In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the inhabitants of Europe were several times alarmed by a common danger, that of invasion of their territories by a foreign race, Asiatic by extraction, and connected primarily with the Mongols. This race, known as Turks or Osmanli, had made itself master of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, in 1453, and set up its government there under a Padishah or Sultan. From this point they extended their empire further and further to the north-west, over Hungary and the intervening lands, and took possession of the Hungarian capital, Buda, or Ofen. In 1683 they actually besieged Vienna, and this city would undoubtedly have fallen if it had not been for its heroic defence by Field-Marshal RÜdiger von Starhemberg, who held out till he was succoured by Duke Charles of Lorraine with the Army of the Austrian Empire, and John Sobieski, King of Poland.

The Turkish power now began to wane, and its forces gradually declined in strength during the wars with Russia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. One by one the provinces of the Turkish Empire became detached from Turkish rule and proclaimed their independence under their own sovereigns. In this way arose the independent kingdoms of Greece, Servia, and Roumania, and the principality of Bulgaria (under Turkish suzerainty), all of them during the present century. Eastern Roumelia is still in the hands of the Turks, but she has her own administration. The Turkish Empire—once the terror of Christendom—is now fighting for very existence, and to retain her hold over the small remnants of her European possessions. Russia, who considers herself the champion of the Greek-Catholic Church in the East, would by this time have undoubtedly seized the lands of the “Sick Man” on the Bosphorus, if it were not that the ambition of other Powers has secured a frail but fleeting life for him. Since, however, Turkey is determined not to let go of her European possessions without a stiff fight for them, and since no one can foretell what far-reaching consequences such a war would entail, we must not skip her over, but must give a short account of her Army as well as of the others.

Turkey has now, since the disbanding of the Janissaries (who formed the Sultan body-guard, of 12,000 men at first, and later of 100,000), organised her Army on a purely European footing. The officer who is chiefly responsible for this organisation, and who was sent for that purpose to Turkey, at the request of the then Sultan Mahmoud II., from 1835 to 1839, is no less a personage than Field-Marshal Count Moltke.

Since his time, the Turkish Army has improved after every war. Though it is yet by no means equal to that of any of the great Powers, still that is the fault of neither the military system nor yet of the Turkish soldier. The responsibility lies with the confused system of military administration, which deals in the most hopeless and in the worst possible way with the clothing and equipment, and even with the feeding and pay of the Army.

According to the Law, every able-bodied Mahomedan inhabitant of Turkey is bound to serve in the Army. Christians are exempted on payment of a fine.

Service in the “Nizam,” or Active Army, lasts six years, of which the Infantry soldier spends three and the Cavalry and Artilleryman four years with the Colours and the remaining time in the Active Reserve or “Ikhtiat.” After this the soldier joins the Landwehr or “Redif” for eight years, and subsequently six years in the Landsturm or “Muhstafiz.” As a matter of fact, the period of service with the Colours is usually reduced to two years, or three at the outside.

The whole Turkish Empire is divided into 7 military districts or “Ordu,” of which the seventh, Arabia, is exceptionally constituted. “Ordus” 1 to 6 have each in peace-time to supply 1 Army Corps of Nizam troops, and, besides this, 1 to 2 Army Corps of the Redif in case of necessity. The seventh Ordu only possesses 1 Army Corps altogether.

Each Corps consists of 2 Infantry Divisions, 2 Cavalry Divisions, 1 Regiment of Field Artillery, 1 battalion of Pioneers and 1 of the Train.

A Division consists of 2 brigades; an Infantry brigade numbers 2, and a Cavalry 3, regiments. A regiment of Infantry numbers 5 battalions, of which 1 is a DepÔt battalion; a regiment of Cavalry, 5 squadrons, of which 1 is a DepÔt squadron.

The Artillery Regiment numbers 14 batteries, of which 3 are Horse Artillery and 2 mountain batteries, each of 6 guns.

The 18 Army Corps of the Turkish Field Army, (including Redif) comprise a strength of 612,000 men, with 1,512 guns,[22] and these could be heavily reinforced by drawing on the “Muhstafiz.”

The Infantry is armed with three different patterns of rifles at this moment, but will shortly be armed altogether with a magazine-rifle. Cavalry and Field Artillerymen are armed with a repeating carbine. The guns are good cast-steel breech-loaders from the Krupp works. The mountain batteries have steel guns.

As regards discipline and training, the Turkish soldier cannot be compared on the same grounds with his European comrade. As for a discipline founded on feelings of honour, respect, and love of country, the Turks wots not of it. These feelings are, however, compensated for to some extent by a religious fanaticism and a warlike spirit.

The Turkish soldier is easily satisfied, quiet in his demeanour, unruffled, sparing of words, dignified, obedient, and true to the death. The romantic halo which formerly endowed the Turks with unequalled fighting powers in the assault and unconquerable stubbornness in the defence of strong positions, has faded. In vain does one now look for the Spahis and Delhis on their fiery horses, with crooked swords, flashing turbans and waving garments. With the exception of the red fez, the uniform of the Turkish troops has a distinctly European cut. The “Nizam” wear a dark-blue coat, usually wide in the body, to allow of the growth and alterations of the body, which take place during their six years’ service, and the “Redif” wear jackets or sleeved waistcoats. The most adventurous-looking are the Bashi-Bazouks (i.e. “lost heads”), a wild body of Irregular troops who carry on war in their own fashion, and who are little amenable to discipline. These wear bizarre and wild-looking dresses, and are armed with long rifles. The Army is extremely plucky in war, but is sadly deficient in good officers and non-commissioned officers.

The armies of the smaller States of the Balkan Peninsula, organised on the lines of great European Powers, will in future wars probably only act as allies to either Russia or Turkey. We need therefore cast but a hasty glance at them.

Greece has, in consequence of her universal conscription—

Infantry—27 battalions of the Line and 9 battalions of Rifles.

Cavalry—12 squadrons.

Artillery—2 Field, and 2 Mountain battalions, and 1 Garrison Artillery battalion, altogether 10 batteries with 64 guns.

The Army (including Engineers and Train, as well as Gendarmerie) consists of about 30,000 in peace-time, which could be reinforced in war-time to 80,000 men.

Roumania can bring into the 1st Line 4 Army Corps, well-drilled and well-armed (with repeating rifles and Krupp guns), and into the 2nd Line 4 more Divisions. Her peace strength consists of—

Infantry—16 battalions of the Line, 4 battalions of Rifles and 65 battalions of the Dorobanze (a Territorial Militia)—total, 85 battalions.

Cavalry—16 squadrons of Ro?iori, (Hussars) and 54 squadrons of Kalaraschi (a species of Gendarmerie)—total, 70 squadrons.

Artillery—54 batteries with 312 guns.

The peace-strength of Roumania numbers over 30,000 men.

The war-strength consists of 120 battalions of Infantry, 80 squadrons of Cavalry, 72 batteries of Artillery, 20 companies of Engineers, and details; altogether 150,000 men and 448 guns.

Besides these there are 32 Local Militia battalions and a body of men corresponding to the German Landsturm.

Servia can put into the field 5 Divisions, namely:—

Field Army—45 battalions, 25 squadrons, 25 batteries, besides Engineers and Train—total, 65,000 men and 100 guns.

Reserve Army—65,000 men, formed similarly to the above.

Landsturm—60 battalions, comprising 30,000 men. Total war-strength 130,000 men and 200 guns.

Bulgaria, although her constitution is as yet not definitely settled, is not at all behindhand in the organisation of her Army. The principality would be able to put into the field an Army of over 30,000 well-trained men, besides 24,000 Landwehr and 7,000 Landsturm.

The Army of Eastern Roumelia is a species of Militia, which would in war-time amount to 64,000 men. The Standing Army numbers only 3,400 men, and their efficiency is not very great.

Montenegro. In the western portion of the Balkan Peninsula, between the Dinaric Mountains and the Adriatic, though not touching the latter, lies a wild and craggy mountain land. According to the inhabitants, “When the Creator was walking over the earth, distributing rocks and plains, the bag in which the rocks were split, and those which remained fell on to Montenegro.”

There can certainly not have been many rocks in the bag, for the land of the Black Mountains (Montenegro or Tzernagora) is a tiny country of only about 2,300 square miles. The inhabitants are as wild as their country. They are a small, liberty-loving nation, of great physical beauty, and born warriors. When the Czar, the other day, called the Prince of Montenegro the best friend he had on earth, his speech probably referred less to the Prince himself than to the people whose merit and determined bravery he so much admired.

This nation has for centuries known how to preserve its independence. Turkey, who tried to exercise a sovereignty, over the people, came to grief when met by their determined opposition. In 1862 the inhabitants of Herzegovina rebelled against the sovereignty of the Crescent, and were supported in their revolt by the Montenegrins. The Turkish Government thereupon recalled their best general, Omar Pasha, from exile, and gave him the chief command of the forces sent against Herzegovina and her ally.

Omar Pasha forced his way into Montenegro at the head of a powerful Army. His forces were so superior to those of the Montenegrins that the latter could not keep up their brave opposition for very long, but the Turkish losses were so considerable, and their enemy so impossible to get at, that the former were glad when the Montenegrins showed themselves willing to treat for peace on easy conditions. Montenegro, therefore, stands to this day a rocky fortress and a bulwark against the advance of the Crescent.

Montenegro requires no law of universal conscription, for every able-bodied man has, as a matter of course, been trained to arms from his youth up. It has also no Standing Army, only a Body-Guard for the Prince, composed of 300 men,[23] of whom 50 are mounted. It is, however, stated that at least 35,000 men and a few mountain-guns could be put in the field in case of war, in order to defend the country against an invader from any quarter.