In the year 1603 the white wings of an English vessel were reflected in the blue waters of Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, as some hardy voyageurs upon the deck of the ungainly-looking craft took soundings of the depth of the water, admired the broad expanse of fertile country, and, after making expeditions into the many coves and estuaries, sailed away again for their native heath. Hidden by the overhanging branches of the trees which grew near the gleaming ocean, some suspicious natives watched the fair-skinned strangers with awe and apprehension. They were followers of Powhatan—Chief of the Indians of seacoast Virginia, and one of the most remarkable warriors of history. They had never before seen the features of a white man, and, although rumors of these strange people who came from far-distant lands had reached them from the natives who lived to the south, these were the first palefaces upon whom their eyes had ever rested. As the new, strange vision of a rakish hull and flapping canvas disappeared upon the horizon, they turned to each other, and said, with smiling countenances, "It is well, they will not return."

These savages lived in villages that were on, or near, the banks of the many rivers which here coursed slowly to the Atlantic. Their wigwams were made of saplings tied together and covered with reeds, bark, or mats woven from native grasses. They were warmed by means of a fire in the centre, the smoke from which passed through a hole in the roof. Thus they were comfortable in the coldest weather, but very smoky when the wind was blowing with any speed. A mat was hung across the doorway to keep off the drafts from the exterior, and the floor was covered with tanned deer hides, or with mats of considerable thickness. Sometimes a collection of these cabins was surrounded by palisades, ten or twelve feet in height, and thus a stout resistance could be made to invading bands of hostile Indians.

The dress of these natives was scanty enough, except in the months of December, January, and February, when the weather was really cold. Those of rank wore a mantle of skin embroidered with beads, during the warm months, and a fur covering in winter. Their feet were enclosed in moccasins of deer hide, tanned by a long and tedious process. The women wore a long apron of deer skin and deerskin leggins, while the less prosperous members of a tribe had little to clothe themselves with but woven grasses and turkeys' feathers. In summer the men discarded everything but a breech clout, while the women practically went without clothing. Both sexes colored their heads and shoulders a brilliant red, with a mixture of powdered puccoon-root and oil, while the belles of a tribe added to this decoration by tattooing their skins with figures of beasts and of serpents. Besides this, they would punch three large holes in each ear and from these would hang chains, bracelets, and copper ornaments. Sometimes strings of pearls would be suspended from their ears and wound about their waists, while the warriors would often wear small green and yellow snakes, which were alive, and would be attached to their ears so that they could crawl and wrap themselves around their necks.

A quantity of Indian corn, or maize, was grown by these Indians, and this was their chief means of subsistence. Corn bread was the staple food, although another kind of bread was often made of wild oats mixed with sunflower seed. Their meat consisted of fish, deer, wild turkeys and other game; while grubs, locusts, and snakes were also a portion of their bill-of-fare. From dried hickory nuts, pounded in a stone basin, and mixed with water, they made a drink called Pawcohicora, which was much relished at feasts and banquets. They lived a simple, peaceful life; fought little with the surrounding tribes; and were noted for the great age which they attained.

When called to battle the warriors went forth with tomahawks, arrows, knives and war clubs. Their tomahawks were made either of a deer's horn, or of a long, sharpened stone set in a handle like a pickaxe. Their knives were made, for the most part, of stone, but sometimes shells and reeds were sharpened for this purpose. A stone point was put on the end of their arrows and they were winged with turkey feathers which were fastened with a glue made from deers' horns. They often carried bark shields into the fray, which were woven together with thread, and to make these round in shape, a file was used, which was fashioned from a beaver's tooth set in a forked stick. War clubs were of round stones, pointed at the ends, and held by a long wooden handle, while bow strings were of deer hide and sinews. Thread was made by the women from bark, deer sinews, or from grass.

There were three nations in the country which extended from the Atlantic seacoast to the Alleghenys, and from the southern waters of the James River to the Patuxent (now in the State of Maryland), and each nation was a confederacy of larger and smaller tribes, subdivided into towns, families, and clans. These were the Mannahoaks, the Monocans, and the Powhatans; the first two being highland, or mountain Indians who lived on the banks of various small streams which course through the hilly country between the falls of the rivers which ran to the Atlantic and the Allegheny ridge.

The Powhatan nation comprised a much larger number of tribes than the others and inhabited the lowland nation of Virginia from North Carolina, on the south, to the Patuxent on the north, occupying a territory of approximately 8,000 square miles; there were about 2,400 warriors in all and about 8,000 women and children, not a large number, by any means, for such a great extent of territory.

Their great chief Powhatan had been a splendid warrior in his younger days, and, although he was hereditary chief of but eight tribes, through conquest his dominions had expanded until they reached from the James to the Potomac River, and included thirty or forty tribes. He was called "King" or "Emperor," his principal warriors were lords of the Kingdom, his wives were queens, his daughter was a princess.

He was a tall and well-proportioned man, and, when the English settlers at Jamestown first saw him, was nearly sixty years of age, sinewy, strong, his head somewhat gray, with a thin beard, and a sour look on his countenance. He lived sometimes at a village called Powhatan, near where Richmond now stands, and sometimes at We-ro-woco-moco, on the York River.

Pocahontas, Powhatan's favorite daughter, was born about the year 1594 and was one of eleven girls and twenty sons. We know nothing about any of his sons except Nateguas, whom the English claimed to be the handsomest, comeliest and boldest among all the savages. Powhatan had many wives—exactly how many is difficult to state—and when tired of one he would present her to that one of his subjects whom he considered to be the most deserving.

At each of the villages was a house built like a long arbor for Powhatan's especial reception, and when he visited one of his towns, a feast would already be spread in this reception hall, so that he could immediately seat himself, with his companions, and partake of what was in store for him. Besides these he had a hunting lodge in the wilderness called Orapax, and a mile from this, deep in the woods, he had another arbor-like house, where he kept furs, copper, pearls, and beads—treasures which he was saving to be placed in his grave at the time of his burial.

A large number of canoes, or "dug-outs" were also a part of Powhatan's possessions, and of these he was very proud. The boats were manufactured from trees which were felled by fire and were hollowed out by means of burning and scraping with shells and tomahawks.

Forty or fifty warriors were always in attendance on this powerful monarch, as his body guard, while every night four sentinels stood at the four quarters, or ends, of his cabin and every half hour they would, in turn, utter a shrill war whoop, made by placing the finger upon the lips and halloing. If one should go to sleep, or fail to answer the whoop of his companion, an older warrior would soon issue from Powhatan's cabin and flail the offender with a stout wooden cudgel.

The Indians seem to have had a sort of idea that there was some superior spirit, God, or creator, who watched over their actions, and they worshipped an idol, or Okee, who represented, not a good spirit, but an evil one. Numerous priests, or medicine men, were always to be found in these Virginia tribes, and they were supposed to cure the sick by means of divinations and conjurations which were very noisy and grotesque. These medicine men did not work, themselves, and lived a life of indolent ease, but they were of great value, as the savages dared not steal from one another, fearing that these priests would reveal the theft by means of their conjuries, and then bring the offender into such disrepute that he would be driven out of the tribe. Their Okee, or God, was kept in a temple fashioned from boughs and branches, and it was surrounded with posts on which hideous faces were carved from soft pine wood and painted blue, white, and vermilion.

The Indian year was divided into five seasons—budding time, roasting ear time, summer time, the fall of the leaf, and the season of cold or winter. The savages amused themselves with sham fights, or with dances, and most hideous sounding noises, or war whoops, as they charged forward and retreated backward, around in a circle. Their musical instruments consisted of a reed cut to form a pipe, a drum made of wood with deer's skin stretched on the end, and rattles made of gourds or pumpkins. These made a terrible noise, which frightened more than delighted the first white settlers. When they had a distinguished visitor, they first spread a mat upon the ground for him to sit upon and then sat opposite him upon another. Then all present would join in a tremendous shouting to bid him welcome, after which two or more of the chief men would make an oration in which they testified their love and admiration for the visitor. After this a meal would be served and a pipe of peace would be passed around.

English adventurers had attempted to form a colony at Roanoke Island, just off the Virginia Coast, but it had been such a failure that the ardor of English voyageurs had been dampened and little effort had been made to gain a foothold in Virginia. But the Spaniards—their great rivals and enemies—had made numerous successful explorations in the New World, so that the pride of the Anglo-Saxons was piqued and their cupidity was aroused by the wealth the Spanish gold-seekers brought back to their own land. Thus, at the beginning of the reign of James I, it was determined to send ships and settlers to America, where they were to found a colony, search for gold, and ship it, when discovered, home to the mother country. There were several promoters for this scheme; one was a London merchant named Wingfield, another a clergyman named Hunt, still another, Bartholomew Gosnold, who had made a successful voyage to the coast of New England several years earlier. The most important was Captain John Smith, a gallant soldier-of-fortune, who had been in numerous adventures of a startling nature; had made many journeys in Europe; had been held captive by the Saracens, and who was a lover of all that was hazardous and full of danger. He was now twenty-eight years of age, strong, vigorous, handsome and energetic.

While a slave in the Crimea Smith had an iron collar fastened about his neck, was clothed in the skin of a wild beast, and was beaten and kicked about like a dog, until his life was nearly unbearable. But one day he seized a flail for separating wheat from chaff, broke his master's skull with it, and then put on his clothes and fled to Poland. Here he was aided by friends until he reached Morocco, where he joined an English man-of-war, and, after a sanguinary sea battle, arrived in England in time to aid the adventurers setting sail for the shore of Virginia. They left Blackwall, and dropped down to the Thames in December, 1606, with three ships, one of which, the Discovery, was a mere sail boat of but twenty tons, manned by an equal number of staunch souls, sailing over unknown seas to unknown lands.

It took them five full months to cross the Atlantic to the shores of the New World, and jealousy, discord and mutiny had played havoc with the spirits of the crew by the time that land was sighted. The ships loitered along, and at the Canary Isles and the West Indies had remained so long that the provisions were well nigh exhausted. At one time it was proposed to hang the restless Captain John Smith to the yard-arm because he railed at their delay and declared the majority of the crew, "merely projecting, verbal and idle contemplators," who expected to find "feather beds and down pillows, taverns, ale-houses in every breathing place," and not the "dissolute liberty that they had expected." As luck would have it, a storm drove the vessels into the mouth of the James River, Virginia, and past two jutting promontories of land which they called Cape Henry, after the Prince of Wales, and Cape Charles, for the second son of the reigning English Monarch—afterwards Charles I.

All were overjoyed to see the long-sought-for Continent. A landing was made on Cape Charles by thirty men, but they were suddenly attacked by five Indians, who dangerously wounded two of the soldiers and drove the rest back to the ships. In spite of this, the spirits of the adventurers were mightily cheered by the sight of the beautiful bay, encompassed by a fruitful and delightful land, and covered with forests which were magnificent with the blossoms of red wood and dog wood. A place was soon selected for a settlement, called Jamestown, which was on such low ground that it was not considered wholesome by many, and thus a famous debate ensued. Finally it was decided to here build a blockhouse, and all turned to with some will to erect the first habitation of white settlers among Powhatan's people. Gosnold had strongly opposed the selection of this place, while Captain John Smith had approved of it, but the former's advice was correct, as the current of the river has turned the peninsula of Jamestown into an island, and now, only a ruined church tower remains to mark the situation of the first colony of Englishmen in the United States.

Although the whites fell to, with spirit and enthusiasm, to build up their town, unfortunately most of them were "gentlemen" and unaccustomed to any form of work or sustained labor. There were ruined spendthrifts, broken tradesmen, fortune-hunters, tipsters, and gamblers, in excess of some real workmen in the shape of four carpenters, one bricklayer, one blacksmith, and one sailor. A barber also figured in the rolls, a tailor, a drummer, and four half-grown boys. The majority expected to find nuggets of gold lying around in profusion, and not danger, disappointment, severe toil, starvation, and malaria.

When upbraided by Captain John Smith for not showing more enthusiasm in their labor, some said, "We did not come here to work, but to explore and find gold."

"Then you shall not eat," answered the quick-tempered Captain, "for the labor of a few industrious men shall not be utilized to support idle loiterers like yourselves."

A number of these settlers were also most profane, and so the Captain kept a daily account of every man's oaths, and, as proper punishment, had a can of cold water poured down an offender's sleeve for each foul word. This had some effect, but Smith was well disgusted with their lack of ability to do anything, and wrote to the company in England who had furnished the resources to the colony: "When you send again, I entreat you to send thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, or diggers-up of roots, who would be better than a thousand of such as we have."

The Indians meanwhile had become aware of the purposes of the whites to dispossess them of their territory, so they turned treacherous, and, although they entered into no open hostilities, began to skulk about the fort. After bringing in presents of corn and venison, they would often steal anything which they could safely carry off. They showed by their looks and dispositions that they were extremely jealous of the whites, and, when exploring parties were sent into the interior, suddenly attacked the fort with about two hundred braves. These were driven away by means of the guns of the ship, after an hour's fight, and after subjecting the defenders of Jamestown to a loss of eleven men wounded and one boy killed. The noise of the cannon really frightened the attackers away, and for some days they hung around the stockade, so that it was not safe to venture beyond the range of the muskets, unless one wished to be tomahawked by some lurking savage.

Powhatan had received word of the coming of the whites through scouts and runners, and he was soon to make the acquaintance of the hardiest and most enterprising of them all, an acquaintance that was to mark the turning point in his career of undisputed sovereign over tide-water Virginia; for the adventurous and ambitious spirit of Smith had prompted him to make several expeditions both along the coast and into the interior of this densely wooded country. A few months after the settlement of Jamestown came a time of threatened starvation, but the gallant Captain discovered the tribe of Chickahominy Indians, and from them gained a large store of corn which revived the fainting spirits of those in the little fort upon the malarial peninsula.

In spite of this there were many who decried what Smith had done and said that he should have gone to the headwaters of the Chickahominy River and should not have returned without discovering the source of this stream. The idle and unruly in the colony complained that he had accomplished very little, and not sufficient to be applauded. Stung by their taunts, the spirited Captain again set forth (in the winter of 1607-8) to ascend the waters of the river. He took with him a crew sufficient to manage a good-sized barge, to which was attached a small "tender," or jolly-boat, which could go over shoal water and into bays and coves along the banks of the stream. With these he ascended the Chickahominy as far as possible, and then, leaving the barge in a broad cove where lurking Indians could not steal it, he pushed still farther up the stream in the tender, accompanied by two other white men and two friendly Indians. Those left behind were strictly urged not to go ashore.

But the sound advice was ignored by the foolish fellows in the barges, and, as soon as the bold Captain was out of sight, they scrambled to land and proceeded to explore the country. Their rashness came near being the cause of their annihilation, as fully two hundred and fifty Indians were lying in wait for them in the thicket. Under the direction of Opechancanough—Sachem of the Pamunkies and reputed brother of Powhatan—they made a sudden rush for the white men, but, although the attack was unexpected, they only succeeded in capturing one George Cassen, whom they compelled to tell them which way Smith had gone. After securing this information, they put the unfortunate captive to death in a cruel manner, and struck off through the tangled undergrowth in pursuit of the adventurous English colonizer.

The bold Captain had gone twenty miles up the river to the source of the Chickahominy, and, after poling through several marshes, had waded ashore with his Indian guide, to secure some game with his musket for supper. The two Englishmen who were with him had hauled up their boat and were lying down to sleep near a fire, when they were suddenly set upon by the Indians, who shot them full of arrows and killed them. Then the crafty braves spread through the woodland in search of Captain Smith, whom they soon overtook and surrounded, but the brave settler was not to be captured without a struggle, so, when he perceived that it would be useless for him to escape, he tied the young Indian who was with him to his arm (what happened to the other friendly Indian who was with him is not known) and, holding him in front of him as a shield, fired at the enemy and soon had three of them dead. He wounded so many others that they did not seem over-anxious to approach him. Meanwhile the savages kept up a vigorous fire with their bows and arrows; wounded the Captain slightly in the thigh, and shot many shafts into his clothes, but he still kept them off and walked in the direction of the shore. As luck would have it, he suddenly slipped and fell into the bed of a quagmire which he had not noticed as he kept his eye upon the foe. Sinking in the mud up to his armpits, and discovering at last that he was becoming benumbed with cold, he threw away his sword, musket, and pistol, and made signs that he would surrender. The Indians soon approached, drew him out, carried him to a fire, and carefully rubbed his body until he was able to stand up, for the cold quagmire had so benumbed him that he could not use his limbs.

Meanwhile the Englishman was devising some means of escape, and asked to see the leader of the Indians. Opechancanough was pointed out to him, and, with quick presence of mind, Smith drew forth the only trinket which he had with him, a round, ivory compass with a double dial, and presented it to the Indian Chieftain with a low and courteous bow. The savages all crowded around with eager curiosity and were perfectly astonished when they put forth their hands to touch the trembling needle and could not do so. Smith, meanwhile, lectured to them upon geography and astronomy, telling them that the sun continually chased the moon around the earth, that the earth and skies were round, and many other stories which were then current and were, of course, as wide of being the truth as were the Indians' own ideas. However, the savages stood amazed with admiration, and, although apparently pleased with what the Captain had told them, made preparations to execute him and tied him to a tree. As many as could stand in range now took aim at him with their bows and arrows. At this moment Opechancanough held up the ivory compass as a signal for clemency, and the Indians threw down their bows and arrows and gave up all attempts to put an end to the brave Englishman.

Now, forming in Indian file, the prisoner was carried to the village of Orapax by the savages, and, upon approaching the town, they were met by all the women and children, who stared at the white man in wonder and amazement, for it was the first "paleface" that they had ever seen. A war dance was next begun around the terrified Captain, and the savages screeched, sang, and yelled so wildly that the Englishman was sure that he had fallen among demons. But this affair was soon over, the Captain was taken into a long house, and here was guarded by full forty Indians, while corn bread and venison was brought to him that would have been sufficient to have fed forty men. He was given a warm mantle, as it was extremely cold, and each morning three women presented him with three platters of fine bread and more venison than ten men could eat. Thus he spent his days quietly, his mind intent upon an escape as soon as the proper opportunity should present itself.

The gallant Captain now astonished the Indians greatly by writing a letter to Jamestown, for how anyone could communicate to another by means of marks upon a piece of paper was a marvel to the simple-minded braves. He had torn a sheet from his memorandum book and had written to the Colonists, informing them that the Indians were contemplating an attack and giving them instructions to terrify the bearers of the note and to send him several articles. The Indians undertook the journey, although it was in the bitter cold of an unusual winter. When they neared Jamestown and saw the soldiers come out from the stockade, as Smith said that they would do, the fulfillment of his prophecy so frightened them that they fled panic-stricken, but left the note behind them on the ground. As night fell, they crept stealthily to the spot where Captain Smith had told them they would find an answer, and, there, indeed, were the very articles which he had promised them they would discover. The savages were surprised and awed by this show of what they supposed to be divine fire, and, giving up all idea of attacking Jamestown, led Smith from village to village until, at length, he was carried to We-ro-woco-moco, the residence of the great chief Powhatan, situated on the Pamunkey (York) River, in Gloucester county, about twenty-five miles below the mouth of the stream and at this time the great chief's favorite habitation. He afterwards retired to Orapax as he did not desire a residence near the English.

After his arrival at the village, Smith was kept waiting while more than two hundred warriors stood wondering at him as if he were a monster, and until Powhatan could make ready to receive him. After the old warrior had decked himself in his greatest bravery, the Englishman was admitted to his presence, while the Indians hailed his entrance with a tremendous shout. The Emperor was proudly lying upon a bedstead a foot high, raised upon ten or twelve mats. His neck was hung with chains of pearls, and his body was covered with raccoon skins. A woman sat at his head and another at his feet, while, on each side, upon the ground, were ranged his chief men, ten in rank, and behind them as many young women, each having a chain of white beads over her shoulders and with her head painted red. The Queen of Appomattuck was appointed to bring the Captain water in which to wash his hands, while another brought a bunch of feathers, instead of a towel, to dry them with. Many of Powhatan's retainers had their hair decked with the white down of birds, and none were without an ornament of some kind.

Two accounts of what now occurred were published by Smith in London. In the first Pocahontas is not mentioned; in the second, he tells a long story to the effect that she saved his life. The first account was written shortly after the gallant Captain returned to England in the year following; the second, sixteen years later, and after he had had time to reflect and to color his narrative in proper contemplation and leisure. Doubt has, therefore, been cast upon the second story, but I shall give you them both and allow you to select your own conclusion.

In the first narrative the Captain says that, "Powhatan kindly welcomed me with good words and great platters of sundry victuals, assuring me of his friendship and my liberty within four days. He promised to give me corn, venison, or what I wanted to feed us. Hatchets and copper we should make for him, and none were to disturb us. This I promised to perform, and thus having, with all the kindness he could devise, sought to content me, he sent me home."

In the second account, the valiant Smith states that, "Having feasted him (Smith) after the best barbarous manner they could, a long consultation was held, but the conclusion was, two great stones were brought before Powhatan; then as many as could lay hands on him dragged him to them and thereon laid his head, and, being ready with the clubs to beat out his brains, Pocahontas—the King's dearest daughter—when no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her arms and laid her own against his to save him from death; whereat the Emperor was contented that he should live in order to make him hatchets, and her, bells, beads, and copper, for they thought him as well capable of all occupations as themselves." This version has usually been accepted by historians.

When Powhatan asked Smith why the English had come, the keen-witted Captain was very careful to let him know that they had not arrived to settle in the country, but stated that there had been a fight with the Spaniards and that the English had been forced to retreat in their vessels; that finally adverse weather had driven them ashore in Virginia, and here they were only to remain until an opportunity presented itself for a safe return. Smith was a ready talker, but there is no evidence that Powhatan believed him.

Two days after the trial for his life, Powhatan had the captive removed to one of his arbor-like dwellings in the woods and there left him alone upon a skin in front of the fire. The house was curtained off in the centre with a thick mat, and soon a doleful noise came from behind it, and Powhatan, disguised in a strange manner and painted black, entered the room with two hundred Indians, likewise painted with this color. After dancing around the amused Captain for a while, Powhatan told Smith that they were friends, and that he would presently send him home, but that he must promise him that after he arrived in Jamestown he would send him two great guns and also a grindstone. In return for this he was promised the country of Capahowosick, and he was told that he would be considered Powhatan's son. The Captain promised to deliver the requested supplies, and consequently he was sent to Jamestown with twelve guides, who delayed on the way, although the distance was short, so that Smith feared every hour that he would be put to death. But, at last, he was conducted to the fort, where he treated the savage guides with great hospitality, and gave to Rawhunt (a trusty servant of Powhatan) two cannon carrying nine-pound shot, and a mill-stone, to present to the chief. For their benefit the Captain had the guns loaded with stones and fired at some trees whose boughs were covered with icicles. The crash and fall of stones and ice so frightened the savages that they fled into the forest and it was several hours before they could be induced to return. At last, their spirits became reassured, presents of beads and trinkets were given them for Powhatan and his family, and they started back to the great chief, well satisfied.

The conditions at Jamestown were appalling, for a number of men were about to desert, seize the smallest vessel, and make off for England. But Smith was equal to the occasion, forced the mutineers to remain at home at the mouth of a cannon, and, although he himself was tried for the death of Robinson and Emry—the two men who had been killed in the expedition up the Chickahominy—he was set free by the intercession of Captain Newport, who soon whipped the squabbling colonists into some sort of order. Meanwhile their despairing spirits were buoyed up by accounts of Powhatan's bounty and treasure, while every four or five days little Pocahontas with her attendants would cross the river and come to the fort with provisions of bread and corn. This was all that stood between the wrangling "gentlemen" and starvation.

Powhatan, meanwhile, seems to have regarded the English with no particular suspicion or hatred. When Newport and Smith visited him during the winter, he exerted himself to the utmost to give them a royal entertainment. The Indians shouted with joy when next they saw Smith; orations were addressed to him and a bounteous repast of roasted corn, bread, and venison was spread before the company. Powhatan, himself, received the Englishmen, reclining upon a bed of mats, dressed in a handsome fur robe, and leaning upon a pillow embossed with brilliant embroidery of shells and beads. The chief men of the village were assembled before him and four or five hundred of the tribe stood on guard behind them. A proclamation was made to the effect that upon pain of death no Indian should offer any discourtesy to either of the whites, while Powhatan renewed his acquaintance with Smith with much show of apparent affection. An English boy, named Savage, was given to the Indian Emperor at his request, and he returned the favor by presenting to Captain Newport an Indian youth called Nomontack, who was one of his most trusted servants, and who was told to spy upon all methods and customs of the English. Three or four days were passed in feasting, dancing, and trading, in which the old Sachem exhibited so much dignity and discretion that his guests had a high admiration for his talents. His shrewdness was well exhibited when Newport endeavored to barter with him for some corn.

The English Captain had brought with him a number of trinkets, glass beads, and pewter spoons which he expected to trade very easily for corn, and, indeed, the poorer Indians traded very readily with him. But they dealt upon a very small scale as they had not much to spare, so Newport became most anxious to drive a trade with the Emperor, himself, and endeavored to do so.

"Captain Newport," said Powhatan, "it is not agreeable to my greatness to truck and peddle for trifles. I am a great Werowance and I esteem you the same; therefore lay all your trading commodities down together and what I like I will take, and in return you shall receive what I consider to be a fair value therefore."

As Newport could not speak the Indian tongue, this was interpreted to him by Smith, who told him, at the same time, that he must be most careful in trading with the crafty Indian, and should not be too free in his dealings with him. But Newport was a vain fellow and felt that he could easily hold his own with the Emperor and gain any request that he might make, so he placed all of his goods before Powhatan, who coolly selected those which he liked most, and gave him, in return, only a few bushels of corn when he had expected to obtain twenty hogsheads. "At this rate," interposed Captain Smith, "we might have purchased our corn in Old Spain, but now let me see if I cannot traffic with his excellency," and, so saying, he took out various trinkets which he flashed before the eyes of the aged Indian, in the light, so that they shone with an extraordinary lustre.

Powhatan's eyes rested upon a string of blue beads, and he became anxious to obtain them.

"These are such as only Kings and Nobles wear in our country," said Smith, "and of immense value. For a string of beads you must give me three hundred bushels of corn."

"That I cannot do," answered Powhatan, "but so desirous am I of having them that I will give you two hundred bushels."

"For two hundred and fifty bushels you can have them," answered Smith.

And so they haggled, until, in the end, the witty Captain Smith obtained somewhere between two and three hundred bushels of corn for a small and insignificant string of beads. Shortly afterwards the cunning Englishman made a similar trade with Opechancanough at Pamunkey, stating to him that these beads had in them the color of the sky and that they were composed of a most rare substance. This Indian likewise fell before the lure of the Captain's plausible and ready speech, and several hundred bushels of corn were secured for a pound or two of these beads, which now grew into such estimation among the Indians, far and near, that none but the great Werowances and their wives and children dared to be seen wearing them. They were considered to be imperial symbols and of enormous value.

Although tricked in this transaction, Powhatan was bright enough to see that the English possessed a vast advantage over his own men whenever it came to a conflict, for they had swords and muskets, whereas his savage followers only possessed bows, spears, and arrows. He knew that if he obtained possession of these he would be able to place himself upon an equal footing with the Colonists and would also be able to domineer over the less fortunate Indian tribes of Virginia. Consequently when he learned that Captain Newport was to leave for England, he sent him twenty-five turkeys and requested, in return, the favor of an equal number of swords. Newport was sufficiently inconsiderate to furnish them to him, but these were not enough for Powhatan, who, soon afterwards, sent a number of turkeys to Smith. The Captain was keen enough to see through the trick of the old gentleman, and, although he thanked him for his kindness with a courteous note, he sent no swords in return. Powhatan was highly offended at this and told his followers to steal the Englishmen's swords whenever they could—an order which they began to obey with such good effect that Smith ordered every Indian caught stealing to be tied, severely whipped, and kept captive. The Emperor of the Virginia savages now saw that the game was a desperate one and so sent Pocahontas into Jamestown with various presents and kind speeches to excuse himself for the injury done by his disorderly warriors and to request that those who were captives might be liberated. Smith took this under consideration and finally granted the Emperor's request, "for the sake of Pocahontas, his daughter," dispatching the captured warriors back to Powhatan's village, where the Indian counsellors were much offended at what they considered to be the cruelty of the white man, and adjured Powhatan to seek revenge. The Emperor affected to be satisfied and would take no action.

Newport had sailed for England, and in September, 1608, arrived with a second supply for the colony and a paper authorizing him to make an expedition of exploration for gold among the Monocan Indians, who resided in the Blue Ridge. For this a barge was brought out from England which could be separated into five parts and thus carried around the falls of the Potomac, and thence convey the explorers (as was supposed in England) to the South Sea. It had been decided by the London company, in England, to crown Powhatan and present him with a basin and ewer, a bedstead, bedding, and various other costly novelties. Captain Smith offered to carry them to Powhatan at We-ro-woco-moco and to invite him to visit Jamestown, for Newport was anxious to obtain a quantity of corn in order to feed his followers in search for the South Sea.

Starting for We-ro-woco-moco by boat, Smith landed, and, with four companions, went through the woods for about twelve miles, until he arrived at Powhatan's village. He found that the renowned chief was absent, but he soon returned and listened with great gravity to the speech of the subtle Englishman, who not only invited him to come to Newport, but also to join with the whites in a campaign against the Monocans. To this the King of the Powhatans replied:

"If your King has sent me presents, I also am a King and this is my land. Here I will stay eight days to receive these gifts. Your Father must come to me, not I to him, nor yet to your fort. I will not bite at such a treacherous bait. As for the Monocans, I can avenge my own injuries. As for Atquanachuck, where you say your brother was slain, it is a country away from those parts you say it is, and as for salt water behind the mountains, the stories which my people have told you to this effect, are false." Whereupon he began to draw the geography of these regions upon the ground with a stick, and, after further talk, Smith returned to Jamestown and told Newport to bring the presents to We-ro-woco-moco.

The various gifts from King James were therefore sent to the Indian village by water, while the Captain with a guard of fifty men went by boat. The day following the arrival of the whites was agreed upon for the coronation and so the presents were brought ashore, the bed and furniture were set up, and, in spite of his struggles, the scarlet cloak and other apparel was put upon the unwilling Powhatan. He feared, indeed, that it would injure him, but his servant Namontack, who had been to England with Newport, assured him that no harm would come to him, and so he allowed the clothing to be hung upon his body, although he absolutely refused to kneel and receive the crown upon his head. Finally the patience of the Englishmen became exhausted, one leaned upon his shoulder so as to cause him to stoop a little, and three more clung to him and pushed him downward, while one had the crown in his hand. Suddenly it was slapped on his head, a pistol shot rang out, and, in token of the coronation, the soldiers discharged their muskets in salute. Immediately Powhatan leaped upright with an expression of terror and fear upon his countenance, for he believed that an attack was to be made upon him, but, seeing that all was well, he recovered his usual composure, generously gave his old shoes and deerskin mantle to Newport in acknowledgment of appreciation for these presents, and, turning to him, told him that he absolutely refused to lend him any of his men, except Namontack, to go against the Monocans. He was most courteous and civil, and presented Newport with seven or eight bushels of corn ears in recognition of his kindness and politeness.

Little was now heard of Powhatan, but it became evident that he was not on friendly terms with the English, as the neighboring tribes refused to keep up their trade with those at Jamestown, some stating that they had been so advised by the great Emperor.

This naturally made Smith very angry. At one time he contemplated falling upon We-ro-woco-moco by surprise and seizing all of the stores of corn which he would find there, but, feeling that discretion was the better part of valor, he restrained his wild intentions and in December, 1608, accepted an invitation of Powhatan's to visit him. The Emperor had asked him to assist in building a house and requested him to bring a grindstone, fifty swords, a few muskets, a cock and a hen, and a quantity of beads and of copper. Forty-six Colonists accompanied the bold Captain on this expedition, and at the first stopping place, Werrasqueake, the chief Sachem of the place, endeavored to dissuade the Englishmen from continuing the trip. "Powhatan will use you kindly, but he has sent for you only to cut your throat," said he. "Trust him not and give him no opportunity to seize your arms." In spite of this the unhesitating Englishmen kept on, and when at length they arrived at We-ro-woco-moco and asked for provisions, they were promptly supplied with bread, venison and turkeys, while the Emperor stated, with some energy, that he and his people had very little corn, though if the English would present him with forty swords he felt that about forty baskets could be collected. Smith found that Powhatan would take nothing but guns and swords in exchange for provisions and that he valued a basket of corn higher than a basket of copper, and thus became quite angry when he saw how anxious the savage was to secure possession of the arms of the whites. "I will spare you what corn I can," said the Emperor, "and that within two days, but, Captain Smith, I have some doubts as to your object in this visit. I am informed that you wish to conquer more than to trade, and, at all events, you must know that my people must be afraid to come near you with their corn, as long as you are armed with such a retinue. Lay aside your weapons, then. Here they are needless. We are friends. All Powhatans."

"You mistake our intentions," said Smith. "We come not to conquer, but to gain provisions."

"I am old, Captain Smith," answered the great chief, "and I know well the difference between peace and war. I wish to live quietly with you, and I wish the same for my successors. Now the rumors which reach me on all sides make me uneasy. What do you expect to gain by destroying us who provide you with food? And what can you get by war if we escape you and hide our provisions in the woods? We are unarmed, too, you see. Do you believe me such a fool as not to prefer eating good meat, sleeping quietly at home, laughing and making merry with you, having copper and hatchets and anything else, as your friend, to flying from you as your enemy, lying cold in the woods, eating acorns and roots and being so hunted by you meanwhile, that if but a twig break my men will cry out, 'There comes Captain Smith!' Let us be friends then. Do not invade us with such an armed force. Lay aside these arms!"

But Smith refused to accede to this request, for he feared that he was about to be attacked by the followers of Powhatan who were clustered about, and so gave secret orders for hauling his boat ashore through the ice and landing many of his men who were on board. In the endeavor to detain Powhatan, he started a vigorous conversation with the old Sachem. Appreciating Smith's ruse, the witty warrior left two or three of his women to talk with him while he left the house in which they were very hurriedly, with all of his attendants. Captain Smith now found himself completely surrounded by Indians. Fearing an attack, he drew his sword, and, brandishing it about his head, cut his way through the crowd of savages, who, as soon as he fired his pistol, fled in all directions.

In spite of this show of hostility upon the part of Smith, the Indians again flocked around him, while Powhatan sent a large and handsome bracelet by the hand of one of his chief orators, who made a long speech, full of complimentary remarks and excuses for their conduct. The savages also furnished baskets for carrying the corn, and offered to guard the Englishmen's firearms, an offer which was of course declined, as Smith feared they would steal these necessary possessions. As the fall of the tide made it impossible for them to continue their journey that night, the English knew that they must remain where they were. It was true that there was treachery afoot, for Pocahontas soon came to Smith's quarters in the woods and told him that her father Powhatan was collecting all of his men to make an assault upon his force, unless the Indians who would bring in the supper should themselves be able to kill him.

The Captain was consequently on his guard an hour afterwards, when ten, strapping, big fellows came into camp bearing great platters of venison and other victuals. They asked the English to put out the matches of their muskets, for the smoke of them was most annoying. But Smith appreciated their ruse, made them taste every dish that had been brought in, so that if there was any poison inside it would first take hold of those who brought it, and, telling them to inform Powhatan that the English were all prepared for him whenever he wished to start hostilities, he sent them back to the chief of the most powerful tribe in Virginia. There was no attack, so the English sailed away on their journey of exploration, leaving behind them one Englishman to kill game for Powhatan, and two or three Germans to assist him in building a house.

Today, on a high hill near the spot where once stood the town of We-ro-woco-moco, is a stone chimney called "Powhatan's Chimney," and, according to tradition, this is the chimney of the house which the German artisans erected for the great Virginia Sachem.

The English pushed onward in search of corn, for they were sorely in need of it for the colony at Jamestown, and at length came to the lodges of Opechancanough, king of the Pamunkies, and a younger brother of Powhatan. From him Captain Smith secured a certain amount of supplies, only after a severe personal scuffle. Thus, after an absence of six weeks, the Colonists reached Jamestown with a cargo of four hundred seventy-nine bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of deer suet, in exchange for which they had given but twenty-five pounds of copper and fifty pounds of iron and beads.

The Powhatans seemed also to be on fairly good terms with the English and traded with them most amicably until Smith departed for England. Then, realizing that their most intelligent adversary had left, they fell upon the six hundred settlers who remained behind, with such success, that at the end of six months, only sixty men, women, and children were alive at Jamestown. These were almost reduced to starvation and were living on roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts, berries and an occasional fish, when supplied by two ships which arrived at Jamestown early in 1613 with some food-stuffs for the colony. But what they brought was insufficient for the needs of the starving people, and so Captain Argall, who commanded, sailed up the Potomac to trade with the natives for corn. Powhatan was now extremely hostile to the colony; his men had captured and stolen many English arms and had secured a number of white prisoners.

Meanwhile Pocahontas had left her father's home and had gone to reside temporarily with the Potomacs—a friendly tribe which had its hunting ground upon the Potomac River. Contemporary historians differ as to the reason for this; one account being that she had gone there merely upon a visit among friends; another that she had been sent by Powhatan to trade with them; and still another that her father did not like her friendship for the whites and so dispatched her there to get her away from any possible intimacy with them. At any rate when Captain Argall had been informed by friendly Indians that Pocahontas was near by, a plan for making peace with Powhatan immediately suggested itself to his unscrupulous mind. He, therefore, sent for one of the Indian chiefs and told him that if he did not give Pocahontas into his hands they would no longer be "brothers and friends." And when the Potomacs, fearing war with Powhatan, seemed unwilling to do this, Captain Argall assured them that he would take their part if any war should occur.

But how could he secure the Indian maiden, for she appeared to manifest no desire to go on board the vessel? This was indeed a problem, and, after thinking the matter over for some time, he decided that he would make use of a little strategy in order to gain his end. So he offered an old Indian, called Japazaws, the irresistible bribe of a copper kettle, if he would bring Pocahontas to the ship. This was too much for the old Indian to withstand. With the aid of his wife, who begged her husband to allow her to go aboard, he managed to get Pocahontas to visit the anchored vessel, an accomplishment which was effected by appealing to the tender heart of the Indian girl, who was so moved to pity when she saw Japazaws refuse to take his wife aboard unless she had some female with her, that she offered to accompany her to the English ship. The old Indian and his wife were highly pleased at the success of their stratagem; so much so, that all through dinner they kept treading on the toes of Captain Argall and laughing aloud. But after supper the Captain sent Pocahontas to the gun room while he pretended to have a private conversation with Japazaws. He soon recalled the Indian Princess and told her that she must remain with him and that she could not again see her father, Powhatan, until she had effected a peace between his noble sire and the English. Japazaws and his wife immediately set up a great howling and crying, but Pocahontas was exceedingly pensive and downcast. She even shed a few tears as the old people who had betrayed her were rowed to shore, happy, smiling, and holding tightly their copper kettle and other trinkets which the witty Captain had given them.

Soon afterwards the English sent an Indian messenger to Powhatan and informed him that his dear daughter Pocahontas was a prisoner, and that, if he would send home the Englishmen whom he had detained in slavery with such arms and tools as his subjects had stolen, and also a great quantity of corn, then his daughter would be restored to him; otherwise she would be kept and treated with kindness and consideration. Powhatan loved his daughter dearly, but he apparently had still greater love for the English weapons that he possessed, for, although he replied that he would perform the conditions laid down by the English so that he might regain his daughter, he did not do so, and it was a very long time before anything was heard of him.

After three months of silence seven Englishmen were sent to the Governor of Jamestown, three muskets, a broad-axe, a whip-saw, and a canoe full of corn, and, accompanying them was a message to the effect that if Pocahontas were returned, a large quantity of corn would be dispatched to the Colonists. But this did not entirely meet with the approval of Argall.

"Your daughter shall be well used, but we cannot believe that the rest of our arms are either lost or stolen from you, and, therefore, till you send them we will keep Pocahontas with us," said he to the emissaries.

To this answer the sagacious Powhatan did not reply, and it was a long time before anything was again heard of him. Finally, as he remained silent for such a length of time, Sir Thomas Dale, with one hundred and fifty men, embarked in the Colonists' vessels for a visit to the Emperor. Pocahontas was taken along, and when the party sailed up the York River, Powhatan was not to be found, while those followers of his who did appear received them with scornful threats, taunts, and open hostility. The English replied with musket shots, and, after a sharp fight, some of the Indian houses were burned to the ground.

This angered Powhatan greatly, and when they asked why it had been done, the English answered by asking why they had shot at them with their arrows. To this the savage replied that they had meant no harm, that they were the white man's friends, and that the blame lay upon some straggling savage. A peace was, therefore, declared and messengers were sent to Powhatan in the persons of Mrs. John Rolfe and Mrs. Sparks, who were kindly received and hospitably entertained, but were not admitted to the great Sachem's presence. Instead, his brother Opechancanough saw them and promised to do the best that he could to persuade Powhatan to negotiate a treaty, and that "all might be well." This was slight satisfaction indeed, but, as it was now April and time to sow corn, the English were obliged to return to Jamestown.

Pocahontas went with them with great unwillingness and not without tears. For a year she was a prisoner at Jamestown, and, as her feelings had always been warm for the white strangers, they treated her with the greatest friendliness and kindness. She was now about eighteen years of age, with an oval, pleasant, interesting face, large black eyes and straight, black hair. Mr. John Rolfe—a young Colonist of honesty and purpose—took a great interest in her, and, in the endeavor to convert her to Christianity, fell in love with this sweet and simple Indian Princess. Pocahontas adopted Christianity, and, when marriage was suggested by good John Rolfe, readily accepted his proposal. Powhatan, himself, seemed to be well pleased with the match when informed of it, and within ten days of this announcement an old Uncle of Pocahontas and two of her brothers arrived at Jamestown as deputies from Powhatan to witness the marriage of his daughter and to show the amiability of the father. Pocahontas was first baptized, was christened Rebbeca, and, as she was a King's daughter, was known sometimes thereafter as the Lady Rebbeca, sometimes as the Lady Pocahontas. The ceremony took place about April the first, 1618. In the little Colonial Church at Jamestown, with its wide-open windows, the cedar pews, and its plainly hewed pulpit, with a canoe-like front, the copper-hued Princess was united in marriage to John Rolfe, while Colonists and three Indians looked on in solemn but cheerful silence, amid the scent of wild flowers, the trilling of birds, and the soft wind-gusts from the river.

From now on friendly intercourse and trade was re-established with Powhatan and his people. Thus the marriage was of great import to the Colonists, for it relieved them from worry and alarm. And in another way, also, the marriage of this sweet Indian maiden benefitted the colony, for the nearest neighbors of the English—the Chickahominys—were powerful, free from the yoke of Powhatan, and had taken advantage of the feud between the Colonists and the Great Sachem to keep independent of both. Now they began to have doubts of their own liberty, when the English were at peace with Powhatan, so they sent a deputation to Sir Thomas Dale, and concluded a treaty with him, to the effect that they would furnish three hundred men in case of a Spanish attack upon the Colony, bring a tribute of corn at harvest time (for which they were to receive payments in hatchets) and that each of the eight of their chief men, who were to see to the performance of this treaty, should have a red coat and a copper chain with the picture of King James upon it, and be called the King's noblemen.

The marriage of the good Pocahontas to John Rolfe seems to have put an end to aggressive interference with the Colonists on the part of Powhatan. From that moment until his death, a few years later, Indian warfare was at an end, and serious difficulty between the white settlers and the savages did not again break out until the reign of Opechancanough, King of Pamunkies, and Powhatan's successor. The Indian tribes are democracies and he who rules must acquire and sustain his influence by his absolute ability and energy. The head Sachem had to be brave, hardy, patient, indefatigable, and had to show talents for controlling the fortunes and commanding the respect of the community which he governed. Powhatan had every requisite for success, and Opechancanough, who succeeded him, possessed the same characteristics. Numerous sons of the great chief could have stepped into his shoes, had they had sufficient ability to do so.

Powhatan exacted implicit obedience from his subjects, and, as an old writer says, "His will was law and had to be obeyed." His followers esteemed him not only as a king, but as half a God. What he commanded they dare not disobey in the least. At his feet they presented whatever he gave orders for, and, at the least frown of his brow their great spirits trembled for fear. He possessed great tact and diplomacy, and his long and artful conversations with Captain Smith in order to gain time; the promptness with which he refused the proposal to march with the English against the Monocans; and his refusal to listen to the proposal of two German deserters who fled to him from Jamestown with the offer of bringing Captain Smith to him securely bound; shows him to have been a man of no small honesty. To the Germans he replied that, "Men who betrayed their captain would betray their emperor," and forthwith ordered the scoundrels to be dispatched with war clubs.

It is on record that no acts of thieving or aggression against the white settlers at Jamestown were done by the Powhatans, until Smith, driven to use aggression upon his own part because starvation stared him in the face, intimidated the Indians by a show of armed force, and made them give him boatloads of corn by threatening an attack unless they delivered the much-needed provisions. From then on the Indians became more suspicious of the whites, more aggressive, and more troublesome. There is no doubt that the more hot-headed spirits would have openly attacked the settlers on more than one occasion, had not Powhatan's restraining voice held them in check. At the beginning of the settlement at Jamestown the savages could have put an end to every white man in Virginia had they so wished and had Powhatan so ordered. But these Indians met the whites peaceably, gave them, at first, plenty of provisions, and not until they appreciated that the men with "thundering-sticks" (muskets) had come to remain among them and to gradually despoil them of their land, did they show that resentment, vindictiveness, or cruelty, which afterwards characterized their actions toward the settlers. And, as has always occurred, the red men gave way before the all-compelling advance of the whites.

When Sir Thomas Dale, who had been governor of Virginia for five years, left for England, he took with him Pocahontas, John Rolfe—her husband—and Tomocomo, one of Powhatan's chief men, who had been told by the Emperor to count the people of England and give him an exact idea of their strength. The Great Indian Emperor had a strong suspicion, also, that England had no corn or lumber, because great shiploads of both these commodities continually left the James River for the Mother Country, and so Tomocomo was requested to observe whether or no the white men had trees or grain fields. The vessel reached Plymouth on June 12th, 1616, and, on leaving the vessel, Tomocomo prepared a long stick upon which he was to cut a notch whenever he saw a man. He kept this up for a day and then said, "Ugh! Ugh! Too many! Stick not long enough." He also saw that England was not lacking in either lumber or grain fields.

The popular interest in Pocahontas was very great. Persons followed her about for hours, and crowds attended her every appearance. She was presented at Court to King James Ist, and his Queen, and made a most satisfactory impression; for all were charmed by her kindness, simplicity, and sweetness of manner. But the noise, confusion and smoke of London tired the timid Indian girl, so she was moved to Brentford, where Captain John Smith—who had returned to England because of a wound—went to see her very often and talked to her of Virginia, of Powhatan, and of the great sweeping waters of the Chesapeake Bay. It could be easily seen that the kind-hearted Princess was homesick. After the birth of a son, whom they christened Thomas Rolfe, she longed to return to her native land and to once more see her people, her father, and the waving cornfields of the Powhatans, the Potomacs and the Pamunkies. So preparations were made for her journey. She accompanied her husband to Gravesend where a vessel was being fitted for Virginia, but, catching a severe cold, she died on the very eve of her departure, and at the early age of twenty-two. No one showed more sorrow at her unexpected demise than did the gallant Captain Smith whom she had saved, whose followers she had often warned of impending danger, and whose kind intervention in behalf of the starving Colonists had, on many occasions, moved the fierce distrust of Powhatan to compassion and to concessions of the life-sustaining and much needed corn.

One year later, in 1618, her father—the Great Powhatan—also went to "the happy hunting grounds," as the Indian says of those who have departed to another world. Peace reigned in Virginia; his own tribe was on friendly terms with both the neighboring Indians and with the white settlers, who were gradually taking possession of plantations upon the James; his cornfields were being well tilled; and his people were contented and happy. As a warrior he undoubtedly had been of superior mettle in his youth, for without this he could never have arisen to the position which he held. As a counsellor, director, and advisor of the destinies of his people, the fact that he kept them contented, rich, and prosperous, is sufficient tribute to his ability as a great Sachem. His dealings with the English were not treacherous, save where he expected aggression on the part of the whites; and honesty, integrity and intellectuality governed his words and public utterances. For an Indian he was notable, and, had he been brought up in the same civilization and refinement which surrounded the white invaders of his territory, there is no doubt that he would have been as much respected by the first settlers at Jamestown as he was by his own people, who gave full credit to the talents of any man of superior ability. His self-command and chivalrous courtesy were quite worthy of the best of Englishmen, and thus his title to greatness is secure.