  Some of the images may be seen at an enlarged size by clicking on them. Although several typographical errors have been corrected, the variation in the use of Spanish accents has not been altered (ie. both Senor and SeÑor [tilde n] appear.) The Index included at the end of this etext (which includes volumes 1 thru 4) appears at the end of volume four of The History of Cuba. It is provided here for convenience. |
COLOMBUS
The picture of Columbus which has been engraved for this work and which here appears is that known as the Janez portrait, which is generally accepted in Spain as the most faithful presentment of the features of the great Discoverer.
THE
HISTORY OF CUBA
BY
WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON
A.M., L.H.D.
Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of
the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"
Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign
Relations in New York University
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME ONE
NEW YORK
B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, INC.
156 Fifth Avenue
1920
Copyright, 1920,
By CENTURY HISTORY CO.
All rights reserved
Entered at Stationers Hall
LONDON, ENGLAND.
PRINTED IN U. S. A.
———
THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA
CONCEIVED BY
JOSE MARTI
ESTABLISHED BY
THOMAS ESTRADA PALMA
VINDICATED BY
MARIO G. MENOCAL
———
PREFACE
It is my purpose in these volumes to write a History of Cuba. The title may imply either the land and its natural conditions, or the people and the nation which inhabit it. It in fact implies both, and to both I shall address myself, though it will appropriately be with the latter rather than with the former that the narrative will be most concerned. For it is with Cuba as with other countries: In the last supreme analysis the people make the history of the land. Apart from the people, it is true, the Island of Cuba is of unusual interest. There are few countries of similar extent comparable with it in native variety, charm and wealth. There are few which contribute more, actually and potentially, to the world's supplies of greatly used products. One of the most universally used and prized vegetable products became first known to mankind from Cuba, and there to this day is most profusely and most perfectly grown and prepared; while another, one of the most universally used and essential articles of food, is there produced in its greatest abundance. There also may be found an immense number and bewildering variety of the most serviceable articles in both the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, in noteworthy profusion and perfection, together with possibilities and facilities for a comparable development of the animal kingdom.
Nor is the geographical situation of the island less favorable or less inviting than its natural resources. Lying just within the Torrid Zone, it has a climate which combines the fecund influences of the tropics with the agreeable moderation of the Temperate Zones. It fronts at once upon the most frequented ocean of the globe and upon two of the greatest and most important semi-inland seas. It lies directly between the two great continents of the Western Hemisphere, with such supremely fortunate orientation that travel and commerce between them naturally skirt and touch its shores rather than follow the longer and more difficult route by land which is the sole alternative. A line drawn from the heart of the United States to the heart of South America passes through the heart of Cuba. A line drawn from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Amazon traverses Cuba almost from end to end. Circled about the island and fronting on the narrow seas which divide them from it are the territories of no fewer than fourteen independent national sovereignties. It lies, moreover, directly in the path of the world's commerce between the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific, by the way of that gigantic artificial waterway which, created largely because of Cuba, was the fulfilment of the world's four centuries of effort and desire. There is scarcely a more suggestive and romantic theme in the world's history than this: That Columbus made his epochal adventure for the prime purpose of finding a passageway from the Atlantic to the Pacific; or rather from Europe to Asia by way of the Atlantic, since he assumed the Atlantic and the Pacific to be one; that, failing to find that non-existent passageway, he found Cuba instead and imagined that he had found therein the fulfilment of his dreams; that four centuries later that passageway was artificially provided through the enterprise and energy of a power which in his day had not yet come into existence; and that this transcendent deed was accomplished largely because of Cuba and because of the conflict through which that island violently divorced herself from the imperial sovereignty which Columbus had planted upon her shores.
Lying thus in a peculiar sense at the commercial centre of the world, between North America and South America, between Europe and Asia, between all the lands of the Atlantic and all the lands of the Pacific and subject to important approach from all directions, we must reckon it not mere chance but the provision of benevolent design that Cuba at almost all parts of her peculiarly ample coastline is endowed with a greater number of first-rate harbors than any other country of the world. In recognition of these facts and of their gradual development and application to the purposes and processes of civilization, is a theme worthy to pique the interest and to absorb the attention of the most ambitious historian, whether for the mere chronicling of conditions and events, or for the philosophical analysis of causes and results.
All these things, however, fascinating as they are and copious as is their suggestion of interest, are after all only a minor and the less important part of the real History of Cuba, such as I must endeavor to write. Without the Cuban people, Cuba would have remained a negligible factor in the equations of humanity. Without the people of the island, "what to me were sun or clime?" The genial climate, the fecund soil, the wealth of mines and field and forest, the capacious harbors and the encircling seas, all would be vanity of vanities. Nor is it for nothing that I have suggested differentiation between the Cuban People and the Cuban Nation. Without the development of the former into the latter, all these things could never have hoped to reach their greatest value and utility. The Cuban People have existed for four centuries, the Cuban Nation in its consummate sense for less than a single generation. Yet in the latter brief span more progress has been made toward realization of Cuba's possibilities and destinies than in all those former ages. It is a circumstance of peculiar significance that almost the oldest of all civilized communities in the Western Hemisphere should be the youngest of all the nations. It will be a task of no mean magnitude, but of unsurpassed profit and pleasure, to trace the deliberate development of that early colony into this late nation, and to observe the causes and forces which so long repressed and thwarted the sovereign aspirations of the Cuban People, and also, more gratefully, the causes and forces which inevitably, in the slow fullness of time, achieved their ultimate fulfilment in the secure establishment of the Cuban Nation.
The origin of the Cuban People presents a striking historical and ethnological anomaly. The early settlers of the island, and therefore the progenitors of the present Cuban people, were beyond question the flower of the Spanish race at the very time when that race was at the height of its marvellous puissance and efficience. The Sixteenth Century was the Golden Age of Spain, and they were conspicuous representatives of those who made it so who implanted the genius of their time upon the hospitable soil of the great West Indian island. That rule has been, indeed, common to the colonial enterprises of all lands. The best men become the pioneers. Colonization implies adventure, and adventure implies courage, enterprise, endurance, vision, prudence, the very essential elements of both individual and civic greatness. Strong men, not weaklings, are the founders of new settlements. Even in those lands which were largely populated involuntarily, as penal settlements, the same rule holds good; because many of the convict exiles were merely political proscripts, who in fact were men of virtue, light and leading, often superior to those who banished them.
There is fruit for almost endless thought and speculation in the circumstance that so many of the early Cuban settlers, as indeed of all the Spanish explorers and conquerors of the Sixteenth Century, came from the two Iberian Provinces of Estremadura and Seville. They were, and are, two of the most widely contrasting provinces of Spain. The one a rude, rugged, half sterile region of swineherds and mountaineers, poverty-stricken and remote; the other plethoric with the wealth of agriculture, industry and commerce, and endowed above most regions of the world with the treasures of learning and art. Yet it was from barren, impoverished and uncultured Estremadura that there came Cortez, Pizarro, Balboa, De Soto, and their compeers and followers. We might speculate upon the questions whether great men were thus numerously produced by nature in that region by way of compensation for the paucity and poverty of other products; and whether it was because of their innate genius or because of their desire to seek a better land than their own, that they became the adventurers that they were. The other province which most contributed to the founding of Cuba had from time immemorial been noted for its wealth and culture. In the days of the CÆsars it had been the favorite colonial resort of the plutocracy and aristocracy of Rome, and it had been the birthplace of the Emperors Hadrian, Trajan and Theodosius. Under the Catholic Kings it was the capital and the metropolis of Spain and the chief mart of her world-wide commerce. Indeed it would not be difficult to establish the proposition that it was with the removal of the capital from Seville to Madrid, and the change of national and international policy which was inseparably associated with that removal, that the decline of Spain began.
Cuba was thus in her foundation the fortunate recipient of the rugged and masterful spirit of Estremadura, and of the elements of government and of social grace and intellectual power which Seville could so well and so abundantly supply; and these two contrasting yet by no means incompatible elements became characteristic of the Cuban people; complementarily contributing to the development of a national character quite distinct from that of the Mother Country or that of any other of her offshoots. For the Cuban people and their social organism, separated far from Spain, though subject to her rule, retained largely unimpaired their pristine vigor, and avoided sharing in the degeneracy and decline which befell the Peninsula soon after the malign Hapsburg influence became dominant in its affairs of state; a decline which in the Seventeenth Century became one of the most distressing and pathetic tragedies in the drama of the world.
It was an interesting and a significant circumstance, too, that while Spain was resplendent and exultant in the Golden Age of the Sixteenth Century, Cuba remained intellectually dormant and inactive, and that when at the end of the Eighteenth Century Spain reached her nadir of degradation, Cuba began to rise to intellectual puissance. While Spain was great, it was to be said of Cuba stat nominis umbra; but when Spain declined, Cuba arose to take her place, insistent that the race and its letters, at least, should not universally fall into decay.
It is one of the anomalies of Cuban history that while the island was denied the enjoyment of even those incipient and inchoate intimations of potential nationality which were granted to other Spanish provinces, such as Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia and Peru, it was nevertheless, perhaps more than any other, involved from early times in the international complications and conflicts of Spain. At least equally with the mainland coasts Cuba's shores were ravaged by pirates and freebooters, and were attacked or menaced by the commissioned fleets of hostile powers. Her insular character and her geographical position doubtless accounted for this in great degree, as did also the purblind policy of Spain in failing to give her the care and protection which were lavished upon other no more worthy possessions.
So it came to pass that for a time Cuba was actually conquered and seized by an alien power and was forcibly separated from Spanish sovereignty; and that for many years thereafter she was the object of covetous desire and indeed of almost incessant intrigue for acquisition by two of Spain's chief rivals and adversaries. For nearly half a century Great Britain and France were frequently, almost continuously, each planning to annex Cuba as a colonial possession, either by conquest in war or through barter or purchase in time of peace. It was not until a third great power arose and asserted in unmistakable terms its paramount interest in the island, only a little while previous to our own time, that such designs were reluctantly forsaken.
It was the interesting fortune of Cuba, therefore, not only to engage the early and earnest diplomatic interest of the United States in her behalf, but also to afford to that country occasion for the conception, formulation and promulgation of perhaps the most important of all the fundamental principles of its state policy in international affairs. We have suggested, in anticipation of the narrative, that Cuba was largely to be credited with the inception of the impulse for the prompt construction of the Isthmian Canal. In a far more valid and direct sense Cuba suggested the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine. It is true that in relation first to Louisiana and then to Florida there had previously been preliminary hints at and approximations to that Doctrine. But those were territories contiguous with our own and already marked by the United States for eventual annexation and incorporation. Cuba, on the contrary, was entirely detached from our domain, and while there were then those who anticipated and desired her ultimate annexation, there was no such confident and determined resolution to that effect that there was in the case of the other regions named. Cuba was therefore the first detached country, not destined for annexation, to which the United States extended and applied the fundamental principle which was later developed into the Monroe Doctrine. We may not doubt that the Monroe Doctrine would have been put forward, even had it not been for Cuba. We may not deny nor dispute that it was because of Cuba and concerning Cuba that the first specific and indubitable intimation of that doctrine was given.
The development of American policy toward Cuba is an important and interesting part of the history of the United States as well as of Cuba. The progressively significant utterances of the younger Adams, of Clay and of Forsythe, culminating years afterward in those of Cleveland and McKinley, form one of the most consistent, logical and convincing chapters in American diplomatic history. It is marred, we must confess, by some adventitious excrescences, chiefly contributed by Calhoun and Pierre Soule. Yet even these, deplorable as they ever must be regarded, fail to destroy the symmetry of the whole. It is a chapter, indeed, which more than any other is comprehensive and expository of the whole spirit and trend of American international transactions.
Cuba has also been intimately connected with three great issues of American domestic politics, as well as with that supreme principle of her foreign policy. The first of these was that of human slavery. From the end of the second war with Great Britain to the beginning of the Civil War that issue dominated American politics and therefore determined largely the American attitude toward Cuba. The pro-slavery influences, which were generally paramount at Washington, resisted all efforts, which otherwise might have been successful, to draw Cuba into the community of republics freed from Spanish rule in Central and South America, because of unwillingness to have her become, like them, free soil; and subsequently the same influences planned and plotted and fought for Cuban annexation to the United States, either by conquest or by purchase, in order that she might thus be added to the slave-holding domain. On the other hand, the anti-slavery party, because of its abhorrence of these schemes, opposed the manifestation of what would have been a quite legitimate and benevolent interest in Cuban affairs. For forty years Cuba was a pawn in the game between these contending factions. Of course this issue was disposed of by the Civil War and the consequent abolition of slavery in the United States.
Another issue was that of expansion. There was from the first a considerable party in the United States that favored the widest possible acquisition of territory, sometimes quite regardless of the means, and it early fixed upon Cuba as what Jefferson and the younger Adams had declared it to be, the most interesting and most natural addition that could be made to the federal system. There was also a party that was resolutely opposed to any further extension of American territorial sovereignty, whether by conquest or purchase. Sometimes the one and sometimes the other of these prevailed in American politics, and not infrequently Cuba was the chief issue between them. Ultimately it was over Cuba that their greatest conflict was waged; resulting in a compromise, under which the United States on the one hand renounced all designs of annexing Cuba, and on the other hand did annex other still more extensive territories.
The third of these issues was that of the tariff. Commercial relations between Cuba and the United States were naturally intimate and important to both countries, and afforded scope for almost endless discussions concerning and manipulations of tariff duties. It was in the power of the United States to enhance or to depress the prosperity of Cuba, by the adjustment of tariff rates. To admit Cuban sugar, not to mention tobacco, freely or at a low duty, into the American market meant prosperity for the island. To place a high tariff rate upon it meant hard times if not disaster in Cuba. During the period between the Ten Years' War and the War of Independence in Cuba, such tariff changes very seriously affected the economic and also the political condition of Cuba; and the final withdrawal of the reciprocity arrangement which had opened American markets to Cuba was one of the chief provoking causes of the final revolution in the island. That revolution would doubtless have come, in any case, but it was measurably hastened and exacerbated by the economic distress which was thus precipitated upon the island, and against which it was realized there could be no assurance until Cuba was an independent nation with full power to regulate and control her own commerce and her own economic system. Even then, as we shall see, for a time the island was involved in economic distress because of the unwillingness of certain sordid interests in the United States to perform the most obvious and indisputable moral duty of that country toward its neighbor. There are few passages which the friendly historian must more regret to record in the story of Cuban-American relations than that of the delay of the American Congress to enter into proper commercial reciprocity with Cuba as soon as the independence of that island was established.
We shall see in these pages why it was necessary, from the very beginning, for Cuba to be entirely freed and divorced from all political connection with Spain, and why all the various proposals of autonomy were essentially and inevitably unacceptable. Such proposals were repeatedly made, by the Spanish government, but they were invariably either consciously or unconsciously delusive. The story of Spain's promises to Cuba is a story of broken promises, and of disappointed hopes. Nor is that to be wondered at by those who take into consideration the circumstances in which the promises were made. When the impossible is promised, the promise is doomed to non-fulfilment. Spain was in an impossible position. In order to pacify Cuba she had to promise her reforms, autonomy, liberty. But in order to maintain herself at home she had to repudiate those promises. Their fulfilment in the West Indies would have been disastrous in the Iberian Peninsula. While Spain was a reactionary monarchy at home, she could not practice liberal and progressive democracy in her colonies. Even when her monarchy became constitutional, and even during the brief periods of her republican government, the full concession of Cuba's demands would have been incompatible with her domestic status. There was an irreconcilable conflict between the European system—even European republicanism—and the American system. Spain was compelled for the sake of her Peninsular integrity and tranquillity to adhere to the former, while Cuba would be and could be contented with nothing short of the latter. Such were the terms of the problem which arose in the early part of the Nineteenth Century. Its only possible solution was in the complete separation of the two countries, and the complete independence of Cuba.
We must not wonder, however, at the circumstance that this was not universally recognized at first, but that year after year some of the wisest and best of Cuban patriots strove merely for reforms in government under continued and perpetual union with the Spanish crown, and that they even deprecated and opposed all efforts at independence. We must not wonder, even, that so late as the War of Independence some of the foremost Cuban statesmen, who yielded precedence to none in purity of purpose and in sincere devotion to what they regarded as the best interests of the island, were willing and even proud to be known as Autonomists and to essay the impossible task of trying to make an Autonomist government successful. The Cubans of to-day, with vision cleared of the red glare of war and of the mists of misapprehension, doubtless understand what the conditions were at that time and appreciate the motives, however mistaken they proved to me, of the Autonomists. American readers, with less vision and comprehension of Cuban affairs, should equally understand the matter when they are reminded that the Cuban Autonomists were merely following the example of some of the men whom Americans most delight to honor.
For precisely the same conditions prevailed, only to a much wider extent, in the Thirteen Colonies at the beginning of the American Revolution, when Washington and Franklin and Jefferson and Jay were American Autonomists, inexorably opposed to independence. Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill were fought not for independence but for autonomy under the British Crown and in perpetual union with the British Empire. When the First Continental Congress met in the spring of 1774 there was no word, at least, of independence. On the contrary, according to some of the very foremost members of that historic body, the idea of independence, at least in the Middle and Southern colonies, was "as unpopular as the Stamp Act itself." Not only did that Congress complete its course without saying a word for independence, but it adopted an address to the people of Great Britain declaring that the reports which had got abroad that the Colonies wanted independence were "mere calumnies," and that nothing was desired but equality of rights with their fellow subjects in the British Isles. The Second Colonial Congress met after Lexington and Concord and just before Bunker Hill. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were members of it. But they spoke no word for independence. Instead, Jefferson drafted a declaration, which Congress adopted, to the effect that the Colonies had "not raised armies with designs of separating from Great Britain and establishing independent states"; and in other addresses which the same Congress adopted after the battle of Bunker Hill it was explicitly stated that the Colonists were loyal to the British Crown, that they wished for lasting union with Great Britain, and that they had taken up arms not to find liberty outside of the British Empire but to vindicate and defend liberty within that Empire. After the adjournment of that Congress in August, 1775, less than a year before the Declaration of Independence, so representative a man and so ardent a patriot as John Jay publicly denounced the imputation that the Congress had "aimed at independence" as "ungenerous and groundless," and as marked with "malice and falsity." Not until the spring of 1776 was there any significant turning toward independence as the inevitable resort.
If I have thus dwelt at length upon well-known facts which pertain to the history of the United States rather than to that of Cuba, it is in order to remind American readers, on the strength of a precedent which they, at any rate, must regard with the highest respect, how reasonable it was for Cubans even as late as in 1897 and 1898 to cling to a policy and a hope substantially identical with those which were cherished by the foremost representative American patriots in 1774 and 1775. We can see now, they themselves can see now, that they were in error and that their hopes were vain. But they were no more in error than were the immortal American Autonomists of the beginning of the American Revolution.
Similarly it was necessary that Cuba should not only be entirely separated from Spain but also should be made independent, and not be annexed to the United States. On that point, too, many good men were in error. As we shall see, the first important Cuban revolutionist—although not himself a native Cuban—had in view not independence but annexation to the United States, and so did many another sterling patriot after him. Probably the general feeling was that the one thing supremely essential was to be sundered from Spain, and since annexation to the United States seemed to promise the effecting of that most promptly, most easily and most surely, it was to be accepted as the best solution of the problem. Of course, too, the annexation sentiment in Cuba was greatly encouraged and promoted by the advocates of annexation in the United States, who were numerous, and aggressive, and actuated by a variety of motives.
For three fundamental reasons, however, annexation would have been a deplorable mistake, for both parties. One was, that the Cuban people at heart wanted independence and would permanently have been satisfied with nothing less. Every other Spanish colony in the Western Hemisphere had attained independent sovereignty, and it would have been a reproach to Cuba to have been satisfied with any less status than theirs. The second reason was that Cuba and the United States were incompatible in temperament, and could not have got on well together. That is to be said without the slightest reflection upon either. The two countries were of different racial stocks, different languages, different traditions, different civic ideals. It was and is possible for them to be the best of friends and neighbors, but that is quite different from being yoke-fellows.
The third reason was, that Cuba would not have thought of annexation without Statehood in the Federal Union, to which the United States would not or at any rate should not have admitted her. Nor is that any reflection upon Cuba. The principle was established by governmental utterances, nearly half a century before Cuban independence was achieved, and indeed before any important efforts were made by the United States to purchase Cuba, that outlying territories not contiguous with the continental Union of States, were not to be considered as fitting candidates for statehood. Had Cuba been acquired by the United States at any time it is certain that her admission as a State would have been vigorously opposed on that historic ground. The sequel would have been either that Cuba would have been excluded from the Union, to her entire and intense dissatisfaction, or the United States would have abandoned a highly desirable policy and would have established a precedent under which grave abuses might thereafter have occurred.
The redemption of Cuba from Spanish rule was long delayed, for a number of reasons. One was, obviously, the difficulty of achieving it alone. The South and Central American provinces had revolted simultaneously, or in rapid succession, so that each was of assistance to the others. But at that time Cuba remained faithful to Spain; and when years afterward she sought to follow the example of the others, she found that she had to do so single-handed against the undivided might of the Peninsula. Another very potent reason was, the strength of the pro-Spanish sentiment and influence in the island, caused by the flocking thither of many Spanish loyalists from the Central and South American states and from Santo Domingo. Here, too, American readers may interpret Cuban conditions through reference to their own history. At the close of the American Revolution multitudes of British Loyalists left the United States and settled in Upper Canada, with the result that that Province of Ontario became proverbially "more British than Great Britain." We shall see in our narrative how strong the Spanish loyalist party in Cuba was, and to what extremes it went in its opposition to Cuban independence. In that we may perceive simply a repetition of conditions which prevailed at the close of the American War of Independence. It is probable, too, that the insular position of Cuba, with her coastal waters controlled by the Spanish fleet, and her central position, making her an object of intense international interest and intrigue, also contributed to the same end. Of course, too, since Cuba and Porto Rico were her last remaining possessions in the Western World, Spain made extraordinary efforts to retain them and to prevent the success of any revolutionary movement.
One other influence must be noted, that of the United States. If at any time the counsels of that country had been harmonious and united, they would have had a powerful, perhaps a preponderating, effect upon Cuban affairs. But as we have intimated, and as we shall more fully see in our narrative, they were strongly, often violently, divided. Some were for intervention, some were for non-intervention; some were for making Cuba a free country, some were for preserving it as a slaveholding land; some were for aiding it to become independent, some were for annexing it to the United States. There was no unity of policy, and therefore there was no assurance as to what the United States would do in any given emergency. Cubans did not know what they could depend upon. If they revolted, America might help them, and she might not. There can be no question that this uncertainty was a potent factor in restraining Cubans from radical action, and that it materially postponed the final crisis.
We shall see that more and more, however, the United States was forced by the logic of irresistible events into adopting a united and consistent policy toward Cuba, and that in the ultimate crisis that country was inextricably implicated with the Cuban cause. This was indeed a logical development. In each successive Cuban revolution, beginning with that of Lopez, the United States had been increasingly interested. Commercial and social relations between the two countries were strong and intimate. For nearly three quarters of a century the United States had maintained a quasi-protectorate over the island in behalf of Spain for the time being, but—though unconsciously—in behalf of Cuba itself for the greater time to come. The welfare of the United States had become involved in the disposition of the island in only a less degree than that of the Cuban people.
There can be no doubt that the United States was of very great service and assistance to the Cuban patriots in the War of Independence. Nobody has testified to that fact more earnestly or more comprehensively than the Cubans themselves. They realized it. They appreciated it. They were and are profoundly grateful for it. Their testimony to it is ample for all time. America is relieved of the need of vaunting herself upon it. It would, however, be of a great error and a great injustice to assume that the intervention of the United States in April, 1898, was indispensable to the achievement of Cuban independence, or indeed that it was the United States that set Cuba free from Spain. That would be as great a perversion of the truth of history as it would be to pretend that the United States went to war with Spain over the sinking of the Maine. For the United States to have done the latter would have been one of the monumental crimes of history; and of course it was not done. War was inevitable before the Maine went to Havana Harbor, and would have come just the same if the Maine had not gone thither; perhaps sooner than it did, perhaps not so soon. So Cuban independence would have been won by the Cubans themselves if the United States had not intervened. Possibly it would have come sooner than it did; probably it would not have come so soon. But it would have come. Nobody who has studied the condition of affairs as they then were in Cuba can reasonably doubt it. Nor should recognition of that fact lessen in any degree the propriety—indeed, the necessity—of the American intervention or the grateful appreciation thereof which Cubans feel.
To draw once more upon American history for an example which should convincingly appeal to Americans, the case may be likened to the intervention of France in the American Revolution. There is no American who does not remember that performance with sincere gratitude and with deep appreciation of the undoubtedly great aid which France rendered to the Thirteen Colonies. But I should doubt if there is a well informed American willing to concede that the French aid was indispensable, or that without it Washington and Greene would have been vanquished and the Revolution would have failed. American independence would have been achieved without French aid, though perhaps not so promptly and at greater cost.
An immense service, also, which the United States rendered Cuba in the War of Independence antedated the actual intervention, and consisted in the aid in men, money and supplies which went from the United States to Cuba. It is true that this aid was given largely by Cubans resident in the United States, though many Americans also gave much in money, and some were permitted by the Cubans to give themselves for service in the army. It is also true that much of it was done in surreptitious violation of the neutrality laws; a species of law-breaking at which many United States officials were inclined to wink, and which by common consent was to be regarded as culpable only when it was found out, and then the finding out was more to be regretted than the act itself was to be condemned! Such is the "unwritten law" of international relations in cases in which the technical requirements of the law run counter to generous and righteous human sympathies.
While, therefore, we must believe that even without American intervention in the actual war the Cubans would have won their independence, we may doubt whether such would have been the case if the United States had not all along been dose at hand, a resourceful and hospitable country, in which Cuban political exiles could find secure asylum, in which a Cuban Junta could plan revolution, in which funds to aid the patriot cause could be raised, and which, in brief, could partly in secret and partly in the open be used as a base of supplies and operations. It is to such aid that Cuba owes more than she does to the achievements of the American army and navy in 1898, admirable and useful as they were.
Comparably great, as we shall most notably see in the ensuing chapters, were the services of the United States to Cuba after the War of Independence. These were manifold. The first was diplomatic, in serving as an intermediary between Cuba and Spain, in making the treaty of peace, and in securing the Spanish withdrawal from the island. There is no doubt that all those things were done more smoothly, more satisfactorily and more expeditiously than they could have been had they been left to direct settlement between Cuba and Spain. The services of the United States during the last part of 1898 were more indispensable than those of the spring and summer of that year. Indeed, it might perhaps be claimed that the chief advantage in having the United States intervene was that it enabled her to play that important part in the making of peace and the post-bellum readjustment.
The second great service rendered by the United States was the rehabilitation of the island. This was a manifold undertaking. It comprised rehabilitation after many years of Spanish misrule and neglect, and rehabilitation after the ravages of three years of peculiarly destructive war. The civic maladies to be cured were thus both chronic and acute. Moreover, the work was political, and sanitary, and educational, and economic. Order was to be restored, law was to be administered, government was to be organized, pestilence was to be abated, schools were to be created, the whole work of civilization was to be performed. Splendid as was the work of Sampson's fleet at Santiago, still more beneficent was that of General Wood within the precincts of that city and throughout the Province of Oriente. Nobly memorable was the work of Shafter's army, but we shall read history to little avail if we do not give higher credit to the work of the Military Governor and his lieutenants.
A third service was in acting as guide, philosopher and friend in the great task of organizing and installing the native Cuban government which had been promised by the United States in the act of declaring war against Spain. That self-abnegatory pledge was a noble thing, and noble was the faithful fulfilment of it. I have heard of an eminent and enlightened Cuban who regarded that pledge with incredulity, saying, "It can never be fulfilled!" and who persisted in that incredulity until that memorable noonday when the American flag came down from the Palace and the Morro and the flag of Cuba Libre rose in its place; and then, with tear-suffused eyes, exclaimed, "It can't be; but it is!" Never before in the history of the world had such a thing been done, but it was done and it was well done.
There followed a fourth service, which we may hope has now been definitely completed, but which in the very nature of the case is a potentially recurrent service, which may—absit omen!—be needed again and again; and which the United States may be trusted to perform, if necessary, as faithfully and generously and efficiently as it has already performed it. For we shall see that after the Cuban government had been established and had vindicated its existence by great good service to the island, sordid and treacherous men unlawfully conspired against it and sought to overthrow it by violence and crime. Their success would have meant ruin for the island. Their partial success—for such they had—meant immeasurable loss. But fortunately the United States intervened as readily against Cuban crime as it had against Spanish oppression, and the republic was saved, though "as through fire."
It is this service, following the others which I have named, which differentiates the Cuban Republic from most of the other states which have been formed from the Spanish Empire in America. Of the two states which at one time planned to wrest Cuba from Spain by force and make her a part of their community of nations, Colombia was for half a century in a chronic condition of revolution, and Mexico through the same evil processes has given the word Mexicanize to the political vocabulary. It was the intention of the United States that Cuba should not fall into that category; but it is by no means certain that she would not have done so had it not been for the guardianship of that country.
Our history will disclose more than all these things. These are the records of achievement. But there are other records, even those of conditions as they exist, and as they have been made to exist by virtue of these achievements. Marvellous indeed shall we find them. The story of Cuba's development from a neglected and oppressed colony to an independent nation is stirring and impressive, adorned with the names and deeds of brave men. The story of her development in civilization, from a backward rank to the foremost, is no less impressive, and it is adorned with the names and the labors of wise men, statesmen and scholars, who gave of their best for the welfare of the insular republic for which so many of their kin gave willingly their very lives.
The account which we shall have of the opulent charms and resources of Cuba may be regarded as a volume of contemporary history. It will reveal to us some of the consequences of that narrative of the past which forms the major portion of our story. But it will be more and will do more than that. It must serve as an intimation, a suggestion, almost perhaps a prophecy, of what the future of the Pearl of the Antilles will be. Grateful as is the work of recalling and rehearsing the story of the past, from the days of Columbus and Velasquez to the present, the historian finds it more pleasant and more welcome to dwell upon the present scene. If these volumes, laboriously produced and with a consciousness too often of falling short of the high merits of the theme, shall serve their intended purpose of introducing Cuba, past and present, more fully and most favorably to the knowledge of the world, I shall be more than abundantly repaid. But the supreme and most enduring satisfaction will come from some assurance that I have brought to the appreciative attention of the world not merely the Cuba of four centuries past, with all its legends of adventure and romance, and too often of cruelty and crime, and with its fluctuating though still persistent progress toward the "foremost files of time," but also and still more the Cuba of this present moment and, we may hope, of unmeasured future time. It is a Cuba that is beautiful for situation, opulent in resources, entrancing in charm, illimitable in potentialities; a land of "fair women and brave men," upon which recollection fondly dwells; a land which justifies the latest writer concerning it to repeat once more the estimate of the first who ever wrote of it—"the most beautiful that the eyes of man have ever seen."
Willis Fletcher Johnson.
New York, U. S. A., June, 1919.
CONTENTS
| PAGE | |
| Chapter I | 1 |
| "In Cuba the Annals of America Begin"—The First Landing Place of Columbus—Theories Concerning Various Islands—His Expectation of Reaching the Coast of Asia—Cuba Supposed to be Cathay—The Physical History of Cuba—Character of the Aboriginal Inhabitants—A Race of Amiable Savages Without Enduring Monuments. | |
| Chapter II | 11 |
| Discovery of Cuba on Sunday, October 28, 1492—The First Landing Place on the Island—Named for the Heir of the Spanish Throne—Appreciation of the Beauty and Charm of the Island—First Contact with its Inhabitants—Exploration of the Northern Coast—Cuba Supposed to be the Country of the Great Khan—Further Explorations of the Coast—Departure for Hispaniola—Second Visit to Cuba—Exploration of the Southern Coast—Discovery of Jamaica—Navigating the Caribbean Sea—Some Inland Excursions—Experiences with the Natives—Reaching the Western End of the Island—Exhortation of a Native Sage—Columbus's Final Departure from Cuba. | |
| Chapter III | 28 |
| First Impressions of Cuba—Columbus's Observations of the People and Resources of the Island—Native Villages and Boats—Negotiations with the Natives—First Use of Tobacco by Europeans—Columbus's Meagre Knowledge of the Island—His Death and Burial in Hispaniola—Removal of His Remains to Havana—Disputes Concerning His Tomb—Final Return of His Remains to Spain. | |
| Chapter IV | 37 |
| Archeology of Cuba—The Oldest Rock Formation—Theory of Cuban Continuity with Florida—The Eocene Age—Submersion in the Oligocene Period—Miocene Uplift—Changes During the Pleistocene Period—Topography of the Island—The Mountain Ranges—The Mountains of Oriente—The Organ Mountains and Magotes—The Valley of the Vinales—Plains and Valleys—Composition of the Soil—The Climate of Cuba—Fortunate Situation of the Island—The Rainfall of a Land of Sunshine. | |
| Chapter V | 53 |
| Neglect of Cuba by Spanish Explorers and Conquerors—Rule of Ovando—Ocampo Discovers Cuba to be an Island—First Attempts at Colonization—Enciso's Story of Ojeda's Adventure—A Test Between Christianity and Paganism—The Lust of Gold—Diego and Bartholomew Columbus—Diego Velasquez Appointed Governor—His First Settlement at Baracoa—The War with Hatuey—Narvaez and His Horsemen—Las Casas the "Apostle to the Indies"—More Trouble with the Natives—Exploration of the Island Throughout its Length. | |
| Chapter VI | 68 |
| Marriage and Bereavement of Velasquez—Other Settlements Founded in Cuba—Santiago Made the First Capital—System of Government—Apportionment of the Natives to the Settlers—Appropriation of the Land—Evils of the Repartimiento System—The Statesmanship of Velasquez—Enslavement of the Natives—Famous Men in Cuba's Early History—Gold Mines and Fertile Plantations—Beginning of the Mission of Las Casas—Death of King Ferdinand and Accession of Charles I—Cardinal Ximenes—The Order of St. Jerome—The Fate of the Natives. | |
| Chapter VII | 81 |
| Gold Mining in Cuba—Political Organization of the Island—Relations with the Spanish Crown—Development of the Slave Trade—Expeditions to Yucatan—Exploration of the Mexican Coast—Failure of Grijalva's Expedition—The Expedition of Christopher de Olid—Unmerited Fate of Grijalva, the Discoverer and First Explorer of Mexico. | |
| Chapter VIII | 90 |
| Hernando Cortez Commissioned by Velasquez to Explore Mexico—Some Romantic Adventures—Why Cortez went to Cuba—His Relations with Velasquez—A Crisis in Spain's American Affairs—Appointment of Velasquez as Adelantado—Departure of Cortez—His Refusal to Return when Summoned by Velasquez—Arrival in Mexico—Appointment of Cortez as Royal Governor of New Spain—Preparations by Velasquez to Subdue Cortez—Disastrous Fate of Narvaez's Expedition—Conspiracy to Assassinate Cortez—Velasquez Removed from the Governorship of Cuba—Zuazo, the Second Governor—Vindication of Velasquez and Repudiation of Zuazo—Character and Work of First Cuban Governor. | |
| Chapter IX | 105 |
| Administration of Manuel de Rojas—The Rise of Cuba's Proper Interests—Development of Resources—Appointment of Altamarino—Post Mortem Investigation of Velasquez—Violent Opposition to Altamarino—Removal of a Discredited Governor—Accession of Guzman—Controversies over Local Government—Injudicious Course of Guzman—Protest Against the Tyranny of the Councils—"Cuba for the Cubans." | |
| Chapter X | 115 |
| Controversies Over the Treasurership—Appointment of Hurtado, the Honest but Cantankerous—Fortunes of the Guzman Family—A Marriage for Money and its Consequences—Services of Vadillo—Investigations and Reforms—Heavy Sentences Against Guzman—An Appeal to the Council for the Indies—Manuel de Rojas again Governor. | |
| Chapter XI | 122 |
| Development of the Church Establishment in Cuba—The First Bishop—Early Conflict Between Church and State—Transfer of the Cathedral from Baracoa to Santiago—A Bishop in Politics—The Governor Excommunicated—Insurrections and Raids of the Natives—Effective Work of Rojas against the Cimarrones—Disposal of the "Tame" Indians—Further Conflicts of Church and State—Intervention of the Crown—Practical Extermination of the Natives—Reforms that Were not Made—Well Meant Efforts of Rojas—Failure of Attempts to Civilize the Natives—A Good Governor Ill Treated—His Resignation and Departure. | |
| Chapter XII | 137 |
| Guzman's Second Administration—A Masterful Politician—Decline of Cuban Welfare—An Interregnum in the Governorship—The Coming of De Soto—His Imposing Arrival at Santiago—Progress Across the Island—Vasco Porcallo de Figueroa Made De Soto's Lieutenant—Cuba a Stepping Stone to Florida—De Soto's Removal from Santiago to Havana—Organization of the Florida Expedition—Report of the First Scouts—Departure of De Soto—Lady De Soto's Faithful Watch—Tragic Fate of the Explorer—Evil Effects upon Cuba—Serious Trouble with the Indians—Intrigues of Guzman and Bishop Sarmiento. | |
| Chapter XIII | 151 |
| Governorship of Juan de Avila—Royal Order against Slavery in the Mines—An Appeal to the Council for the Indies—Popular Revolt Against the Council—De Avila's Marriage to a Rich Widow—Removal to Havana—Appointment of Antonio Chaves—Scandalous Charges Against de Avila—The Matter Carried to Spain for Settlement—Another Bad Administration—Chaves Reprimanded by the King—His Persistence in Slavery—Hurtado's Indictment of Chaves—Gonzalo de Angulo Made Governor—Trial and Punishment of Chaves—Emancipation Proclamation. | |
| Chapter XIV | 165 |
| A Bad Time in Cuban History—Santiago in 1550—Raid of a French Privateer—The Founding and Rise of Havana—The Founding of Puerto Principe—Baracoa, Trinidad and Other Settlements—Italians and Other Aliens in Cuba—Efforts to Populate the Island—Importation of Negro Slaves—Slaves Treated Humanely—Disappearance of the Native Indians—The Early Industries of Cuba—Discovery of the Copper Mines of El Cobre—Beginning of the Sugar Industry—Fiscal Policy of the Spanish Government. | |
| Chapter XV | 177 |
| A Turning Point in Cuban History—International Interest in the Island—Raids of French Privateers—A Famous Fight in Santiago Harbor—The Capture and Looting of Havana—First Building of La Fuerza—Rise of Havana in Importance—The Governor's Residence in Havana—Deposition of Angulo—Guarding Havana Against French Attack—Inadequacy of the Defenses—Seizure of the City by Jacques Sores—Flight of the Governor and Resolute Defense of Lobera—Attempt to Destroy the French Conquerors—Destruction of the City. | |
| Chapter XVI | 191 |
| Administration of Mazariegos—His Disastrous Voyage—Rebuilding of Havana—Manners and Morals of a Soldier of Fortune—Defense of Havana by a Military Governor—Improvement of the Fortifications—Rebuilding La Fuerza—The Founding of Morro Castle—Complications in Florida—Osorio Appointed Governor—His Care for the Defenses of the Island—The Campaigns of Pedro Menendez—Conflict Between Osorio and Menendez—Attempts at Mutiny—Disagreement over Fortifications—Illegitimate Trade at Santiago—Menendez Appointed Governor—A Succession of Lieutenants—Charting the Bahama Channel—Codifying Municipal Ordinances. | |
| Chapter XVII | 208 |
| Approach of the "Sea Beggars"—More Work on La Fuerza—Seeking Financial Aid from Mexico—A Requisition for Slave Labor—Investigating Public Accounts—The Downfall of Menendez—Investigation of His Accounts—Succeeded by Montalvo—Increase of Smuggling—General Progress of the Island—Havana the Commercial Metropolis. | |
| Chapter XVIII | 217 |
| Governorship of Montalvo—Rehabilitation of Santiago—Disorder at Havana—Conflict with the Rojas Family—Charges Made Against the Governor—The Increase of Smuggling—Ravages of the French—Seeking Naval Defenses for Cuba—Haggling Over the Building of La Fuerza—A Badly Built Fort—Montalvo's Development of Insular Resources—Promotion of Sugar Growing and General Agriculture—The Governor's Quarrel with the Bishop. | |
| Chapter XIX | 228 |
| Administration of Francisco CarreÑo—The First Cuban Governor to Die in Office—A Record of Hard Work and Progress—The Problem of Free Negroes—Features of the Slave System—Some Literally Constructive Statesmanship—The First Custom House—Trying to Deal with the Land Question—The Reforms Proposed by Caceres—Development of Stock Raising—Bad Administration of Torres. | |
| Chapter XX | 236 |
| Administration of Gabriel de Luzan—Controversies Among Officials—The Quarrel Between Luzan and Arana—Questions of Official Residence—Removal of the Royal Accountant—Charges Against the Governor—Further Efforts to Complete La Fuerza—The Work of QuiÑones—Unseemly Personal and Political Feuds—Investigation of the Governor's Administration—Renewal of the Quarrel with QuiÑones—Governor and Captain-General Brought into Accord Through Peril of an Attack by the British—Desperate Preparations for Defense. | |
| Chapter XXI | 246 |
| War Between Spain and England—Drake's Conquest of Hispaniola—An Attack upon Cuba Anticipated—Raising Forces for Defense—Feuds Forgotten in the Common Emergency—Plans for the Defense of Havana—Increase of the Garrison—Admirable Unity of the People—Drake's Approach to Cuba—His Landing at the Western End of the Island—Appearance of his Fleet off Havana—Departure of Drake's Fleet without an Assault—His Doings at St. Augustine and in the North—Reasons for Not Attacking Havana—Disaster to Santiago—That City Destroyed by the French—Rebuilt by an Energetic Patriot—Interest in Copper Mining. | |
| Chapter XXII | 260 |
| Drake's Menace a Blessing to Cuba—Spanish Interest in Cuba for Its Own Sake—The Governorship of Tejada—The Public Works of Antonelli—Building Roads, Dams and Aqueducts—Havana Made a Real City—Controversy with Bishop Salcedo—Appreciation of Tejada's Services—Accession of Barrionuevo—Progress of Civilization in Cuba—The First Theatrical Performance. | |
| Chapter XXIII | 267 |
| Changes in European Nations—Rise of the Protectionist Policy—Retaliation by Smugglers—Hostilities against Spain—Prevalence of Piracy—Some Strong Governors of Cuba—Good Works of Maldonado and Valdes—Invasions by Pirates—Division of the Island—Interest in Religious Affairs—Successive Governors Working at Cross Purposes—Building a Fleet—Protection of the Port of Havana—An Attack by the Dutch—The Exploits of Oquendo—The Slave Market in Havana—Fall of Cabrera. | |
| Chapter XXIV | 283 |
| The Decline of Spain—Enterprise and Aggressions of the Dutch—The Dutch West India' Company—Governors Who Saved Cuba for Spain—Warring with Dutch Privateers—The Great Fight with Pie de Palo—Fiscal Reforms in Cuba—Gamboa's Improvement of Fortifications—Sarmiento's Organization of Cuban Troops—Ravages of a Great Pestilence—Noble Deeds of the Religious Orders—Public Works Planned—The Walls of Havana—Aggressions of the British—Conquest of Jamaica—Records of Piracy—Exploits of Lolonois—Henry Morgan—British Capture and Plundering of Santiago—Repairing the Fortifications—A Compact against Piracy. | |
| Chapter XXV | 304 |
| British Designs against Spanish Possessions—Covetous Eyes Turned upon Cuba by British Empire-Builders—Isolation of Cuba from Spain—France Playing False—Cuban Reprisals—Further Attacks by Freebooters—Controversy over British Prisoners—Disastrous Earthquakes—Ecclesiastical Troubles—Spain at the Brink of Bankruptcy—Cordova's Administration—Revised Code of Laws for the Indies—Civil and Ecclesiastical Controversies—Some Ruthless Work—Founding of the City of Matanzas—Official Disputes and Scandals. | |
| Chapter XXVI | 325 |
| The War of the Austrian Succession—The Treaty of Utrecht—Reign of Philip V—Renewed Conflicts in the West Indies—Settlement of Pensacola—Aggressions of the French—Cuban Interests Affected by European Affairs—Increased Protection of the Island—Two Local Governors—Attacks upon Charleston—Raids of British Warships—Speculation in Tobacco—More Fortifications in a Time of Peace—Churches and Convents—Sanitary Measures—Official Quarrels—Reorganization of the Tobacco Industry—Seeking Administrative Stability—A Tobacco Insurrection—A Warning to the British—Fortifications of Havana. | |
| Chapter XXVII | 345 |
| Great Impetus Given to Discovery and Exploration Throughout the World—Interesting Observations upon Cuba and the Indies—Some Quaint Records—A Description of the Natives of Cuba—Something About the Natural Resources of the Island from Ancient Authorities—Spanish and Alien Descriptions of Cuba—Early Writings About Cuba in Various Languages—Fra Vincente Fonseca—A Dutch Description of Cuba—Attention Given to the Wealth of Cuban Forests—Reasons Given for the Rise and Subsequent Decline of Spanish Power—Some Superstitions and Legends. | |
| Chapter XXVIII | 360 |
| Cuba Neglected During an Era of Great Achievements—The Golden Age of Spain—Culture at Home and Conquest Abroad—A Noteworthy Group of Spanish Historians—The University of Santo Domingo—The First American Books—Cuba's Lack of Participation in these Activities, and the Reasons for it—A Turning Point in Cuban History at the End of the Sixteenth Century—Cubans Beginning to Become Cubans and Not Spaniards—A Significant Change in the Temper and Character of the People of the Island. |
ILLUSTRATIONS
| FULL PAGE PLATES: | |
| Columbus (Janez Portrait) | Frontispiece |
| FACING PAGE | |
| The Havana Cathedral | 36 |
| La Fuerza | 146 |
| Morro Castle, Havana | 180 |
| San Francisco Church | 226 |
| Morro Castle, Santiago | 298 |
| TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS: | |
| PAGE | |
| Monument on Supposed First Tending Place of Columbus, Watling's Island | 3 |
| Queen Isabella | 13 |
| Diego Velasquez | 59 |
| Baracoa, First Capital of Cuba | 60 |
| Panfilo de Narvaez | 63 |
| Bartholomew de las Casas | 64 |
| Ponce de Leon | 72 |
| Hernando Cortez | 90 |
| Hernando de Soto | 140 |
| San Lazaro Watch Tower, Havana | 155 |
| Pedro Menendez de Aviles | 199 |