In the Konkan the deities of the Hindus are divided into the following five classes, viz.:—

(1) The GrÁmadevatÁs or Village deities,

(2) The SthÁnadevatÁs or Local deities,

(3) The KuladevatÁs or Family deities,

(4) The IshtadevatÁs or Chosen deities, and

(5) The WÁstudevatÁs or GrihadevatÁs, that is, the class of deity which presides over the house and is established at the time of the housewarming or WÁstu ceremony.

The principal GrÁma-devatÁs are HanumÁn or MÁruti, KÁlika, Amba, WÁghoba, Chedoba, Mhasoba, Bahiroba or Bhairav, Ganesh, Vira, MhÁlsa or Maha Lakshmi, ChÁmunda, VetÁl, Khandoba MalhÁri JogÁi, BhawÁni, and WÁgeshwari and Shiva. In most villages the chief village god is MÁruti or HanumÁn, whose temple is situated at the entrance of the village. MÁruti is considered to be an avatÁr or incarnation of Shiva, and is held in great reverence by all classes. A festival or jatra is held in honour of HanumÁn on the bright half of the month of Chaitra. On this occasion the temple is decorated with ever-greens, and flowers, the stone image of the god is newly painted or covered with red lead and oil, and garlands of the Rui (Gigantic snake wort) flowers are placed round the neck of the image, cocoanuts, plantains, betelnuts and leaves are offered to the god, camphor is lighted and waved round the image, incense is burnt, cooked food and sweets are offered, and money presents are made. Every worshipper brings with him some oil, red-lead or Cendur, a cocoanut, a vidÁ-supÁri, i.e., two betel leaves, one betelnut and a copper coin, and a garland of Rui flowers. These are given to the temple ministrant, who offers a part of the oil and red lead to the deity, places the garland round the deity’s neck, and, breaking the cocoanut into pieces, gives a piece or two to the devotee as the prasÁd or favoured gift of the deity. Saturday is the sacred day of the monkey god MÁruti. Every Saturday fresh oil and red lead are offered to the god by the devotees. The PujÁris in most of the temples of MÁruti are Guravs, GhÁdis, MarÁthÁs or GosÁvis.

Every Saturday in the month of ShrÁvan (August), called the Sampat ShaniwÁr or the wealth-giving Saturday a special puja or worship is performed in the temples of MÁruti in Bombay as well as in the Konkan. On this day people fast the whole day and dine in the evening, after offering the god HanumÁn or MÁruti a preparation of rice and pulse called khichadi and cakes made of udid flour called vade.1

There is no village in the Konkan which has not the honour of having a temple of the god MÁruti. MÁruti is supposed to guard the village against evils of all kinds. Care is therefore taken to build the temple of MÁruti at the outskirts of the village.2 There is a tradition that at the time of leaving the Dandaka forest (the present MahÁrÁshtra), RÁma asked MÁruti to reside therein. It is for this reason, the people say, that every village in the Konkan and on the GhÁts has a temple of MÁruti.3 The god MÁruti is worshipped in the village of WÁsind on Tuesdays and Saturdays.4 In former days it was customary to establish an image of the god MÁruti in a newly built castle or fort.5 HanumÁn, the son of Anjani and the wind or MÁrut, is known for his loyalty to his master and for his bravery. In days gone by he utilized his strength for the protection of Saints, Rishis, BrÁhmans and cows, and for this merit he was elevated to the rank of a Hindu god. Every Hindu village or locality is supposed to possess at least one temple of the god MÁruti, and in MahÁrÁshtra MÁruti is the guardian of every village. He is a BrahmachÁri, or bachelor and is one of the seven heroes who are believed to be chiranjÍvis or immortals.6 MÁruti is supposed to be the originator of the Mantra-ShÁstra, by the study and repetition of which one obtains strength and superhuman power. Women desirous of getting children go to the temple of MÁruti, and there burn before his image lamps made of wheat flour and filled with ghi. The image of HanumÁn is represented in temples in two ways, that is (1) VÍra HanumÁn or Warrior HanumÁn, (2) DÁsa-HanumÁn or servant HanumÁn. The former is found in a temple consecrated to the worship of the god HanumÁn alone, whereas the latter is found in a temple dedicated to the worship of the god RÁma.7 Since MÁruti is the god of strength, gymnasts tie an image of MÁruti to their wrists, and they also consecrate an image of MÁruti in their gymnasiums. The number eleven is said to be dear and sacred to him because he is believed to be an incarnation of the eleven Rudras. The birth day of the god MÁruti which falls on the 15th of the bright half of Chaitra, called the HanumÁn Jayanti day, is celebrated in the KolhÁpur District with great reverence. Those who wish to have a son draw the figure of MÁruti on a wall in red-lead, and worship it daily with sandal paste, flowers and garlands of Rui. Others burn lamps made of wheat flour before the image of the god. Persons who are under the evil influence of the planets, and especially of the planet Saturn, worship the god HanumÁn on Saturdays in order to propitiate the planets. On this day they make wreaths of the leaves and flowers of the Rui plant and adorn his neck with them. They also offer him udid (Phaseolus radiatus) and salt. The story told of MÁruti is that Anjani his mother pleased the god Shiva with her penance, and when the god asked her to claim a boon, she requested that Shiva himself should be born as her son. Shiva therefore took birth in her womb and manifested himself as HanumÁn or MÁruti8.

The Local deities are generally found in special localities or sacred places called Kshetras or Punya sthÁnas. Thus the god RÁma at NÁsik, Vithoba at Pandharpur, Krishna at DwÁrka, MahÁlakshmi at Kolwan, WÁjreshwari at Nirmal (ThÁna), Mharloba in the RatnÁgiri, Shitala devi at Kelwa MÁhim, and Khandoba or KhanderÁi at Jejuri.

KhanderÁi is said to be an incarnation of the god Shiva. KhanderÁi killed the demon Mani-Malla who was devastating the earth, and he is therefore called MallÁri or MalhÁri. Kunbis and lower class Hindus in the Konkan as well as in the Deccan occasionally make a vow to the god Khandoba that if their desire is fulfilled they will offer their first born male or female child to the service of the god. The male child thus dedicated to Khandoba is called WÁghya and the female is called Murali. The WÁghya and Murali do not engage in any business, but maintain themselves by begging in the streets in the name of the god KhanderÁi. Though they are not actually married, the WÁghyas and Muralis live as husband and wife, and their progeny are also called WÁghyas and Muralis. They repeat the sacred cry jai khanderÁyÁcha Elkot, and give to people bel-bhandÁr of KhanderÁi consisting of the sacred Bel leaves and turmeric powder. The god KhanderÁi is the family deity of some Deshasth BrÁhmans, who perform a family rite called Tali bharane ??? ???? on every purnima or full moon day. The rite is as follows:—

A tali or plate is filled with cocoanuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric or bel-bhandÁr, etc. Then a pot is filled with water, and on its mouth a cocoanut is placed. This cocoanut, with the pot, is then worshipped with flowers, sandal paste, etc., a lighted lamp filled with ghi is put in the same place, and the tali is waved thrice round the pot, which is supposed to contain the god Khandoba. Five persons then lift up the cocoanut with the tali and place it three times on the pot, repeating each time the words Elkot or Khande rÁyÁcha Elkot. The cocoanut is then broken into pieces, mixed with sugar or jÁgri, and is distributed among friends and relations as prasÁd. On this occasion, as well as on the occasions of all Kuladharmas, that is, the days fixed for performing the special worship of the family goddess or family god of each family, the ceremony called the Gondhal dance is performed. On the same occasion another ceremony called Bodan is performed by the Deshasths and by the ChitpÁvans. It is as follows:— An image of the family deity is placed in a pot or plate called tÁmhan, and it is then bathed in the panchÁmrit, that is, the five holy things, viz., milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. Sandalpaste is offered to it as well as flowers, lighted lamps and some sweets and incense. Five women whose husbands are alive then prepare five lamps of wheat flour called Kuranandi and wave them thrice round the face of the goddess or god, as the case may be. All the limps are then placed in the plate or tÁmhan in which the deity is kept, and the panchÁmrita and other materials of worship and food and sweet cakes are mixed together. Occasionally one of the five women becomes possessed with the spirit of the kula-devi or family deity, and confers blessings on the members of the family for their devotion. It is believed that those families which fail to perform periodically the Bodan, Tali and Gondhal ceremonies in honour of their tutelary deity are sure to suffer, from some misfortune or calamity during the year.9 The local deities chiefly worshipped at Chaul, KolÁba District, are HinglÁj, JakhmÁta, Bhagawati, ChampÁwati, MahikÁwati, and Golamba-devi. At the sowing and reaping times, people of the lower castes offer fowls and goats to these deities, and BrÁhmans offer cocoanuts.10 The local deity of the village WÁvashi near Pen in the KolÁba District is said to possess the power of averting evil, and is accordingly held in great respect by the people of many villages in the District. Every third year a great fair is held, and a buffalo is sacrificed to the goddess on the full moon day of the month of Chaitra. The PujÁri of this goddess is a Gurav.11 Another celebrated SthÁna-deva in the KolÁba District is Bahiri-Somajai of Khopoli. It is believed that a person suffering from snake-bite is cured without any medicine if he simply resides for one night in the temple of this goddess. Sacrifices of goats, fowls and cocoanuts are made to this goddess at the time of sowing and reaping. The PujÁris of this deity are known as Shingade Guravs.12 The worship of the local deity BÁpdev is much in favour among the villages of Apta and the surrounding places. At the times of sowing and reaping, offerings of fowls, goats and cocoanuts are made to BÁpdev through the PujÁri.13 The worship of the local deities KolambÁi, BhawÁni, and Giroba is prevalent in the Chauk villages.14 To the GrÁma-devi of the village of Tale every third year a buffalo is sacrificed, and at an interval of two years goats are offered.15 The deities Shiva and KÁlkÁi are worshipped with great reverence at Bakavali in the RatnÁgiri District.16 In many villages of the RatnÁgiri District the goddess Pandhar is considered to be the Gaon-devi or the chief goddess of the village. The PujÁri is generally a Gurav or MarÁtha Kunbi. On every full moon day cocoanuts are offered, and on the occasions of sowing and reaping, goats and fowls are sacrificed to this deity.17 At Devgad there is a temple of the goddess GajÁbÁi on the sea shore. The PujÁri of this goddess is a man of the GhÁdi caste. On the first day of the bright half of the month of MÁrgashirsh (December) special offerings of goats, fowls and cocoanuts are made by the villagers.18 The deities RavalnÁth, MÁuli, VetÁl, RÁmeshwar and HanumÁn are usually worshipped in most villages in RatnÁgiri. The villagers in the RatnÁgiri District have great faith in their local deities, and before undertaking any important business they obtain the consent or take the omen of the deity. This ceremony is known as kaul ghÁlne and it is performed as follows:—Two betel nuts or flowers are taken and one of them is placed on the right side of the deity and the other on the left side. The worshipper then bows before the deity and requests her to let the nut on the right side fall first if the deity is pleased to consent, if not, to let the nut on the left side fall first. Naturally one of the two nuts falls first, and they interpret this as either consent or dissent as the case may be. The villagers have so much faith in this kaul that they make use of this method of divination to ascertain whether sick or diseased persons will recover or die. Special sacrifices are offered to these local deities whenever an epidemic like cholera occurs.19 In the RatnÁgiri District, at many places, there are Swayambhu or natural lingas of the god Shiva, and over these places temples are built. The PujÁris of these temples are generally Jangams or Lingayat Guravs. No animal sacrifices are made at these shrines.20 At a short distance from the village of Makhamle there is a temple of the god Shiva called AmnÁyeshwar. The following legend is narrated in connection with this temple:—The place where the present temple stands once abounded with Amani trees and formed a pasture for cattle. The cow of a certain man of the village daily used to go to graze at this place. The cow used to give milk twice, but one day she gave milk only once, and thereafter she continued to give milk only once a day. The owner therefore asked the Gavali or cowherd to ascertain the cause of this sudden change. One day the cowherd noticed that the cow allowed her milk to drop upon a stone. At this the cowherd was so enraged that he struck the stone with his scythe so hard that it was cloven in two and blood gushed forth. He hurriedly repaired to the village and related this wonderful phenomenon to the people. The villagers came to the spot, and decided to build a temple to the god Shiva over the stone. One part of the stone is in this temple and the other part was taken to the village of Kalamburi, where another temple was built over it.21 In the Sangameshwar village the BrÁhmans also worship the images of the local goddesses ChandukÁi, JholÁi and SunkÁi. In the Konkan the deities NÁrÁyan, RawalnÁth, Manli, Datta, VetÁl and Shiva are worshipped everywhere.22 The following legend is told about the deity VetÁl, the leader of the ghosts:—In the SÁvantwÁdi State there is a temple of VetÁl in the village of Ajgaon.23 As part of his worship it is considered necessary to offer to this deity a pair of shoes every month. The people believe that after a few days the shoes become worn out. The inference drawn from this by the people is that at night the god VetÁl goes out walking in the new shoes.24 In the village of Khed in the RatnÁgiri District, a buffalo is offered to the goddess RedjÁi on the full moon day of Chaitra every third year.25 At NÁringre offerings of cocoanuts, etc. are made to the deities BhÁvakÁi, Chala, etc. on the 1st of the month of MÁrgashirsha.26 The Schoolmaster of IbrÁmpur states that one of the following deities is the grÁmadevata of every village in the RatnÁgiri District viz.: ChandkÁi, Varadhan, Khem, Bahiri, KedÁr, VÁggaya, Antaral, Manaya, Salbaya and VÁghÁmbari. A procession in their honour takes place in the months of Chaitra and FÁlgun. The PujÁris are generally either Guravs or MarÁtha Kunbis. A ceremony called Palejatra is performed in the sowing season, while the Dhal-jatra is performed at the harvest time. At these fairs fowls, cocoanuts, goats, fruits, etc. are offered to these deities.27 At MÁlwan on the no-moon day of ShrÁvan (August) local deities and ghosts are propitiated by offering to them goats, fowls, etc.28 At PÁlset in the RatnÁgiri District, the god ParashurÁm is the most important deity especially for ChitpÁvans. He exterminated the Kshatriyas twenty-one times, and having no space for himself and his BrÁhmans, he asked the sea to provide him with new land. On meeting with a refusal, ParashurÁm became enraged and was about to push the sea back with his arrow, when, at the instigation of the sea, a black-bee (bhunga) cut the string of his bow, and the arrow only went a short distance. The people say that the space thus recovered from the sea came to be called Konkan.29 At Anjarle there are two local goddesses Sawanekarin and Bahiri. Offerings of goats and fowls are made to them in the months of MÁrgashirsha (December) and FÁlgun (March). Sometimes liquor and eggs are also offered. Offerings can be made on any day except Monday and EkÁdashi, Tuesdays and Sundays being considered most suitable.30 At UbhÁdÁnda in the RatnÁgiri District, RavalnÁth and BhutanÁth are held in great reverence. They are believed to be incarnations of the god Shiva. The PujÁris are generally Guravs, GhÁdis, RÁuls and SutÁrs.31 The following goddesses which are popular in the RatnÁgiri District are believed to be incarnations of the goddess Durga, viz. Navala-devi, VÁghur-devi, Jakha-devi and KÁlkÁi.32 At Maral in the RatnÁgiri District there is a swayambhu or natural linga of the god Shiva. It is called Maheshwar, and in its honour a fair is held on the SankrÁnt day.33 The chief local deity of the DahÁnu taluka, ThÁna District, is MahÁlakshmi. She has seven sisters and one brother, two of the sisters being the Pangala-devi at TÁrÁpur and the Delavadi-devi at Ghivali. Goats and fowls are offered to the Pangala-devi on the Dasara day. Her PujÁri is a Gurav. It is said that the goddess Delwadi used to receive her garments from the sea, but now this is no longer the case though it is still believed that the incense which is burnt before her comes floating from DwÁrka.34 In the village of Edwan there is a goddess called AshÁpuri, who used to supply her devotees with whatever they wanted. The devotee was required to besmear with cow-dung a plot of ground in the temple, and to pray for the things wanted by him. The next day, when he came to the temple, he found the desired things on the spot besmeared with cow-dung.35 At MÁngaon the PujÁri of the local goddess is either the PÁtil or the Madhavi of the village.36 In the village of Dahigaon cocoanuts are offered annually to the village MÁruti, and fowls and goats to the other local deities, in order that the village may be protected against danger and disease.37 It is believed that any BrÁhman who acts as the PujÁri of the god Shiva will find his family exterminated, and for this reason BrÁhmans do not act as PujÁris in the temples of Shiva.

In a few temples of goddesses like JakhÁi etc. the PujÁri is of the MahÁr caste.38 A great fair is held in honour of the goddess VajrÁ-bÁi or Vajreshwari near Nirmal in the month of KÁrtika (November). The PujÁri of the goddess is a GosÁvi of the Giri sect. The worship of Bhimasena is not prevalent in the Konkan, but the hero Bhima, like MÁruti, is held in reverence by the gymnasts. Bhima is not worshipped, but a work called the Bhima-stavarÁj is read at the bed of a dying man in order that he may obtain salvation. At Ashirgad there is a gumpha or cave of AshwatthÁma, a hero of the MahÁbhÁrata, and it is said that a noise is heard coming from the cave on the full moon day.39

Wherever a village is founded, it is customary to establish a village deity as the guardian of the village. The deities chosen are MÁruti, KÁli, ChandkÁi, Varadani, etc. In the Konkan, goddesses are preferred, and on the Ghats generally MÁruti is preferred. Certain ceremonies are performed for consecrating the place to the deity, and sometimes the deity is called after the village as Marleshwar40 etc. By many lower class people the goddess Pondhar is often selected as the guardian of a new village. At Shahpur, if the newly founded village is to be inhabited by high class Hindus, the deities MÁruti and Durga are selected as grÁma-devatas, but if it is to be inhabited by lower class people, then such deities as Mhasoba, Chedoba, JÁkhÁi, etc. are chosen.41 In the Bassein and SÁlsette tÁlukas the following deities viz. MÁruti, ChedÁ, ChandkÁi, and Shiva, are chosen as village deities. Cheda is represented by a long piece of wood or stone besmeared with red-powder, and is placed on the outskirts of the village. No BrÁhman is necessary for establishing a Cheda. The PujÁri is generally a Kunbi or MÁli, and he establishes the deity by offering it a goat or fowls and cocoanuts.42 Sometimes the guardian deity of a new settlement is decided upon by a Kaul. Two or three names of deities are selected, betelnuts or flowers are placed on the sides of the guardian deity of the neighbouring village and that deity in whose name the betelnut falls first is chosen as the deity of the new village.43 At Chaul, the deity called BÁpdev is very popular among the lower classes. It is represented by a big stone fixed on mortar and besmeared with red-powder. When it is established for the first time in a village, a BrÁhman is required to make the first pÚja or worship, but after this it is worshipped by a PujÁri of a lower caste.44 The Mahars in the KolÁba District select the ghost-deity called Jhaloba as the guardian deity of a new settlement.45 In many cases the deity of their former village or of the neighbouring village46 is named by a Bhagat or exorcist, who becomes possessed.47

In the Konkan every village farm is supposed to be under the guardianship of the minor godlings, the majority of which are called Bhuta-DevatÁs or ghostly godlings. In some cases the field guardians are also the BrÁhmanic godlings like MÁruti and Shiva.48 To the BrÁhmanic guardians of the field, cocoanuts and flowers are offered at the sowing and reaping seasons, and to the rest, fowls, cocoanuts, and sometimes goats, are offered. The higher classes feed one or two BrÁhmans in order to propitiate the deities of the fields; and for the propitiation of the minor deities of the field the lower classes perform a rite called Dalap. This rite is performed by a man of the Gurav, GhÁdi, or RÁul, caste by sacrificing to the field deity a goat or fowls and cocoanuts. The pujÁri repeats prayers for a good harvest, and then distributes portions of the offerings among the people assembled there for witnessing the rite.49 In the RatnÁgiri District on the no-moon day of Jeshta people assemble in the temple of the village deity and perform a rite called GÁrhÁne in order that they should have a good crop, that their village may be free from diseases, and that their cattle may be protected. A similar rite is performed on the first day of the bright half of the month of MÁrgashirsha (December), and on this occasion sometimes a goat or sheep is sacrificed at the boundary of the village.50 In order that there should be a good harvest, the villagers of Kankaoli worship on certain days from the month of KÁrtika (November) to the month of Shimga (March) the minor deities of the field by offering them fowls, cocoanuts, etc.51 At Achare (RatnÁgiri) some people worship the god of the clouds on the day on which the Mrigashirsha constellation begins, and they believe that thereby plenty of rain is ensured for the season.52 For good harvests and for the protection of their cattle, the villagers of Achare pray to the GrÁma-devata in the month of Jeshta (June), and then go in procession from the temple of the village deity to the boundary of the village, where they sacrifice a cock and offer some cooked rice with a burning wick upon it, to the deity that presides over the fields and harvests.53 In the village of Palset of the RatnÁgiri District the goddess Khema is worshipped by the villagers to obtain good crops, and for the protection of their cattle. The PÚja or special worship takes place on the full-moon day of MÁrgashirsha and on this occasion the sacred Gondhal dance is also performed.54 In certain villages of the RatnÁgiri District, for obtaining good harvest, people worship the godling MahÁpurush at the beginning of the sowing and reaping operations, and offer the deity fowls, cocoanuts and cooked rice.55 In the village of MÁlwan, at the sowing and reaping seasons, the villagers usually make offerings of fowls and cocoanuts and goats to the guardians of the fields, but BrÁhmans and such Kunbi farmers as do not eat flesh make offerings of cooked rice mixed with curds.56 At UbhÁdÁnda village, in order to secure a good harvest and for the protection of the cattle, the villagers worship the spirit godlings called Sambandhas and perform the rite called DevachÁr.57 At Kochare, annual prayers are offered to the godling called Gavatdev for the protection of the village cattle.58 In the Devgad taluka people believe that some deity resides in every farm or in every collection of fields, and that good or bad harvests are caused as the deity is pleased or displeased.59 In order that there should be plenty of rain and that the cattle should be protected, the villagers of MÁlgund assemble in the temple of the village deity and offer prayers on the full moon day of FÁlgun (March) and on the 1st day of the bright half of MÁrgashirsh.60 In the KolÁba District, for the protection of cattle and for good crops, prayers are offered to the god Bahiri and the ghosts Khavis and Sambandh.61

At Chauk in the KolÁba District the villagers perform a special pÚja or worship of the god Krishna in order that the village cattle may be protected.62 At Sasawane a fair called pÁle jatra is held in the month of BhÁdrapad (September) in order that the villagers may have a good harvest, and that their cattle may be protected against tigers and disease.63 At Akol, on the day which follows the Ganesh-Chaturthi, people throw parched rice over their fields and houses so that the rats may not run over them.64 At MÁlÁd in the ThÁna District, for the protection of cattle, the god WÁghoba is worshipped at night on the 12th of Ashvin which is called the WÁgh-bÁras.65 In some villages of the ThÁna District the deity WÁghoba or WÁghya is worshipped on the 12th day of the dark half of KÁrtik. On that day the cowherds collect a quantity of milk and prepare a kind of food known as Khir by mixing jÁgri and cooked rice. They then proceed to the stone image of the deity in the jungle, and besmear it with new red-lead or shendur. They pour a portion of the sweet milk over the stone, and offer prayers for the protection of their cattle. They then partake of the remaining milk.66 At AgÁshi and other neighbouring villages, before the fields are ploughed, the villagers assemble and collect a certain sum of money, with which they buy goats, fowls, red-powder, cocoanuts and parched grain. A goat and some cocks are then sacrificed to the spirits residing in the cemeteries and at the boundary of the village. Cocoanuts besmeared with gulÁl red powder are also offered to these ghost godlings. A goat decorated with garlands and red powder is then made to walk round the village three times at night, accompanied by the villagers, who throw lÁhya parched rice while passing. This rite is called Siwa BÁndhane or binding the boundary, and is supposed to protect the village crops and cattle. No farmer dares to sow his seed unless this rite has been performed. After this rite has been performed, every farmer appeases his family deity, i.e. Khandoba, Bahiroba, Kankoba, etc., by performing a ceremony at home called Deopan or Devaski, which relates to the worship of ancestors. Most of the farmers regard one of their dead ancestors as their chief deity, and represent him in their house by a cocoanut. They do not enter on any new business without first offering prayers to this cocoanut, and they also believe that they can bring evil upon their enemies by simply cursing them before the deified cocoanut. The only materials generally required for the worship of this cocoanut are red powder, incense and flowers. On rare occasions, goats and fowls are sacrificed. It is believed that the ancestor in the cocoanut likes to be worshipped by the wife or husband (as the case may be) of the person represented by the cocoanut. Some farmers, in addition to the cocoanut, worship a stick or cap of their ancestor along with the cocoanut, and offer prayers for the protection of their cattle, for good rain and harvest, and also for the destruction of their enemies.67