Llewellynn Frederick William Jewitt

Ancient British or Celtic Period—Sepulchral Chambers of stone—Cromlechs—Chambered Tumuli—New Grange and Dowth—The Channel Islands—Wieland Smith’s Cave, and others—Stone Circles—For what purpose formed—Formation of Grave-mounds—Varieties of Stone Circles—Examples of different kinds—Arbor Low, etc.

One of the most important classes of barrows is that which contains sepulchral chambers of stone; not the simple cists which have been spoken of in the preceding chapter, but of a larger, more complicated, or colossal character. Mounds of this description exist, to more or less extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound itself, i.e., the earth or loose stones of which the superincumbent mound was composed, has been removed, and the gigantic sepulchral chamber alone left standing. In many instances the mounds have been removed for the sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for the purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have doubtless been removed in the hope of finding treasure beneath; it being a common belief that immense stores of gold—in one instance the popular belief was that a “coach of gold” was buried beneath—were there for digging for. Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal megalithic structures allowed to remain, they have an imposing and solemn appearance, and seem almost to excuse the play of imagination indulged in by our early antiquaries in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to them a false interest by making them out to be “Druids’ altars”—altars on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These same authorities have, indeed, gone so far in their inventions as to affirm, that when the capstone was lower on one side than another, as must necessarily frequently be the case, it was so constructed that the blood of the victims might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests; that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were scooped out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood for the highest purposes; and that when the cromlech was a double one, the larger was used for the sacrifice, and the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself whilst sacrificing.

Researches which have been made in recent times show the absurdity of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the cromlechs are neither more nor less than sepulchral chambers denuded of their mounds. In several instances they have been found intact, and, these mounds being excavated, have been brought to light in a perfect state. These instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in other districts of England, as well as in the Channel Islands and elsewhere. One instance is that of the Lanyon cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that some seventy years ago “the farmer” to whom the ground belonged cast a longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of rich mould, and he resolved to cart it away and spread it over his fields. Accordingly he commenced operations, his men day after day digging away at the mound, and carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hundred cart loads or so had been removed the men came to a large stone, which defied their efforts at removal, and, not knowing what it might be, or what it might lead to, they went on removing the surrounding earth, and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic cromlech which is now one of the prides of Cornwall. This highly interesting chamber contained a heap of broken urns and human bones. This “Lanyon cromlech,” a view of which is given on fig. 37, consists now of three immense upright stones, on which rests an enormous capstone, measuring about eighteen and a half feet in length and about nine feet in width, and is computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such stones were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports which had been prepared for them is almost beyond comprehension, when it is recollected that they were raised by a people who were devoid of machinery.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 38.

“The heart,
Aching with thoughts of human littleness,
Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength
That poised thee here.”

This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of four upright stones, on which rested the capstone. In 1815, during a tremendous storm, the capstone and one of the supports were thrown down. In 1824 the capstone was replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith, R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at A. The fourth upright stone was not replaced, having been broken when thrown down. Fig. 37 shows the cromlech as replaced. Fig. 38 is a plan of it, showing the uprights and the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part marked A being the part broken off; the shaded parts are the present three uprights; and B the fourth upright, broken.

Fig. 39.

Fig. 40.

Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Cornwall (figs. 39 and 40)—the covering stone of which is calculated to weigh twenty tons; the Molfra cromlech, in the same county, which consists of a compact cist closed on three sides and open on the fourth; the Zenor cromlech; the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not necessary to enumerate, are all of the same class. The Plas Newydd (fig. 41) is a double cromlech, the two chambers being close together, end to end. The capstone of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of which have disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly were originally covered with a single mound.

Fig. 41.

At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind occur, but, not being denuded of their mounds, are still partially buried. The mound is of large size. Under the centre and in four places in the area of the circle are large cists, which if cleared from the earth would be fine cromlechs of precisely the same form as those just described. They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the district, placed upright on the ground, and are covered with immense capstones of the same material. All these chambers had contained interments. The accompanying plan (fig. 42) of some of these cists gives the situation of the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its entrance; and of the covers or capstones. The chamber is rather more than five feet in height, and the largest capstone about seven feet square, and of great thickness. A kind of wall similar to those which have been found to encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of this mound, which rises to a height of more than fifteen feet from the surface of the ground.17

Fig. 42.

The general arrangement of this example will be seen to bear an analogy to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of, and shows by what an easy transition the building of galleries, or a series of chambers for family tombs, in these large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind some very large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands, as well as in various parts of England.

Fig. 43.

One of the most important in size, as well as in general interest; is the one at New Grange, county Meath. “The cairn, which even in its present ruinous condition measures about seventy feet in height, and is nearly three hundred feet in diameter, from a little distance presents the appearance of a grassy hill, partly wooded; but upon examination the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial, and in several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely composed, are laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of which eleven remain above ground,18 originally encircled its base. The opening (of which an engraving is shown on fig. 44) was accidentally discovered about the year 1699, by labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external entrance, extends in a direction nearly north and south, and communicates with a chamber, or cave, nearly in the centre of the mound. This gallery, which measures in length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the exterior about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These dimensions it retains, except in one or two places, where the stones appear to have been forced from their original position, for a distance of twenty-one feet from the external entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides gradually increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-worn, and supposed to have been brought from the mouth of the Boyne, form the sides of the passage; and it is roofed with similar stones. The ground plan of the chamber is cruciform; the head and arms of the cross being formed by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance, the others east and west, and each containing a basin of granite. The sides of these recesses are composed of immense blocks of stone, several of which bear a great variety of carvings.19 In front of the entrance (fig. 44) will be seen one of these carved stones.”

Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar chambered tumuli exist, the former of which is also remarkable for its sculptural stones, which bear a strong resemblance to those at New Grange. The Cairn of Dowth here engraved (fig. 45), is of immense size, and contains a cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed—as was the chamber—of enormous stones. On some of the stones were carvings and Oghams. The mouth of the passage leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on fig. 46.

Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and chambers are those at Monasterboise (“Calliagh Dirras House”); Drumloghan (full of Oghams); Kells; Knockeen (figs. 47 and 48); where the right supporting stones are six in number, and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct chamber at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet by 8 feet, and weighing about four tons, and the smaller one about half that size; Gaulstown (figs. 49 and 50), the inner chamber of which measures 7 feet by 6 feet 4 inches, and is seven feet in height; Ballynageerah (figs. 51, 52, and 53), the capstone of which is cleverly and curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will be seen by the engravings;20 Howth, Shandanagh, Brennanstown, Glencullen, Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rathkenny, Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phoenix Park, as well as at many other places.

Fig. 54.

In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable researches of Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone chambers of the tumuli in that district had been used by successive generations for many ages. One of the most important of these is the gigantic chambered burial place, surrounded by a stone circle, at L’Ancresse, in Guernsey. In this, “five large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embankment which surrounds the place; these rest on the props beneath, and the whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle of upright stones of different dimensions.” The length of the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east, and about 17 feet from north to south, on the exterior of the stones. At the eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still seen; it consisted of three or four capstones, and was about seven feet in length, but evidently within the outer circle of stones.21 In a careful examination made by Mr. Lukis, many highly interesting features were brought to light, of which he has given an excellent account in the “ArchÆological Journal,”22 to which the reader cannot do better than refer. The engravings there given, show the interiors of some of the chambers, with their deposits in situ, and exhibit some of the highly interesting relics found during the excavations. The pottery was of a totally distinct character from that of the Celtic period found in England, some of the forms being of what are usually considered the Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use of these chambers by successive generations, as already named.

Fig. 55.

Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel Islands is that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany. The tumulus is about thirty feet high, and its circumference at the base about 300 feet. The cromlech is entered from the south end (fig. 55), fig. 56 being the opening on the north, and consists of 14 upright stones on the east side, 13 on the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10 capstones. In general features it bears a strong resemblance to those at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The remarkable feature of this chambered tumulus is that the stones composing the passage are for the most part sculptured in lines and patterns, which have been described as very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies by the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen on the accompanying engravings, which exhibit some of the more marked and distinct of the patterns noticed and copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination of this mound, and described by him in the journal of the British ArchÆological Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for these illustrations.

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.

Fig. 58.

Fig. 59.

Fig. 60.

Fig. 61.

In England, besides those already named, and others, “Wayland,” or “Wieland Smith’s Cave,” at Ashbury, in Berkshire; one at Stoney Littleton, near Wellow, in Somersetshire; the “Five Wells,” at Taddington, in Derbyshire; and one or two others in the same county, as well as in other places, are the most important. The annexed woodcut, fig. 62, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at Stoney Littleton, and fig. 63 is a ground plan of the same. “The entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone upwards of seven feet long and three and a half feet wide, supported by two others, left a square aperture of about four feet high, which had been closed by another large stone. This entrance led to a long passage or avenue, extending in the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven feet six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three transepts, or recesses, on each side. The side walls were formed of thin laminÆ of stone piled closely together without cement, and a rude kind of arched roof made of stones so placed as to overlap each other. When the large stones in the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up with layers of small ones.”23 Interments had evidently been made in each of these chambers, some by cremation, and others by inhumation, but the bones were scattered about, the result of previous rifling of its contents. One urn was found.

The chambered tumulus, called the “Five Wells,” near Taddington, of which an engraving is here given (fig. 64), has been a mound of large size, and the chambers and passages, or gallery, have been extensive. A plan of this tumulus is given in fig. 65. The “Five Wells” tumulus consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre of a cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each approached by a separate gallery or avenue, formed by large limestones standing edgeways, extending through the tumulus, respectively in a south-east and north-west direction. These chambers are marked B and G on the plan, G being the cist engraved on fig. 64. E E E are stones supposed to be the capstones thrown down. Another five-chambered tumulus in the same county is called Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains.

Another extremely important mound of this description is the one at Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able account has been written by Dr. Thurnham.24 The mound is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in its greatest breadth, and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and broader at its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight feet in length, and four and a half in depth, and supported by two upright stones which face each other, so as to leave a space of about two and a half feet between the lower edge of the large stone and the natural ground. Entering this, a gallery appears, running from east to west, about twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width, and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of stone, set edgeways, the spaces between being filled in with smaller stones. The roof is formed, as usual, of flat slabs, laid across and resting on the side-slabs. There are two smaller chambers on one side, and there is evidence of two others having existed on the other side. Several skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was opened, many years ago.

It will have been noticed that circles of stones surrounding grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and the preceding chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote a few lines to these interesting remains.

Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently to be noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary as much in their size and in their character as they do in their other features. The bases of grave-mounds were frequently defined by these circles, and sometimes by a shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of both. To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of stones remaining to this day are to be traced; while others of a far larger construction, and of a totally different character, such as those of Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and, probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed for totally different purposes. With these larger ones, except in so far as they are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which have surrounded grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give some particulars.

Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved beyond doubt the fact that, in many instances, when an interment was made, the size of the proposed cairn to be raised over the remains was marked by a circle of stones laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up within this enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the mound was reached. In the case of the Flax Dale barrow, this mode of construction is shown in the next engraving (fig. 66). A circle of large flat stones was placed upon the surface of the earth, around the interment (which in this case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and upon these a second course of stones was placed. The mound was then raised in the manner indicated in fig. 4, and over this a thick layer of earth was laid, which increased both the circumference and the altitude of the barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were evidently lit on the circumference of the circle, which had the effect, by burning the soil, of hardening it, and making it in some cases almost of the consistency of brick.

An example of the second mode of construction I have indicated is at Elk-Low, a section of which is given on fig. 67. The barrow has a depression running around its upper surface, something like an elevated fosse, as will be seen in the section. The interments were made on the natural surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton, on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head resting on a piece of limestone which was placed as a pillow. Other skeletons were also found, as was likewise an interment of burnt bones, and some flint and stone instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very large stones inclining inwards, and covered with small stones and earth, and thus forming an extremely durable mound.

Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds, would form striking and very perfect stone circles, and would be among the best remaining examples of small “Druidical circles,” as they are commonly called.

Where the circles have been formed of upright stones, they have not, certainly, always been covered with the mound, but have formed a kind of ring fence, a sort of sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great number of examples of this kind exist in different districts, and will easily be recognised by the zealous archÆologist. The circle next shown, on figs. 68 and 69, is that on Stanton Moor, known by the name of the “Nine Ladies.” This circle, of which a plan is here given, is formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the upright stones are placed. It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly consisted of a larger number of stones; those that are now remaining being at irregular distances, varying from eight to nineteen feet apart. In the centre are the remains of a rifled sepulchral mound.

Another circle, bearing the same name, “The Nine Ladies,” is on Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones are now remaining. It has undoubtedly been a sepulchral mound, encircled by upright stones. On other parts of these moors other circles have existed, or still exist, which have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepulchral deposits.

On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus, now unfortunately destroyed, existed two similar circles, the one thirty-nine, and the other twenty-two, feet in diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are known to have existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles of this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of these is about a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the “Nine Ladies” on Stanton Moor, formed of a circular mound of earth, on which the stones are placed. Only ten of the stones remain in situ. In the centre a cist was discovered many years ago. Other circles occur in the same county, on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East Moor, on Hathersage Moor, and in other localities.

On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain, as they do also in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr. Blight, who has paid a vast deal of attention to the antiquities of his native county, Cornwall, has collected together many data concerning these structures, which tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction, as well as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much of the following information regarding the Cornish circles, and also for the diagrams which illustrate it. Upright stones were, as in the case of the ring fences already named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a circular embankment thrown up for the purpose. The intervening spaces were then, in many instances, filled in with small stones, so as to form a compact kind of wall, as shown in the next engraving. This mode of construction was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the forming of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in course of time the loose walled parts would be thrown down and disappear, while the uprights, being firmly fixed in the ground, would remain, and would thus form the stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called “Druidical circles.” In some instances, as in the case of the circle enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound, at Sancreed, shown on fig. 71, the upright stones touched each other, and thus formed a remarkably fine enclosure. This circle is about fifteen feet in diameter. Another variety is shown in fig. 72. This is a double circle, or rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example nearly touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but with the circles farther apart from each other, exists in the Isle of Man, and is shown on the ground plan (fig. 73). The mound in this instance, probably, rose from the inner circle only, and covered the central cist. In several instances the interment was not in the centre of the circle, but was made in different situations within its area. For instance, in the next example (fig. 74), from Trewavas Head, the cist is near to the circle of stones. The outer diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet, the diameter of the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches. Other examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced. Fig. 75 shows a totally different construction. In this instance the circle is composed of a number of stone cists, or sepulchral chambers, pretty close together, end to end. This curious example, of which a somewhat analogous one exists in the Channel Islands (see fig. 76), is on Mule Hill, in the Isle of Man. Fig. 77 shows the remains of a stone circle surrounding the larger of a pair of “twin-barrows,” of which some of the stones have now disappeared. The circle is about seventy feet in diameter, and the stones vary from six to eight feet in height. Fig. 78 is the plan of another “twin-barrow,” so called, the circle in the larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller twenty-four, feet in diameter. In the centre, at A B, are the remains of a stone cist, or chamber. “The mounds were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There were two within a few hundred yards of the ‘twin-barrow’ last described, the greater portions of which have recently been taken away to build a neighbouring hedge, but of which I found enough to show how they were built. First, there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed upright, some longitudinally (fig. 79), the intention being simply to make an enclosing fence; within this the grave was constructed; then small stones heaped over the whole, the cairn extending, by about six feet, outside the built circle.” The more perfect of the “twin-barrows” also had the cairn extending beyond the circle.

Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-Ûn circle, eighty feet in diameter (fig. 80), the Aber circle (fig. 81), and others, it is supposed, may have been formed around a group of interments, instead of single interments, as in many of the others. In some instances a single stone was placed to mark the place of interment. Three such exist in the barrow at Berriew (fig. 82). A large circle (fig. 83), twenty-seven yards, in diameter, on Penmaenmaur, was constructed of several uprights, connected by smaller masonry. Here the interments were apparently made beside the pillars. Against the inner side of the tallest pillar A, on the eastern part, were the remains of a small stone cist; while against the pillar B, facing it on the opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is surrounded by a ditch, within which, at C, is another small cairn.

Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which allusion has been made, is represented in fig. 84. No sepulchral remains have been discovered within the circle, but barrows of great extent, which have yielded important remains on being excavated, are closely connected with it. It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and been removed in past ages.