The worship of minor local deities is connected with such low castes as Guravas, Bhopis, MarÁtha Kunbis, Dhangars, WÁghes, Murlis, MahÁrs and MÁngs in the District of KolhÁpur. It is believed by the BrÁhmans that once an image is consecrated and worshipped, it should be worshipped uninterruptedly every day, and he who neglects to worship such an image daily incurs the sin of Brahma-hatya or BrÁhman-murder. For this reason BrÁhmans generally do not worship minor local deities. In former times BrÁhmans who worshipped these deities were excommunicated by their caste-men. Such PujÁris were compelled to wear a folded dhotur or waist cloth, and were forbidden to put on the gandh or sandal paste mark in straight or cross lines. They were allowed to put on the tila or circular mark of sandal paste. Another reason why BrÁhmans are not the PujÁris or worshippers of such deities is that BrÁhmans cannot accept or partake of the Naivedya offering of cooked food, fowls, etc., made to them. Lower class people can partake of such offerings, and are therefore generally the worshippers or ministrants of minor local deities.

At Palshet in the RatnÁgiri District, there are two grÁmdevis, viz., JholÁi and MhÁrjÁi, and the pujÁris of these deities are respectively a Gurav and a MahÁr.1 The pujÁris of goddesses are generally men of the lower castes. The guardian goddesses of the villages of Pule, Varavade, Nandivade, and Rila have Kunbis as their pujÁris; while the pujÁris of the goddesses MahÁlakshmi, Bhagvati, MahÁkÁli, and JogÁi are generally chosen from the Gurav caste.2 In the Konkan the RÁuls (Shudras) are the pujÁris of the deities Vithoba, RavalnÁth and BhavÁni; the GhÁdis are the pujÁris of the deities SÁteri and Khavaneshwar; while the deities MahÁdev and MÁruti are worshipped by pujÁris belonging to the Gurav caste.3 The goddesses Makhajan and JakhmÁta at Sangameshwar in the RatnÁgiri District are worshipped by pujÁris who belong to the Gurav and Bhoi castes respectively. The god Ganpati at Makhnele has for his pujÁri a WÁni. The pujÁris of the temple of Shiva at LÁnje in the RatnÁgiri District are WÁnis.4 It is said that the pujÁri of PundÁrik at Pandharpur is a KirÁta (fisherman) by caste.5

The pujÁri of the goddess NarmÁta at Sidgad in the ThÁna District is a Koli; whilst the pujÁris of KÁnoba, Khandoba, and VetÁl are of the lower castes.6 The goddesses MahÁlakshmi of Kolvan and Vajreshvari have their pujÁris chosen from the lower castes.7 The pujÁris of Jari-Mari, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, Cheda and other deities which are said to prevent contagious diseases, are always men of the lower castes.8

The pujÁris of the guardian goddesses of the villages Petsai, Dasgaum and NizÁmpur are a MahÁr, a KumbhÁr or potter, and a MarÁtha, respectively.9 The pujÁri of the guardian goddesses of Chaul in the KolÁba District belongs to the lower castes.10 The goddess MÁngÁi has always a MahÁr as her pujÁri.11 Everyday the god Shiva is required to be worshipped first by a pujÁri of the Gurav caste. The pujÁri of Bahiri, a corruption of the word Bhairav, one of the manifestations of Shiva, is a man belonging to the lower castes. Similarly the pujÁris of Bhagavati, BhavÁni, Ambika, KÁlika, JÁkhÁi, JholÁi, Janni, KolhÁi, VadyÁjÁi, ShitalÁdevi, Chandika, etc., are persons belonging to lower castes.12

It is considered by the Hindus very meritorious and holy to worship the Sun; and by BrÁhmans the Sun is considered to be their chief deity. The GÁyatri Mantra of the BrÁhmans is a prayer to the Sun-god or the Savita Dev, and the BrÁhmans offer arghya or oblations of water to the Sun thrice a day. Those who want health, wealth and prosperity propitiate the Sun-god by prayers and ceremonies. The Ratha Saptami is considered to be the principal day for special worship and festivities in honour of the Sun-god. On this day, on a low wooden stool, is drawn, in red sandal paste, a figure of the Sun in human shape seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, or by a horse with seven faces. This figure is then placed in the sun-shine, and it is then worshipped by offering it arghya or spoonfuls of water, red powder, red flowers mixed with red sandal paste, camphor, incense and fruits. Some people kneel down while offering the arghyas to the Sun. These arghyas are either three or twelve in number. Some persons make a vow not to eat anything unless they have worshipped the Sun and performed the twelve Namaskaras by falling prostrate and bowing with folded hands twelve times, and at each time repeating one of the twelve names of the Sun.13

In the RatnÁgiri District some people worship the Sun on the Sundays of the month of ShrÁvan. A ceremony held on the Rathasaptami day, i.e., the 7th day of the bright half of MÁgh, is deemed a special festival in honour of the Sun-god. On that day people draw, on a small wooden stool, an image of the Sun, seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and worship it with great reverence. Milk is then boiled on a fire made of cow-dung cakes in front of the household Tulsi plant. If the milk overflows to the east, it is believed that there will be abundance of crops, but if it flows to the west it is taken as a sign of the near approach of famine.14 The Sun-god is also worshipped on the following occasions, e.g., Trikal, GajacchÁya, Ardhodaya, Mahodaya, VyatipÁt, Makar-SankrÁnt, Kark-SankrÁnt and the Solar eclipse.15 Though there are few temples dedicated to the Sun, the village of Parule has the honour of having one called “the temple of Adi-NÁrÁyan.” Non-BrÁhmanical classes are not seen worshipping the Sun in this district, despite the fact that the Sun is said to be the embodiment of the three principal deities of the Hindus.16

The people of the ThÁna District believe that the Swastika is the central point of the helmet of the Sun, and a vow called the Swastika Vrata is held in its honor. A woman who observes this vow, draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the ChÁturmÁs (four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she gives a BrÁhman a golden or silver plate with the sign of the Swastika upon it.17 Another vow named DhanurmÁs, common to all districts in the Konkan, requires a person to complete his daily rites before sun-rise, and to offer a preparation of food called Khichadi to the Sun-god. The observer of this vow then partakes of the food, regarding it as a gift from that god. This is either done for one day or repeated for a month till the Dhanu-SankrÁnt.18 On the Somavati-AmÁvÁsya day (the 15th day of the dark half of a month falling on Monday), and the KapilÁshasthi day, the Sun is held in especial reverence.19 A curious story is narrated regarding the offering of Arghya to the Sun. It is said that the Sun rejoices at the birth of a BrÁhman, and gives 1,000,000 cows in charity, believing that the Arghya which the BrÁhman will offer later on will devour his foes, one drop of the Arghya killing 1,000 of them20. The repetition of the GÁyatri-mantra 108 times a day is supposed to release a BrÁhman from the debt of 1,000,000 cows owed in this way to the Sun.21 The Yoga-Sutras of PÁtanjali however prohibit a man from looking at the setting Sun, though the sin thus incurred is made amends for by the offering of Arghya to that god.22 It is interesting to note that women do not grind corn on the Ratha-Saptami day.23

Women bow down to the Sun on the 11th, 12th, 30th or 40th day after their delivery; but Kunbi women generally worship that god on the 7th day.24 On this occasion some women show a churning handle25 to the Sun-god and offer him some grains of rice.26

The Swastika is considered so holy in the Konkan that it is always drawn on the Antarpat; and at the time of the PunyÁha Wachan ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, a Swastika drawn in rice is worshipped.27 The principal deities of the Hindus, whenever they are invoked on special occasions, are seated on the Swastika.28 The people of the RatnÁgiri District worship the Swastika, regarding it as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.29

By some the Swastika is regarded as the foundation-stone of the universe30 and is held to be the symbol of the god Shiva, and not of the Sun.31

The conception of Kunbi is said to have taken place by the influence of the rays of the Sun.32

The Swastika is considered as an emblem of peace and prosperity, and for this reason BrÁhman women draw a figure of the Swastika in front of their houses.33 The custom of moving round such sacred objects as the Banyan, the Pipal, the Tulsi or sweet basil plant, the Umbar, the Avala (Phylanthus emblica), etc., is prevalent in the district of KolhÁpur. There are no cases recorded in which women after child-birth are exposed to the Sun. But on the 12th day after her delivery, the mother puts on new bangles and new clothes; cocoanuts, betelnuts and leaves, grains of rice, plantains and grains of wheat are placed in her lap. She then comes out and bows to the Sun. Wealthy persons on this occasion perform a homa sacrifice in their houses by kindling the holy fire and feeding BrÁhmans. No one in this district believes that conception is caused, or is likely to be caused, by exposure to the rays of the Sun.

The Hindu women of the Konkan walk round Pipal, Tulsi, and Umbar trees every Saturday and on the Somavati-amÁvÁsya day, i.e., the 15th day of the dark half of a month when it falls on Monday.34 Sometimes, however, women make a vow to walk round a temple or a sacred tree one-hundred thousand times; and for the fulfilment of this vow they walk round the temple or tree for about seven or eight hours every day. If they find it difficult to make up the number of rounds themselves, they ask their near relations to assist them in their undertaking.35

The Moon is worshipped by the Hindus on the 2nd of the bright half of every month. On this day it is considered very lucky to see the moon, and many people, particularly the lower classes, pull out threads from the clothes they wear, and offer them to the moon, saying “O! God, accept these old clothes of ours and be pleased to give us new ones in their stead.” Some people worship the moon on the Sankasti Chaturthi, 4th day of the dark half of every month; and such people will not eat anything until they have seen and worshipped the moon on that day. The moon is not worshipped on the Ganesh Chaturthi day that is, the 4th of the bright half of the month of BhÁdrapad, as it is considered very unlucky to see the moon on that night. It is firmly believed that any one who sees the moon on the Ganesh Chaturthi day even by accident will be falsely accused of theft or some other crime. In order to avoid this, people who have accidently seen the moon, throw stones at the houses of their neighbours, and if the neighbours abuse them in return, the mischief makers consider themselves freed by the abuse from the sin of having looked at the moon on a forbidden night.

The spots on the surface of the moon are believed by some to be the rath or chariot of the god. Others think that they are lunar mountains; but many believe that the spots are the visible signs of the stain on the character of the moon-god due to his having outraged the modesty of the wife of his guru, the god Brahaspati or Jupiter. In the PurÁns it is stated that on one occasion, a dispute arose between the moon and Brahaspati or Jupiter about the wife of Brahaspati, each of them claiming to be the cause of her conception. Subsequently a son was born who was named Budha (Mercury). Brahaspati’s wife, on being asked who was the father of the child, named the moon. Thereupon Brahaspati cursed the moon for his adultery. The spots on the surface of the moon are said to be the effect of this curse.

The moon-god is believed to distribute nectar through his rays, and therefore this deity is said to have the power of removing diseases and restoring human beings to health. The moon is the king of herbs, and all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon. Sometimes people place at night, figs, plantains, sugarcane and other eatables in the moon-light and eat them early in the morning; and it is said that those who do so improve in health. The practice of drinking the moon’s rays does not prevail in the KolhÁpur district. But people occasionally dine in the moon light.36

On a full moon day people perform the special worship of their chosen deity. On the full moon of the month of KÁrtika temples are illuminated, and on the full moon day of MÁgha, raw corn such as wheat, bÁjri, etc., is cooked and offered to the household and other deities.37 On this day are also performed the special rites and ceremonies that are required in connection with the Kula-devatÁs or family gods or goddesses. On the full moon day of FÁlguna the Holi fire is kindled and worshipped. In certain families the full moon of Chaitra is considered auspicious for making offerings to family deities. On the full moon day of ShrÁvan is observed the feast of Cocoanut day, and on this day BrÁhmans put on new sacred threads. The full moon is considered by the SanyÁsis or ascetics an auspicious day for shaving their heads.

On the new moon day the Pitras or Manes are worshipped. Lighted lamps are worshipped on the new moon day, of AshÁdha. In the KolhÁpur State this is called Tadali new moon day, and in the Konkan it is called Divali new moon day. On the new moon day of Ashvin, Lakshmi the goddess of wealth is worshipped. All special ceremonies for the propitiation of the Bhutas or evil spirits are usually performed on the new moon day. The Dwitiya or 2nd day of every month is considered sacred to the moon, and on this day the moon is worshipped; while the Chaturthi is considered sacred to the god Ganapati, and on the Chaturthi of BhÁdrapada a special festival is held in honour of the god Ganpati.38

On the 15th day of the bright half of the month of Ashvin people put milk in the rays of the moon for some time, and then, after offering it to the moon, they drink it. Drinking milk in this way is called drinking the rays of the moon.39 On the SankrÁnt Chaturthi day and on that Chaturthi which immediately follows the Dasara holiday, people draw an image of the moon and worship it.40 In the RatnÁgiri District several conflicting theories are held regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. Some believe that the spot observed on the moon is a tamarind tree in which that god has stationed himself; others hold that the spot is the reflection of a deer which is yoked to the chariot of the moon41; while many more believe that it has been occasioned by the hoof of the horse of King Nala. Some say that the spot on the surface of the moon represents a Pipal tree and a cow fastened to the roots of the tree; others on the authority of Hindu mythology suppose that God created Madan (cupid) from the essence taken from the body of the moon and hence the moon-god has spots on his body.42 In the MahÁbhÁrat it is stated that on the surface of the moon is reflected the island of Sudarshan on this earth, together with some trees and a great hare, the bright part being nothing but water.43 The spot on the surface of the moon is considered by some a deer which the god has taken on his lap.44 Some believe that Yashoda, the mother of Krishna, after waving an earthen dish round the face of Krishna, threw it at the sky. It struck the moon and thereby the spots on the surface of the moon were caused. Nectar is supposed to have been derived from the rays of the moon; and in some sacred books it is stated that the Chakora bird (Bartavelle Partridge) drinks the rays of the moon.45

The people of the ThÁna District hold similar notions regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. It has been said by some that the portion in question represents mud, while others say that the moon has been disfigured owing to a curse from a sage.46 Some people say that the spots are due to the moon being cursed by his preceptor Brahaspati with whose wife the moon-god had connection. Being unable to bear the pain of the spots, the moon, it is said, propitiated his preceptor, who directed him to bathe in the Bhima river to alleviate the agony. Accordingly the pain was assuaged, and the part of the river where the Moon-god bathed thus came to be called Chandra bhÁga.47 Some persons suggest that the spots are a Pipal tree with two deer feeding upon it from two sides.48 Others hold that the spots on the surface of the moon are due to its having been kicked by a deer which, when pursued by a hunter, was refused shelter.49 The people of the ThÁna District believe that the rays of the moon influence conception.50

In the KolÁba District, to sit in an open place on a moon-light night, is regarded as drinking the rays of the moon.51 The elongated part of the orb of the moon pointing towards the north or the south is supposed to forebode scarcity or abundance, respectively.52

It is a common belief that the moon should not be seen on the Ganesh Chaturthi day, i.e., the 4th day of the bright half of BhÁdrapad.

Looking at the moon continuously for a short time on every moon-light night is said to keep one’s sight in good order.53

If the AmÁvÁsya falls on Monday, BrÁhman women of the ThÁna District walk round a Tulsi plant or a Pipal tree and make a vow to a BrÁhman.54

In the KolÁba District a special ceremony is held in honour of minor goddesses on the 8th day of a month. The following things are avoided one on each of the fifteen tithis respectively:—

Kohala (pumpkin), dorli (Solanum indicum), salt, sesamum, sour things, oil, Ávale (Emblic myrobalan), cocoanuts, bhopala (gourd), padval (snake-gourd), pÁvte (Dolichos Lablah), masur (Lens esculenta), brinjal, honey, gambling.55

The people observe a fast on the 13th (Pradosha) and the 14th day (ShivarÁtra) of the dark half of every month.56 On the 15th day of the bright half of Chaitra, a fair is held in honour of the guardian deity of a village, and hens, goats, etc., are offered as a sacrifice.57

The following are days of special importance.

Gudhi-pÁdva, i.e., the first day of the bright half of Chaitra:—This being the first day of the year, gudhis and toranas are hoisted in front of every house and are worshipped.58

BhÁu-bij:—On the 2nd day of the bright half of KÁrtik every sister waves round the face of her brother a lamp, and makes him a present.59

The ceremony on the BhÁu-bij day has come into vogue on account of Subhadra having given a very pleasant bath to her brother Krishna on that day. The Court of Yama is also said to be closed on that day, since he goes to his sister; and consequently persons who die on that day, however sinful they may be, are not supposed to go to Yamaloka, i.e., hell.60

Akshya Tritiya:—On the third day of the bright half of VaishÁkh cold water and winnowing fans are distributed as tokens for appeasing the Manes of ancestors. On this day is also celebrated the birth of the god ParashurÁm.61

Ganesh Chaturthi:—On the 4th day of the bright half of BhÁdrapad, an earthen image of Ganpati is worshipped and a great ceremony is held in his honour.62 The fourth day of the bright half of every month is called VinÁyaka-Chaturthi; while that of the dark half is called Sankasti-Chaturthi. On the VinÁyaka-Chaturthi day, people fast the whole day and dine the next day; while on the Sankasti Chaturthi day, they fast during the day time and dine after moon-rise.63 That Sankasti Chaturthi which falls on Tuesday is considered the best.64

NÁgpanchami:—On the 5th day of the bright half of ShrÁvan, pictures of serpents and snake holes are worshipped.65

ChampÁ-Shashti:—On the 6th day of the bright half of MÁrgashirsha, some ceremony relating to the family-deity is performed.66

Ratha-Saptami:—On the 7th day of the bright half of MÁgh, the sun is worshipped and milk is boiled until it overflows.67

Gokul-Ashtami:—On the 8th day of the dark half of ShrÁvan the birth of the god Krishna is celebrated.68

RÁma-Navami:—On the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra the birth of the god RÁma is celebrated.69

VijayÁdashami:—On the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin people cross the boundary of their village and distribute sone (leaves of the Shami and Apta trees). It is a popular belief that a work commenced on this day is sure to end well. Weapons are also worshipped on this day.70

EkÁdashi:—On the 11th day of AshÁdh and KÁrtik a special fast is observed. People also fast on the 11th day of each month. A man who dies on this auspicious day is supposed to go to heaven.71 Sometimes the EkÁdashi falls on two consecutive days; in which case the SmÁrtas observe the first, while the BhÁgvats observe the second.72

WÁman-dwÁdashi:—On the 12th day of the bright half of BhÁdrapad WÁman is worshipped and one or twelve boys are adored, being held to represent WÁman. The marriage of the Tulsi plant is sometimes celebrated on this day.73

Dhana-Trayodashi:—On the 13th day of the dark half of Ashvin, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth is worshipped.74

Narak-Chaturdashi:—On the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, the demon NarakÁsur was killed. In consequence, on this day people take their bath before sun-rise, break Karinta (a fruit), regarding it as a demon, and apply its seeds to their heads.75

NÁrali Paurnima:—On the 15th day of the bright half of ShrÁvan, people worship the sea and throw into it a cocoanut.76

Wata-Paurnima:—On the 15th day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, women whose husbands are alive fast the whole day, and worship the Wata-tree.77

On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin, people keep themselves awake the whole night and amuse themselves in a variety of ways. On the 15th day of the bright half of KÁrtika houses are illuminated. This day is called Tripuri-Paurnima. On this night people illuminate with earthen lamps all temples in the village, but particularly the temple of Shiva. This is done in commemoration of the triumph of the god Shiva over the demon TripurÁsura. The full-moon day of the month of MÁgha is called Chudi Paur?ima. On this night people light chudies torches and with them slightly burn certain flowers, trees and plants. The full-moon day of the month of FÁlguna is called the Holi or Holi-Paurnima and is the biggest holiday of the lower class Hindus. On this night the Hindus kindle the Holi-fire and worship it.78 On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin people eat grain of the new harvest. On the full-moon day of ShrÁvan they perform the ShrÁvani ceremony and give a lamp in charity. On the full-moon day of the month of Chaitra, Vaishakha and MÁrgashirsha, the births of MÁruti, Narasimha and DattÁtraya respectively are celebrated.79 The Kunbis of the RatnÁgiri District believe that on the 15th or full-moon day of Pausha, the Hindu gods go out hunting and that they return from their hunting expedition on the full-moon day of the month of MÁgha. During this period the Kunbis abstain from worshipping their gods.80

AmÁvÁsya:—On the 15th day of the dark half of every month, oblations are given to the Manes of the dead.81 The commencement of a good deed, journey to a distant place, and the ploughing of land are postponed on the no-moon day of a month.82 SanyÁsis are enjoined to get their beard shaved on the Paurnima and AmÁvÁsya days only.83

People do not set out on a journey on the following tithis, regarding them as rikta (unfruitful or inauspicious):—

Chaturthi, Navami and Chaturdashi.84

The ChÁndrÁyana Vrata:—Widows fast on the no-moon day of a month. They are required to regulate their diet in such an increasing proportion that on the next full moon day they should have a full meal. The reverse process follows for a fortnight after, so that they observe an absolute fast on the following no-moon day.85

People have various ideas about the cause of the eclipses of the sun and the moon. Some say that the sun and the moon are superior deities, and that the demons RÁhu and Ketu who belong to the caste of MÁngs attempt to touch them and to devour them. Others believe that the planets RÁhu and Ketu stand in the path of the Sun and the Moon and thereby darkness is caused on the earth. It is believed that about 5 hours before the commencement of the obscuration, in the case of the Sun and about 4 hours in the case of the Moon, the Vedha or malign influence of the monsters begins and during the period till the whole eclipse is over a strict fast is observed. At the commencement of the eclipse, as well as at its close, people bathe. Some sit on a low wooden stool with a rosary in their hands repeating the names of the gods, or the gÁyatri or some of the mantras. But those who want to acquire the art of magic or witch-craft or the power of removing the evil effects of snake-poison, or scorpion sting, go to a lonely place on the riverside, and there standing in water repeat the mantras taught to them by their guru or teacher. People give alms to MahÁrs and MÁngs on this occasion, and therefore persons of this class go about the streets saying loudly “Give us alms and the eclipse will be over.” De dÁn sutÉ girÁn.

A strict fast is observed on an eclipse day, but children and pregnant women who cannot bear the privation are given something to eat under a sike. The eclipse time is so inauspicious that children and animals born at that time are considered unlucky.86 Sometimes an eclipse cannot be observed owing to the intervention of clouds. On that occasion the people of the Konkan resort to the following expedient in order to ascertain whether the luminary is eclipsed or not. They take a potful of water and hold in it a musal. If it stands in the pot unsupported it is regarded as indicative of the existence of an eclipse. MÁngs, MahÁrs, etc., are supposed to be the descendants of RÁhu and Ketu; and for this reason gifts are made to them in charity on an eclipse day.87

The people of the ThÁna District believe that corn grows abundantly in a year that witnesses many eclipses.88

The popular cause of an eclipse in the KolÁba District, is the Girha, a minor deity which is said to wander through the sky and swallow the Sun and the Moon when they cross his path.89 Besides the mythological story regarding the cause of an eclipse, the people of the RatnÁgiri District also believe that the Girha throws his shadow on the sun and the moon, when he comes to demand his dues from them.90 The Konkan villagers, on an eclipse day, strike barren trees with a pestle,91 in order that they may bear fruits and flowers. A barren woman is also beaten with the same motive. Similarly many other superstitious beliefs are connected with an eclipse. Pregnant women are not allowed to see the eclipse of the sun or the moon, nor are they to engage in cutting, sewing, etc. as this is believed to be injurious to the child in the womb.92 The eclipse time is supposed to be the most suitable to learn mantras or incantations.93 The mantris also mutter incantations during an eclipse in a naked condition.94 The people who believe that the eclipses are caused by the influence of the planets RÁhu and Ketu offer prayers to RÁhu on the lunar eclipse day and to Ketu on the solar eclipse day.95

The planets and stars are worshipped by the Hindus. It is believed that a person who is to die within six months cannot see the polar star. From the movements of the planets past and future events of one’s career are foretold by BrÁhman and other astrologers. And as it is believed that man’s good and bad luck are dependant upon the influence of the planets, offerings of various kinds are made and sacrifices performed for securing the favour of the Navagrahas or the nine planets. In order to avert the effect of the evil influence of certain planets people sometimes wear rings of those precious stones which are supposed to be the favourites of the planets.

The rain-bow is called Indra dhanushya or the Indra’s bow, and it is believed that if the rain-bow appears in the east, it indicates the coming of more rain, and if it appears in the west it is a sure sign of the close of the monsoon.

The milky way is believed to be the heavenly Ganges. Well known tradition relates how WÁman (the 5th incarnation of Vishnu) went to Bali the king of the lower regions and asked him to give him land measuring three feet only. The king consented, whereupon the god WÁman enlarged his body to such an extent that by his one footstep he occupied the whole earth and by the second he occupied heaven. Upon this the god Brahma worshipped the foot of the god Vishnu which was in heaven, and from that foot sprang the heavenly Ganges which flows in heaven and is called Dudha Ganga or the milky Ganges.

The worship of stars and planets is in vogue among Konkan Hindu families of the higher castes. The polar star in particular is seen and worshipped by the bride and the bridegroom after the ceremony at the marriage altar is over.96 A very interesting story is connected with the polar star. By the great power of his penance the sage VishvÁmitra despatched king Trishanku to Heaven, but the gods hurled him down. Thereupon VishvÁmitra became enraged and began to create a new heaven. Hindu mythological books say that he thus created the sages Vashista, Angiras, Pulah, Pulastya, Rutu, Atri, and Marichi, and stationed Trishanku in the sky. The Nava-grahas or the nine planets are worshipped before the commencement of all important ceremonies.97 A cluster of seven stars called the Sapta-rishis are worshipped by men at the time of the ShrÁvani ceremony, while women worship them on the 5th day of the bright half of BhÁdrapada.98 These Sapta-rishis are said to have been created by the God Brahma from his own body; and teaching them the four Vedas, he handed them over to them and asked them to regulate the affairs of the world.99

Some people of the RatnÁgiri District believe that the rain-bow is the bow used by RÁma, the hero of the RÁmÁyana. Its appearance on the east is regarded by them as symptomatic of the approach of rain, while its appearance on the west is equivalent to the departure of rain.100

The short duration of the rain-bow is held to indicate an excessive fall of rain while its long duration forbodes a scarcity of rain.101 The appearance of the rain-bow on a river is supposed to indicate the approach of rain, while its appearance on a mountain means the departure of rain.102 Of the two bows of which the rain-bow seems to be composed, the larger is believed to belong to RÁma, and the smaller to Lakshman.103 Since the God Indra is supposed to send rain, the Indradhanushya (the rain-bow) is regarded as a sign of the advent of rain.104

By some Hindus it is believed that the milky way is a heavenly river which is a favourite bathing place of the gods.105 Others suppose it to be a branch of the celestial Ganges which is said to have been brought down upon this earth by king Bhagiratha.106 Some persons, however, believe that since the great sage Agastya is said to reside at RÁmeshwar in the southern direction, the Ganges (the milky way) runs through the sky to the south in order to bathe him. Sometimes the milky way is believed to be a white cloud.107

On the authority of the MahÁkÁla NirvÁn Tantra, some people of the ThÁna District believe that a person who cannot get a view of the polar star will die within six months; while others substitute the Arundhati star for the polar star and determine the duration of life of a diseased person by the same process.108

The people of the ThÁna District believe that the rain-bow is caused by the accumulation of moisture in the air.109 The rain-bow is said to consecrate the region over which it appears.110 The appearance of the rain-bow in the morning is supposed to forbode the approach of rain.111

Some people of the KolÁba District believe that the holy persons such as KÁshyapa, Arundhati and other sages, who lived on this earth in ancient times are seen shining in the sky by the sacred lustre of their powers.112 Hindu women worship the planets Budha and Guru (Mercury and Jupiter) in the month of Shravan.113

The Sapta-rishis are somewhere called Khatale and BÁjale (cot).114 The rain-bow is held by some to be the symbol of RÁma and Lakshman, who visit the world in that form with the view of watching its proceedings. Others, however, believe that it represents God Indra who assumes that form to see how his orders are executed by his subordinates.115 The rain-bow is said to foretell good if it appears either at the beginning or end of the rainy season, while its appearance at any other time is supposed to forbode evil.116

Hindus regard the earth as one of their important deities and worship it on various occasions. It is enjoined upon BrÁhmans to worship it daily at the time of their Sandhya rite, as well as while performing the ShrÁvani ceremony.117 The people of the RatnÁgiri District pray to the earth as soon as they leave their bed in the morning.118 The earth is required to be worshipped at the time of laying the foundation-stone of a house, as well as at the time of bringing into use a newly built house.119 Since it is held unholy to sleep on the bare ground, those whose parents die, sleep on a woollen cloth on the ground till their parents’ anniversary is over.120 Wanprastas, SanyÁsis, and BrÁhmans are required to sleep on the ground.121 Some pious men sleep on the bare ground during the ChÁturmÁs (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiry of which they present a bed to a BrÁhman.122 It is enjoined upon a prince to sleep on the bare ground on the eve of the coronation day.123

Widows and women are required to sleep on the ground during their monthly courses. Women whose husbands are away are also to do the same.124 In the RatnÁgiri District Katkaris, on the day on which they wish to be possessed by a particular deity or spirit, are required to sleep on the earth.125 When people are on the point of death, they are made to lie on blades of darbha grass placed on the earth.126 The performer of a sacrifice as well as one who has observed a vow are to sleep on the ground.127 The following articles should not be allowed to touch the earth, viz. pearls, the ShÁligram stone, an image of the god Vishnu, the linga of Shiva, a conch shell, the sacred thread of a BrÁhman, flowers intended for worship, basil leaves, and Govardhan.128

The following lines are repeated in the morning before setting foot to the ground129:—

O Goddess! who is clothed (surrounded) by the sea, whose breasts are mountains, and who is the wife of Vishnu, I bow down to thee; please forgive the touch of my feet. O Goddess Earth! who art born by the power of Vishnu, whose surface is of the colour of a conch shell and who art the store house of innumerable jewels, I bow down to thee.

Some women of the ThÁna District worship the earth daily during the ChÁturmÁs (four months of the rainy season), at the end of which they give a BrÁhman a piece of land or the money equivalent of it.130 Persons who perform a particular rite, e.g., the SolÁsomavÁr-vrata (a vow observed on sixteen successive Mondays) are required to sleep on the bare ground.131 At the sowing and harvest time, farmers appease the earth by offering it cocoanuts, fowls, rice mixed with curd, etc.132 The blood of a king and the balls of rice given to the manes of the dead are not allowed to touch the ground. People convey to a distant place the water of the Ganges, without placing it on the ground.133

The earth is required to be worshipped before taking a portion of it for sacrificial purposes.134 A vessel containing water over which incantations have been repeated is not allowed to touch the ground.135 On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin every farmer prepares some sweetmeats in his house, and takes them to his farm. There he gathers five stones, worships them, and offers the sweetmeats to the earth. Afterwards he takes a portion of the food and scatters it over the farm. His family then gather there and take a hearty meal. In the evening the person who carried the food to the farm, picks up some grains of barley and puts them into a basket. On return home the grains are thrown over the house.136

Various conflicting notions are entertained regarding thunder and lightning. The people of the RatnÁgiri District believe that the clouds are animals that roar. When these animals emit water it bursts forth on account of the circular motion of the winds called Chanda and Munda. This bursting is supposed to produce thunder and lightning.137 Somewhere thunder and lightning are said to be the signals given by the god Indra, to birds, beasts, etc., of the setting in of the rainy season.138 Some people believe that the god Indra sends rain through his elephants who, being excited, make a noise like thunder.139

Others regard the thunder as the roaring of the elephant of the gods, while sucking sea-water. The thunder is also believed to be the roaring of the god Varuna, the king of the clouds.140 The boys of the RatnÁgiri District believe that thunder is a sign of the wedding ceremonies performed in the heavenly houses of the gods.141 Some Mahomedans believe that an angel called Mekail has control over the rain. To cause a fall of rain Mekail strikes the clouds with a whip of lightning. The clouds then utter a cry, and this is the cause of thunder.142 Some people of the ThÁna District believe that there are big stones in the sky which strike against each other owing to the force of the wind, and produce thunder. The dashing of these stones against each other also generates lightning.143

In the KolÁba District it is believed that thunder is the military band of the king of clouds and lightning is his banner.144 Lightning is said to be produced by the fighting of celestial elephants; while thunder is heard when they pour out water.145 Some people think that thunder is the noise of the feet of the elephants (clouds) that give rain; lightning is also said to be generated from their foot fall.146 The clouds are supposed to be the messengers of gods, lightning being the manifestation of Divine power. The gods are said to confine these messengers from the nakshatra of Ardra to the nakshatra of Hasti, in which latter nakshatra they again begin to roar.147

Thunder is supposed to take place when the god Indra draws his bow; while lightning is said to be produced when the same god strikes his adamant against a mountain.148

In the RatnÁgiri District it is believed that earthquake occurs whenever the thousand headed Shesha shakes its head.149 It is said that at one time a demon named GayÁsur became very troublesome, and all the gods held him down by standing on his body. Thereupon the demon requested all the gods to remain on his body for ever. Occasionally this GayÁsur shakes his body and this causes the earthquake.150 Some people believe that the earth trembles of its own accord when sins accumulate upon it.151 Others hold that the earthquake takes place in the hollow parts of the earth.152 Some people, however, believe that since the earth floats upon water, it naturally quakes at times.153

The Hindus being element worshippers naturally hold in reverence certain rivers, ponds, etc. In the RatnÁgiri District the spring at RÁjÁpur, called the RÁjÁpurchi Ganga is considered very sacred. It flows from the roots of a Banyan tree. There are fifteen Kundas or ponds, and the principal Kunda always remains filled with water. On occasions a big jÁtra fair is held and people from distant places come to bathe and worship at the spring.154 Some people believe that many of the lakes, springs, etc., situated in the KolhÁpur State are sacred.155 A spring or rivulet that flows to the east is considered specially sacred. It is called a Surya-Vansi spring, and it is considered meritorious to bathe in it.156 In the village of Kunkauli in the RatnÁgiri District if a person is bitten by a snake or other poisonous reptile, no medicine is administered to him, but holy water brought from the temple of the village goddess is given to him to drink, and it is said that the patient is thus cured.157 The water fall at Maral near Devarkuha, where the river BÁn takes its rise, is held sacred.158 At Shivam in the RatnÁgiri District the people use the tirtha of a deity as medicine for diseases due to poison. They say that it is the sole remedy they apply in such cases.159 There are ponds at Manora in the Goa State, and Vetore in the SÁvantwÁdi State, the water of which is used as medicine for the cure of persons suffering from the poison of snakes, mice, spiders, and scorpions.160 When a well is dug, the people call a BrÁhman priest to consecrate it. The BrÁhman takes cow’s urine, milk, curds, ghi, sandal paste, flowers, basil leaves, and rice, and mixes them with water, and after repeating sacred mantras over the water, throws the mixture into the well. After this ceremony, the people are at liberty to drink water from the well.161

Before a well is dug, an expert is consulted to ascertain the place where a spring flows. A well is then dug, after offering a sacrifice to the spirits and deities that happen to dwell at that spot. A dinner is given to BrÁhmans after the well is built.162 A golden cow is often thrown into a newly built well as an offering to the water deities.163 There is a well at Mandangad, the water of which serves as medicine to cure the poison of snakes and other reptiles.164

It is believed that there is a class of wicked water nymphs called AsarÁ who generally dwell in wells, ponds, or rivers, far from the habitation of men. Whenever these nymphs come across a lonely man or woman entering a well, pond, etc., they carry that person under water. The village of MithbÁv in the RatnÁgiri District is a well-known resort of these AsarÁs, and many instances are given by the villagers of persons being drowned and carried off in the river by these wicked nymphs. A tank in the village of Hindalem in the same district has a similar reputation.165 The people of the Konkan believe that water nymphs are sometimes seen in the form of women near wells, rivers, and ponds.166 Some say that the water nymphs and water spirits confer objects desired by worshippers if they are propitiated by prayers.167

There are seven kundas, ponds, at Nirmal in the ThÁna District, forming a large lake. This lake is said to have been formed from the blood of the demon VimalÁsur. At ShÁhÁpur there is a holy spring of hot water under a Pipal tree. It is called Ganga.168 There are kundas, pools, of hot water in the Vaitarna river in the ThÁna District, in which people bathe on the 13th day of the dark half of Chaitra.169 There are also springs of hot water on the bank of the Surya river at Vajreshvari and at Koknere, in the ThÁna District.170 A handful of corn, if thrown into the hot water kundas at Tungar, is said to be boiled at once.171 It is held holy to bathe in the kundas of hot water that are situated in the rivers TÁnsa and BÁnganga in the ThÁna District.172 The water of a well which is drawn without touching the earth or without being placed upon the ground is given as medicine for indigestion. Similarly the water of seven tanks, or at least of one pond, in which lotuses grow is said to check the virulence of measles, small-pox, etc.173 A bath in a certain tank in the Mahim taluka is said to cure persons suffering from the itch, and water purified by repeating incantations over it is also said to be a good remedy for the same disease.174

The water of a tank or a well is supposed to be wholesome to a person of indifferent health, if given to him to drink without placing it upon the ground.175 Some people believe that the water of the Ganges is so holy and powerful that if bows are thrown into it they are instantly reduced to powder.176 The repair of lakes, caravanserais, temples, etc., is held more meritorious than their actual erection.177 It is enjoined upon a man to perform a certain rite if he wishes to relinquish his right of ownership over a well or tank, and after this rite is performed, it can be utilized for public purposes. But no ceremony is required to be performed if a well is dug for the benefit of the public.178

The people of the ThÁna District believe that water nymphs reside in every reservoir of water.179 Some people, however, believe that the water nymphs dwell in those lakes in which lotuses grow. These nymphs are said to do harm to children and young women, especially when they set out for a walk accompanied by their brother Gavala. They are unusually dangerous.180 The people worship the images of the following seven water nymphs or apsaras, viz., Machhi, Kurmi, Karkati, Darduri, Jatupi, Somapa and Makari.181

The following places are said to be inhabited by water spirits:—the channel of Kalamba, the tanks of Sopara and Utaratal and the lake called Tambra-tirtha at Bassein182. Water nymphs are supposed to drown a person who tries to save another fallen into water.183 A species of small men named Uda, otherwise called water-spirits, are said to dwell in water and subsist on fishes.184 The spirits called Khais and Mhashya are supposed to reside in water.185

The river SÁvitri in the KolÁba District takes its rise near MahÁbaleshwar and is considered very sacred. The following traditionary account is given of its origin. The god Brahma had two wives, SÁvitri and GÁyatri. A dispute having arisen between them, they both jumped over a precipice. SÁvitri assumed the form of a river and fell into the sea near BÁnkot. GÁyatri, on the other hand, concealed herself in the river SÁvitri and manifested herself as a spring near Harihareshwar in the Janjira State.186 A man is said to be released from re-birth if he takes a bath in the kund (pond) named Katkale-tirtha near NÁsik.187 Bows are said to be reduced to powder if thrown into a certain kund at Uddhar-RÁmeshwar in the Sudhagad taluka.188 Kupotsarga is defined to be the digging of a well for the benefit of the public and abandoning one’s right of ownership over it.189