Offerings of cocoanuts, fowls or goats are annually made to the spirits that guard the fields. They are generally made at the time of beginning a plantation or the harvesting of a crop. When making these offerings, the farmers pray to the god to give prosperous crops every year. They prepare their cooked food in the field on the first harvesting day and offer it as naivedya (god’s meal) along with the above mentioned offerings.1

At BÁndivade in the RatnÁgiri District, while commencing the sowing of crops the farmers worship a certain number of bullocks made of rice flour and then throw them into the pond or river adjoining the fields. On other occasions, offerings of cocoanuts and fowls are sacrificed to the deities that protect the fields. Some people give a feast to the BrÁhmans at the end of the harvesting season.2

Ceremonies in connection with ploughing, etc., are not observed for all the lands. But fields which are supposed to be haunted by evil spirits are worshipped at the time of ploughing, and the evil spirits are propitiated, cocoanuts, sugar, fowls or goats are offered to the local deities or devachÁrs. There is a custom of worshipping in the fields the heaps of new corn at the time of harvest, and this custom generally prevails in almost all the Konkan districts.3

At Fonda in the RatnÁgiri District the Shiwar generally composed of boiled rice mixed with curds is kept at the corner of a field at the time of reaping the crops. The Shiwar is sometimes composed of the offerings of fowls and goats.4 This ritual is also known by the name Chorawa.5

At DÁsgÁv in the KolÁba District, there is a custom of carrying one onion in the corn taken to the fields for sowing and placing five handfuls of corn on a piece of cloth before beginning to sow the corn. At the time of LÁwani or plantation of crops a fair called Palejatra is held by the people, and every farmer breaks a cocoanut in the field at the time of plantation or lÁvani of crops. At the time of harvesting it is customary with many of the cultivators in the Konkan to place a cocoanut in the field and to thrash it by the first bundle of crop several times before the regular operation of thrashing is begun. At the close of the harvest the peasants offer cocoanuts, fowls or a goat to the guardian deity of the field.6

At VÁda in the ThÁna District the ploughs are worshipped by the farmers on Saturday and then carried to the fields for ploughing. At the time of harvesting, the wooden post to which the bullocks are tied is worshipped by them and at the close of the harvest the heap of new corn is worshipped and cocoanuts are broken over it.7

In the KolhÁpur District the farmers worship the plough before beginning to plough the land. At the time of sowing the corn they worship the Kuri an implement for sowing corn. At the time of Ropani or transplanting the crops they split a cocoanut, and worship the stone consecrated by the side of the field after besmearing it with red powders, and make a vow of sacrificing a goat for the prosperity of their crops. At the time of harvesting they also worship the heap of new corn and after giving to the deity offerings of cocoanuts, fowls or goats they carry the corn to their houses.8

In the Konkan districts the village deity is invoked to protect the cattle. People offer fowls and cocoanuts in the annual fair of a village deity, and request her to protect their cattle and crops. They have to offer a goat or buffalo to the deity every third year, and to hold annual fairs in her honour. The procession of bali is one of the measures adopted for averting cattle diseases.9

When there was scarcity of rain the Hindus formerly invoked Indra, the god of rain, by means of Yadnyas or sacrifices, but such sacrifices are now rarely performed as they are very costly. The general method of ensuring rainfall in these days is to drown the Lingam of the god Shiva in water and to offer prayers to that deity.10

The following rural rites are intended to ensure sunshine and to check excessive rain. A man born in the month of FÁlgun (March) is requested to collect rain water in the leaf of the Alu plant, and the leaf is then tied to a stick and kept on the roof of a house. Burning coals are also thrown into rainwater after passing them between the legs of a person born in the month of FÁlgun.11

In order to protect the crops from wild pig the people of UmbergÁon in the ThÁna District post in their fields twigs of Ayan tree on the Ganesh Chaturthi (fourth day of the bright half of BhÁdrapada or September) day every year.12

In the KolhÁpur District the deities TamjÁi, TungÁi, and WÁghÁi are invoked by the villagers for the protection of cattle. When the cattle disease has disappeared the people offer cocoanuts and other offerings to these deities. The potters and the Chudbude Joshis observe the following ceremony for causing rainfall. A lingam or phallus of Shiva made of mud is consecrated on a wooden board or pÁt, and a naked boy is asked to hold it over his head. The boy carries it from house to house and the inmates of the houses pour water over the phallus. The BrÁhmans and the high class Hindus pour water on the lingam at the temple of the god Shiva continuously for several days. This is called RudrÁbhisheka. It is a religious rite in which eleven BrÁhmans are seated in a temple to repeat the prayers of the god Shiva.

In order to scare noxious animals or insects from the fields, the owners of the fields throw charmed rice round the boundaries of their fields. The figure of a tiger made of dry leaves of sugarcane is posted at a conspicuous place in the fields for protecting the crops of sugarcane.13

Great secrecy is required to be observed on the occasion of the special puja of Shiva which is performed on the first day of the bright half of the month of BhÁdrapada (September). This rite is called Maunya vrata or silent worship, and should be performed only by the male members of the family. On this day all the members of the family have to remain silent while taking their meals. Women do not speak while cooking, as the food which is to be offered to the god must be cooked in silence.14

Newly married girls have to perform the worship of Mangala Gauri successively for the first five years on every Tuesday in the month of ShrÁwan (August), and it is enjoined that they should not speak while taking their meals on that day. Some people do not speak while taking their meals on every Monday of ShrÁwan, and others make a vow of observing silence and secrecy at their meals every day. All BrÁhmans have to remain silent when going to the closet and making water.15

Certain persons observe silence at their meals during the period of four months (ChÁturmÁs) commencing from the 11th day of the bright half of AshÁdha (July) to the 11th day of the bright half of KÁrtik (November). Certain classes of Hindus observe the penance of secrecy in the additional month that occurs at the lapse of every third year.16

Silence is essential at the time of performing certain austerities such as Sandhya, worshipping the gods, and the repetition of the Brahma GÁyatri mantra and other such mantras. Secrecy is specially observed when a disciple is initiated by his Guru or spiritual guide with the sacred mantras or incantations.17

Secrecy and silence are essential when learning the mantras on snakebite, on evil eye and the evil spirit of VetÁl. All followers of the ShÁkta sect must worship the goddess (Durga) very secretly. Silence is also observed by people in welcoming to their homes and worshipping the goddess PÁrvati or Gauri in the bright half of BhÁdrapada every year.18

At VÁde in the ThÁna District, one day previous to the planting of rice crops the farmer has to go to his field even before day break with five balls of boiled rice, cocoanuts and other things. There he worships the guardian deity of the field and buries the balls of rice underground. He has to do it secretly and has to remain silent during the whole period. He is also forbidden to look behind while going to the field for the purpose.19

Secrecy and silence are observed when performing the rites of Chetuks and evil spirits or ghosts. Widow remarriages among the lower classes are performed secretly. The pair wishing to be remarried is accompanied by a BrÁhman priest and the marriage is performed apart from the house. The priest applies red lead (Kunku) to the forehead of the bride and throws grains of rice over their heads and a stone mortar or pÁta is touched to the backbone of the bride. The priest then turns his face and walks away silently.20

The Holi is a religious festival. It is annually celebrated in memory of the death of KÁmdev the God of Love who was destroyed by the god Shankar on the full moon day of FÁlgun (March). The object of this festival appears to have been a desire to abstain from lust by burning in the Holi fire all vicious thoughts and desires. As a rule, females do not take any part in this festival.

In the Konkan districts the annual festival of Holi begins from the fifth day of the bright half of FÁlgun (March). Boys from all the localities of a village assemble at a place appointed for the Holi. The place appointed for kindling the Holi is not generally changed. The boys then go from house to house asking for firewood, and bring it to the Holi spot. They arrange the firewood and other combustible articles around the branch of a mango, betelnut or a SÁwar tree in the pit dug out for the purpose and then set it on fire. After kindling the sacred fire they take five turns round the Holi accompanied with the beating of drums and raise loud cries of obscene words. After this they play the Indian games of AtyÁpÁtya and Khokho and occasionally rob the neighbouring people of their firewood and other combustible articles. At the close of these games they daub their foreheads with sacred ashes gathered from the Holi fire. They consider these ashes especially auspicious and carry them home for the use of the other members of their families. This process is continued every night till the close of the fullmoon day. Elderly persons take part in this festival only during the last few days.

On the fullmoon day all the males of the village, including old men, start after sunset for the Holi spot, collecting on their way pieces of firewood from all the houses in the locality and arrange them in the manner described above. After having arranged the Holi, the officiating priest recites sacred verses and the puja is performed by the mÁnkari of the village. This mÁnkari or pÁtil is either the headman or some other leading person of the village and to him belongs the right of kindling the Holi fire first. Some persons kindle a small Holi in front of their houses and worship it individually, but they can take part in the public Holi. In the towns the Holis of different localities are kindled separately while in small villages there is only one for every village.

At Vijaydurg in the RatnÁgiri District a hen is tied to the top of a tree or a bamboo placed in the pit dug out for kindling the Holi fire. The fowl tied to the top of the bamboo is called Shit. A small quantity of dry grass is first burnt at the bottom of this tree when the MahÁrs beat their drums. The Shit (fowl) is then removed from the tree after it is half burnt and taken by the MahÁrs. The Holi fire is then worshipped and kindled by the Gurav. Worshipping and kindling the Holi and taking the Shit (fowl) are considered as high honours. Occasionally quarrels and differences arise over this privilege and they are decided by the village Panch.21

After the kindling of the Holi the people assembled there offer to the Holi a Naivedya (god’s meal) of poli—a sweet cake made of Jagri, wheat flour and gram pulse. Cocoanuts from all the houses in the village are thrown into this sacred fire. Some of these cocoanuts are afterwards taken out of the sacred fire, cut into pieces, mixed with sugar and are distributed among the people assembled as prasÁd or favoured gift. Lower classes of Hindus offer a live goat to the Holi, take it out when it is half burnt and feast thereon.

On the night of the fullmoon day and the first day of the dark half of FÁlgun, the people assembled at the Holi fire wander about the village, enter gardens and steal plantains, cocoanuts and other garden produce. Robbery of such things committed during these days is considered to be pardonable. Some people take advantage of this opportunity for taking revenge on their enemies in this respect.

The fire kindled at the Holi on the fullmoon day is kept constantly burning till the Rangpanchami day i.e., fifth day of the dark half of FÁlgun. Next morning i.e., on the first day of the dark half of FÁlgun, the people boil water over that fire and use it for the purpose of bathing. It is believed that water boiled on the sacred fire has the power of dispelling all the diseases from the body. People go on dancing in the village and sing songs for the next five days. They generally sing LÁvanis, a kind of ballad, during this festival. Among these dancers a boy is dressed like a girl and is called RÁdha. This RÁdha has to dance at every house while the others repeat LÁvanis.

The second day of the dark half of FÁlgun is called Dhulvad or dust day when people start in procession through the village, and compel the males of every house to join the party. They thus go to the Holi fire and raise loud cries of obscene words throwing mud and ashes upon each other. They afterwards go to the river or a pond to take their bath at noon time and then return to their houses. The third day of the dark half is also spent like the previous one with a slight difference which is that cow dung is used instead of mud. This day is called Shenwad day. On the fourth day the Dhunda RÁkshahasin (a demon goddess) is worshipped by the people, and the day is spent in making merry and singing obscene songs called LÁvanis. The fifth day of the dark half is known as Rangpanchami day and is observed by the people in throwing coloured water upon each other. Water in which Kusumba and other colours are mixed is carried in large quantity on bullock carts through the streets of a city and sprinkled on the people passing through these streets. On this day the sacred fire of the Holi is extinguished by throwing coloured water over it. This water is also thrown upon the persons assembled at the Holi. The money collected as post during this period is utilised in feasting and drinking.

At IbrÁmpur in the RatnÁgiri District the image of cupid is seated in a palanquin and carried with music from the temple to the Holi ground. The palanquin is then placed on a certain spot. The place for thus depositing the image of the god is called SÁhÁn.22 At NÁringre there is a big stone called Holdev which is worshipped by the people before kindling the Holi fire.23 After the kindling of the sacred fire the palanquin is lifted from the SÁhÁn, and turned round the Holi fire with great rejoicings. The palanquin is then carried through the village and is first taken to the house of a MÁnkari, and then from house to house during the next five days. The inmates of the houses worship the deity in the palanquin and offer cocoanuts and other fruits and make certain vows. The palanquin is taken back to the temple on the fifth day of the dark half of FÁlgun when on its way gulÁl or red powder is thrown over the image and on the people who accompany it.24

Among high class Hindus the thread girding ceremony of a boy is performed when he attains puberty. The girls are generally married at an early age, and when a girl attains puberty, sugar is distributed among the friends and relatives of her husband. She is then seated in a Makhar—a gaily dressed frame. Dishes of sweets which are brought by the girl’s parents and the relatives of her husband are given to her for the first three days. She takes her bath on the fourth day accompanied by the playing of music and the beating of drums. Sweetmeats in dishes are brought by the relatives till the day of Rutushanti (the first bridal night). The GarbhÁdÁn or RutushÁnti ceremony is one of the sixteen ceremonies that are required to be performed during the life of every Hindu. This ceremony is performed within the first sixteen days from the girl’s attaining her puberty, the 4th, 7th, 9th, 11th and the 13th being considered inauspicious for this purpose. While performing this ceremony the following three rites are required to be observed. They are Ganpatipujan or the worship of the god Ganpati, PunhyÁhavachan or the special ceremony for invoking divine blessings and NavagrahashÁnti the ceremony for propitiating the nine planets. The ritual of this ceremony is as follows:—

The husband and the wife are seated side by side on wooden boards to perform the above three rites. The Kadali pujan or plantain tree worship is performed by the pair. The sacred fire or Homa is required to be kindled. The juice of the Durwa grass is then poured into the right nostril of the bride by her husband. This is intended to expel all diseases from the body of the girl and to secure safe conception. They are then seated in a Makhar, and presents of clothes, ornaments etc., are made by the parents of the girl and other relatives. After this the husband fills the lap of the girl with rice, a cocoanut, five betelnuts, five dry dates, five almonds, five plantains and five pieces of turmeric. The girl is then carried to a temple accompanied by the playing of music. A grand feast is given to the friends and relatives at the close of this ceremony.

The Hindus generally make various kinds of vows in order to procure offspring or with some other such object, and fulfil them when they succeed in getting their desire. The following are the different kinds of vows made. They offer cocoanuts, sugar, plantains and other fruits, costly new dresses and ornaments to the deities, and give feasts to BrÁhmans. Special ceremonies called Laghurudra and MahÁrudra in honour of Shiva the god of destruction are also performed. Sweetmeats such as pedhas etc. are offered to the gods in fulfilment of vows. Some people make vows to observe fasts, to feed BrÁhmans, and to distribute coins and clothes to the poor; while others hang torana-wreaths of flowers and mango leaves—on the entrance of the temple, and hoist flags over it. Rich people erect new temples to different Hindu deities. Some observe fasts to propitiate the goddess Chandika and worship her during NavarÁtra the first nine days of the bright half of Ashvin (October) and others offer fowls and goats to their favourite deities. Women make it a vow to walk round the Audumbar or Pipal tree, and to distribute cocoanuts, sugar, jagri, copper or silver equal to the weight of their children.

Vows are made by people with the object of securing health, wealth and children and other desired objects such as education etc. They are as follows:—

Performing the worship of Shri Satya NÁrÁyan, offering clothes and ornaments to the temple deities, hanging bells, constructing a foot path or steps leading to the temple of the special deity.25 Vows are also made to obtain freedom from disease or such other calamities. When any person in the family becomes ill or when a sudden calamity befalls a family an elderly member of the family goes to the temple of a deity and makes certain vows according to his means, fulfilling them as soon as the calamity or disease has disappeared.26

Vows are usually to perform acts of benevolence. These consist in distributing cocoanut mixed in sugar, giving feasts to BrÁhman priests, observing fasts on Saturday, Tuesday and Sunday, offering clothes and ornaments to deities, building new temples and guest houses (dharmshÁlÁs), digging out new wells and in distributing clothes and food to the poor.27

At Khopoli in the KolÁba District, people who have no children or whose children die shortly after birth make a vow to the SatwÁi deity whose temple is at a short distance from Khopoli. The vow is generally to bring the child to the darshana (sight) of the deity and to feed five or more (married) BrÁhman pairs. Such vows are fulfilled after the birth of a child. Some worship the god Satya NÁrÁyan on a grand scale and others propitiate the god Shiva by the ceremony of Abhisheka (water sprinkling).28 Some offer nails made of gold or silver to the goddess Shitala after the recovery of a child suffering from small pox. Eyes and other parts of the body made of gold and silver are also occasionally offered in fulfilment of vows. People abstain from eating certain things till the vows are fulfilled.29

Vows are made in times of difficulties and sorrow. The person afflicted with sorrow or misfortune prays to his favourite deity and promises to offer particular things or to perform special ceremonies, and fulfils his vows when his desired objects are attained. The ceremonies commonly observed for these purposes are the special pujÁs of Satya NÁrÁyan and Satya VinÁyak. Native Christians make their vows to their saints and Mot-MÁvali (Mother Mary) in the taluka of Salsette.30

There is a shrine of the god Shankar at Kanakeshwar a village on the sea side two miles from MithbÁv in the RatnÁgiri District. Many years ago it so happened that a rich Mahomedan merchant was carrying his merchandise in a ship. The ship foundered in a storm at a distance of about two or three miles from Kanakeshwar. When the vessel, seemed to be on the point of sinking the merchant despairing of his life and goods, made a vow to erect a nice temple for the Hindu shrine of Kanakeshwar if he, his vessel and its cargo were saved. By the grace of God the vessel weathered the storm and he arrived safely in his country with the merchandise. In fulfilment of this vow he erected a good temple over the shrine of Shri Shankar at Kanakeshwar, which cost him about rupees six thousand. This temple is in good condition to the present day. Many such vows are made to special deities. When the people get their desired objects they attribute the success to the favour of the deity invoked, but when their expectations are not fulfilled they blame their fate and not the deity.31

In the Konkan districts there are some persons who practise black art of several kinds such as Chetak, JÁran, MÁran and UchÁtan. Chetak is a kind of evil spirit brought from the temple of the goddess ItalÁi of the Konkan districts. It is brought for a fixed or limited period, and an annual tribute is required to be paid to the goddess for the services.

Another kind of black art widely practised in the Konkan districts is known by the name of Muth mÁrane. In this art the sorcerer prepares an image of wheat flour, and worships it with flowers, incense, etc. A lemon pierced with a number of pins is then placed before the image. The sorcerer begins to pour spoonfuls of water mixed with Jagri on the face of the image, and repeats certain mantras. Meanwhile, the lemon gradually disappears and goes to the person whose death it is intended to secure. The person aimed at receives a heavy blow in the chest and at once falls to the ground vomitting blood. Sometimes he is known to expire instantaneously. The charmed lemon, after completing its task returns to the sorcerer, who anxiously awaits its return, for it is believed that if the lemon fails to return some calamity or misfortune is sure to occur to him. For this reason the beginner desiring to be initiated into the mystery of this black art has to make the first trial of his mantras on a tree or a fowl.

Females are also initiated into the mysteries of JÁdu or black art. Such women are required to go to the burning ground at midnight in a naked state, holding in their hands hearths containing burning coals. While on their way they untie their hair, and then begin the recital of their mantras. There they dig out the bones of buried corpses, bring them home, and preserve them for practising black art.

There is a sect of Hindus known as ShÁktas who practise the black art. The ShÁktas worship their goddess at night, make offerings of wine and flesh, and then feast thereon.