are so nearly balanced that good circulation is not always possible. In Fig. 115 the connections are shown, where the tank is located in the basement. In connecting the water-back to the tank under such conditions the piping is relatively the same as is shown in the dotted connections of Fig. 113, but the connections are longer. The circulating pipe comes from the bottom of the tank and leads to the bottom of the water-back. The flow pipe from the top of the water-back is extended up to a distance equal or greater than the distance from the water-back to the bottom of the tank. The hot water is taken from the top of the flow pipe at any place above the tank.

Horizontal Range Boilers.

—It occasionally happens that in a small kitchen there is no convenient floor space for the range boiler and it becomes necessary to suspend it from the ceiling. It is perfectly possible to station the ordinary range boiler in such a position and have it work fairly well but from the location of the cold-water inlet, only that part of the range boiler above the cold water pipe is actually used for storage. The water in the lower half constantly mixes with the entering cold water before it is heated by passing through the water-back. When hot water is drawn from the top of the range boiler, cold water enters by the cold-water pipe and reduces the temperature of most of the lower half. Fig. 117 illustrates such an arrangement. In this case the pipes connected with the water-back are those that correspond to the circulating pipes a and e in Fig. 113.

Suppose the range boiler is full of water, and that it is being heated. The lower pipe at the left-hand end is conducting the water to the water-back and it is being returned to the range boiler by the upper pipe at the same end. When the hot water is drawn from the top of the range boiler by the hot-water pipe, the entering cold water mixes with hot water in most of the lower half of the range boiler before it has been heated by passing through the water-back and so reduces the temperature of most of the lower half of the tank.

A much better tank for the purpose is that indicated in Fig. 118. This is a tank made particularly for such a location. The cold water enters at the bottom of the tank and also leaves the bottom on its way to the water-back. Circulation takes place through the water-back as before but when hot water is drawn from the top of the tank, the entering cold water at the bottom mixes with only that at the lower part of the tank and so cools but a small amount of the hot water in storage. Hot-water tanks of this kind are tapped for pipe connections in two places on both the top and bottom sides and also at the ends as shown in the drawing.

Tank Heaters.

—When the demand for hot water is sufficient to warrant a separate hot-water heater the apparatus similar to Fig. 119 is used. With such a heater, the conditions of overheated water—to be described later—may be almost entirely avoided. In this case the connections are arranged similarly to those of the range boiler but a separate furnace takes the place of the water-back. The heater is simply a small furnace made expressly for heating water. Connected with the discharge pipe p is a draft-regulating valve which controls the drafts of the heater. The draft-regulator is set to so control the furnace that water at the desired temperature will always be in the tank. The mechanism of this regulator is the same as the draft-regulator described under hot-water heating plants.

When the water at a high temperature is drawn from the tap a considerable part of it will instantly vaporize, because of the reduced pressure. If water at a pressure of 25 pounds is drawn from the faucet, the temperature, 258°F., is sufficient to send all of the water instantly into steam. This high temperature will scald at the slightest touch. The water drawn from the faucet will continue to vaporize as it comes into the air until the water in the tank is cooled by the incoming cold water. The only means of relieving the overheated condition is to open the faucet a slight amount and allow a portion of the heated water to be drawn off.

It is evident from what has been said of the range boiler that it operates under a variety of conditions. It is first a storage tank in which is accumulated the water, heated from a greater or less period of use of the range. Should the range fire be maintained through the day or night the supply of hot water will be excessive and superheating is the result. If the heater is to be used during short periods of time, the piping should be arranged to produce the best circulation; on the contrary, should the heater be used continuously—as in the case of a furnace coil—a slow circulation through the tank is most to be desired and the piping should be arranged for that purpose.

In the use of furnace heaters, superheating is likely to occur during cold weather when a hot fire must be used over a long period of time. In order to conserve the heat accumulated under such conditions a hot-water radiator is frequently connected with the range boiler through which to dispose of the excess heat. This radiator may be placed in any desired position and so connected by a valve as to discontinue its use at any time.

Furnace Hot-water Heaters.

—It is sometimes more convenient to use the furnace as a means of heating water than the kitchen range. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 120, where a loop of pipe in the fire-box of the furnace takes the place of the water-back. The arrangement of the pipes in the range boiler are as before, the water entering the tank through the pipe A, circulates through the pipes B and C, receiving its heat while passing through the loop in the furnace, in exactly the same way as in the water-back. It would be quite possible to also connect the kitchen range with the tank as shown by the dotted lines indicating the water-back. Such an arrangement would virtually be that shown in Fig. 116, where the two heaters on different floors are connected with the boiler.

Fig. 122 shows the heater connected with a range boiler. In this case the heater may be considered as taking the place of the water-back. It may, however, be used as an auxiliary heater. In the picture of the kitchen shown in Fig. 80, an instantaneous heater is shown attached to the range boiler. It is located in this case between the kitchen range and the boiler.