Various ceremonies are performed by cultivators at the time of ploughing the soil, sowing, reaping and harvesting. These ceremonies differ in details in different localities.

In all places, an auspicious day for ploughing and sowing is fixed in consultation with an astrologer. On the day when ploughing is to be commenced, the front court yard of the house is cowdunged and an auspicious figure called Sathia1 is drawn on it with the grains of juvari.2

A dish called kansar is prepared, and served to all members of the family at the morning meal. Their foreheads are marked with red powder, and a pice and betelnut are offered to the household gods. Hand-spun cotton threads marked at intervals with red powder are then tied round the plough and to the horns of the bullocks which are to be yoked to the plough.3

Next, the farmer stands waiting at the front door of his house for good omens,4 and when a few are seen, sets out for his field.

In some places, the foreheads of the bullocks are daubed with red lead, clarified butter is applied to their horns, and they are fed with molasses.5

In others, a betelnut is placed over the Sathia and given to the person who first meets the farmer on leaving his house.6

In some localities again, the farmer holds the plough over the Sathia, touching it with the end, eats a morsel of molasses, and bows to the Sathia before starting.7

As a rule, seed is not sown on Saturdays or Tuesdays. Wednesday is believed to be the most favourable day for this purpose.8

Sowing is commenced from that corner of the field which has been pronounced by the astrologer to be the best for the operation.9

Sunday is believed to be the most auspicious day for reaping.10 While reaping, a part of the crop is offered to the image of Kshetrapal and to other village deities. In order to secure a good harvest, sweets are offered to the village gods on the eighth or tenth day of the bright half of Ashvin or on the second day of the bright half of Kartik which is called Annakuta.11

No crop is brought into the house before a part of it has been offered to the local deities.12

When juice is to be extracted from sugar-canes, the mill is first worshipped. In the shed erected for storing the jars of molasses, an image of Ganpati is installed, and worshipped before placing the jars in the shed.13

The first jar of molasses and two bits of sugar cane are offered to the local deities.14

Before reaping cotton, offerings are made to the village gods.15

When a cow or she-buffalo is about to calve a packet containing a few pebbles or cowries, the mali (red lead) from the image of Hanuman, dust collected from a place where four roads meet, and grains of Adad, are tied to its horns by an indigo-coloured thread, in the belief that this protects the animal from the effects of the evil eye.16

To guard cattle against an attack of small-pox, women observe a vow called Shili Satem on the seventh day of the bright half of Shravan.17

To prevent a tiger from attacking cattle, a circle of the flour of charonthi is drawn round them by an exorcist reciting mantras or incantations. If a tiger tries to enter this protected area its mouth at once becomes swollen.18

In some places, salt heated over the fire of the Holi is put into the food given to the cattle in the belief that this protects them from disease.19

Instead of salt, some people give cattle leaves of castor-oil plants roasted over the fire of the Holi.20

In some places, on the Divali holiday, a torch and a rice pounder are placed in the cattle shed, and the cattle are made to cross them one by one. This process is believed to protect them from disease.21

A ceremony called the Doro of Mahadev is also performed in the month of Shravan to protect cattle against disease.22

Vows in the honour of Ashpal or Nagdev are also observed for the protection of cattle.23

In the Hasta nakshatra during the monsoon, when there is a thunder storm, a sambelu (rice pounder) is struck seven times against the main cross beam of the house in the belief that the sound thus produced destroys insects.24

To scare the insects called itidio, vows are observed in honour of the Itidio Pir.25

In order that insects and worms may not spoil the corn stored in a granary or in earthen jars, the ashes of the fire of the Holi or leaves of the nim tree are mixed with it.

To prevent insects from spoiling wheat, bajari and juvari, mercury and ashes are put into them, while it is believed that gram cannot be eaten by insects if it is mixed with dust from a place where three roads meet.26

To drive away insects, a ceremony called Adagho Badagho or Mariyun is performed on the Divali holiday. It is as follows:—

One man holds a lighted torch in his hand, and another an earthen jar, which he beats with a small stick. The two men pass through every nook and corner of the house and the cattle-shed crying “Adagho may go, Badagho may go”, that is, “May troubles and diseases disappear; may bugs, serpents, mice, scorpions, mosquitoes and other insects die out.” Next they proceed, repeating the same words, through the streets to the village boundary, where the torch, the earthen jar and the stick are thrown away, thus ending the ceremony.27

In order to secure sunshine and favourable weather, oblations are offered to the local deities, sacrificial offerings are made and bunting is suspended from the doors of temples.28

In order to secure a favourable rainfall, a grand festival is observed on an auspicious day. On this day all agricultural work is stopped and megh laddus (sweet balls called megh or cloud) are eaten by the people.29

In some places, for the protection of the crops, a thread charmed by the incantations of an exorcist is passed round the hedge of the field.30

For the protection of crops of gram, wheat and sugar-cane against injury by rats, a ceremony called Dadh Bandhavi is performed, in which a thread over which incantations have been repeated by an exorcist is passed round the crop, and an image of Ganpati is installed and worshipped with offerings of sweet balls of wheat flour.31

In some places, the ceremony of Dadh Bandhavi is performed somewhat differently. Instead of passing a thread round the field, the exorcist walks round the field repeating incantations, holding in his hand a pot containing fire, over which is placed a pan containing Gugal. This ceremony is generally performed for the protection of sugar-cane crops against the attacks of jackals. It is believed that an animal entering the field after the performance of this ceremony has its dadh (gums) stiffened.32

Silence and secrecy are considered essential in working mystic lore, for it is a belief that if learnt openly such lore loses its power.33

The ceremony for obtaining command over Kal Bhairav is performed in perfect silence at midnight on the Kalichaudas, that is the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin.34

Silence and secrecy are also essential in the ceremonies which are performed for subjugating such evil spirits as Meldi and Shikotar and Matas.35

When Vaishnavas make offerings to their gods, the doors of the shrine are closed.

The initiating ceremonies of the Shakti Panthis and Margi Panthis are also performed in close secrecy.36

The Shravaks have to observe perfect silence at the time of performing the Shamag Padakamanu37 (a form of devotion to god).

Some people observe a vow of keeping silent while taking their meals either for life or during the monsoon.38

There are various legends current among the people regarding the origin of the Holi holiday. The chief versions are as follows:—

1. In ancient times there lived a demoness named Dhunda who preyed upon children. Her misdeeds caused great misery to the people, who went to Vasishtha, the preceptor of Rama, and implored him to tell them of some remedy for the mischief wrought by the demoness. Vasishtha told them to light a pyre in honour of the goddess Holika, which he said, would consume the demoness. The people accordingly lighted a huge fire, into which the demoness was driven by boys who led her to the spot by abusing her and troubling her in many ways. She was reduced to ashes by the fire, and the people were saved.39

2. A demon named Hiraniaksha had a sister named Holika and a son named Prahlad. Hiraniaksha bore great enmity to Rama, while Prahlad was his devotee. Hiraniaksha did not like his son’s devotion to Rama, and told him several times to give it up, and even threatened to take his life. But Prahlad did not swerve an inch from the path of his devotion. At last, being desperate, Hiraniaksha decided to kill him, and entrusted his sister with the mission. Holika raised a big pile of cow-dung cakes, set it on fire, and seated herself on the pile, taking Prahlad in her lap. But through the grace of Rama, Prahlad escaped uninjured while Holika was reduced to ashes.

3. A demoness called Dhunda had obtained a boon from Shiva to the effect that she would not meet her death during any of the three seasons of the year, either by day or by night. At the same time she was warned to beware of injury from children between sunset and nightfall at the commencement of a new season. To prevent any possibility of injury from children, she began to destroy them by preying upon their bodies. This caused a great panic among the people, who went to Vasishtha and asked his advice as to how to kill the demoness. He advised them to kill her in the way described in legend No. I above, and she was killed accordingly.40

4. The Govardhan mountain had two sisters named Holi and Divali. Holi was a woman of bad conduct while Divali’s character was good. Although unchaste, Holi boasted that she was chaste, and once, to prove her chastity, she threw herself on to a big fire. She could not bear the pain caused by the flames, and began to scream aloud, when people beat drums, abused her, and raised such a din that her screams became inaudible. Hence the custom of using abusive language and reciting abusive verses during the Holi holidays. Govardhan could not bear the disgrace attached to his sister’s reputation. So he threw himself into the fire and met his death without uttering a word of pain. This has given rise to the custom of throwing into the Holi fire the cow-dung image of Govardhan, which is installed during the Divali holidays.41

On the Holi day sweet dishes are prepared and taken with the morning meal. Some women observe a vow on this day, and dine once only in the evening, after worshipping the Holi fire with an offering of a cocoanut and walking seven times round it.42

In some places, on the day preceding the Holi, which is known as Kamala Holi, sweet stuffed cakes are prepared, and on the Holi Punema day vermicelli is eaten.43

The fuel for the Holi fire is generally collected by boys. At about two in the afternoon on the Holi day a party of boys goes from house to house and receive five to fifteen cow-dung cakes from each household. These cow-dung cakes are bored, and strung on strings.44

The fuel thus collected is heaped at the village boundary or the end of the street. All the male residents of the village or street meet at the spot, a pit is dug, and earthen pots filled with wheat, gram and water mixed together are placed in the pit and covered with cow-dung cakes. Next, the headman of the village or the leading resident of the street worships the pile with the assistance of a Brahman priest. After worship, the pile is lighted, at the time fixed by an astrologer,45 by a low caste Hindu, generally a Bhangi or Kotwal, as Hindus of good caste consider it a sin to kindle the Holi fuel. The Bhangi or Kotwal receives a few dates and cocoanut kernel for this service.46

The offerings thrown into the Holi fire generally consist of fried juvari grain, fried gram and cocoanuts. Flowers of mango trees and tender mango fruits are also thrown into the Holi fire. It is believed that newly married pairs, by worshipping the Holi fire, are blessed with long life, prosperity, and the birth of children. After the principal ceremony is over, they worship it one by one with the ends of their upper garments tied in a knot, and walk seven times round the fire with their hands folded, the husband leading the wife.47

Infants dressed in gay clothes and decked with garlands of dry dates and bits of cocoanut kernel are also taken to the Holi fire by their parents. The latter worship the Holi Mata and walk four times round the fire, taking the children in their arms. Next they offer cocoanuts to the goddess, which are either thrown into the fire or distributed among those present.48

Women whose children die in infancy observe a vow of remaining standing on the Holi day. When the Holi is lighted they worship the fire, after which they may sit down and take their meal. It is believed that the observance of this vow ensures long life to children.49

Although the Holi itself falls on the full-moon day of Falgun the rejoicings connected with it commence from the first day of that month. The principal feature of the rejoicings consists in indulging in indecent and vulgar songs and language. Vulgar songs or fags in honour of the goddess Holi are also sung. Songs are composed abusing each caste, and sung addressing passers by, by groups of boys who have full license during the Holi holidays to indulge in all sorts of pranks and abuses.

Some make wooden blocks with engravings of vulgar and indecent words, dip them in coloured water, and press them on the clothes of passers by.

Others make naked idols of mud, and place them on the tops of houses.50

The day following the Holi is known as Dhul Padavo or Dhuleti. On this day people indulge in the throwing of cow-dung, black pigments, urine, mud, coloured water and red powder.50

In some places, on the Dhuleti day, a game is played with a cocoanut. The players form themselves into two parties and stand opposite to one another. Midway between them is placed a cocoanut. Each party tries to take away the cocoanut, and prevents the other from so doing by throwing stones and cow-dung cakes. The party which succeeds in taking away the cocoanut wins the game.51

Amongst Dheds, Kolis, Ravals and other low castes a post of the wood of the tamarind tree is planted in the ground and surrounded by women holding whips and cords in their hands. A party of men run to the women to drive them away and take possession of the post. The women prevent them from doing so by striking them with all their might with the whips and cords in their hands. This struggle commences at 10 A. M. on the Dhuleti day and continues till one o’clock in the morning on the following day. At last the men succeed in carrying away the post, thus ending the game.52

In some places, a man is tied to a bier as if he were a corpse, and carried on the shoulders of four men to the post of tamarind wood, followed by a party of men and women wailing aloud, to the great merriment of the crowd assembled near the post to witness the struggle described above.53

Sometimes contests are held between two parties of boys in singing vulgar songs. The contest commences by one of the parties singing a song. The other party responds to it by singing another song, which is generally more indecent than the song sung first. The contest goes on like this, and the party which fails to respond to its rival is said to be defeated.53

The immoral practices described above are only to be seen among low caste people, and even their women take part in these practices.

The women of higher castes wear rich clothes and ornaments on the Dhuleti day, and sing songs in their houses. At times they throw coloured water and red powder at each other.54

In big temples a festivity called Ful Dol is observed, in which water coloured with the flowers of the Khakhra (Butea frondosa) is thrown by the party assembled, and kundalias or indecent songs are sung in a loud voice.55

In some temples, holy songs are sung at night and prayers are held. At the end, fried juvari, gram and sweets are distributed as the grace of God.56

The boys who take an active part in the Holi celebrations are known as geraiyas or holias. For two or three nights before the Holi they steal fuel for the Holi fire and beat and abuse those who try to prevent them from so doing. They also recite coarse songs and play with dirt and mud freely. Parties of them go from shop to shop and obtain by force dates and fried gram.57

At midnight of the Holi day a bower is erected in the centre of the village with bits of broken earthen vessels and cocoanut shells. A fool, generally a son-in-law of some low caste Hindu in the village, is induced, by the promise of dates and cocoanut kernel, to dress in a coat on which are drawn naked pictures. A garland of worn out shoes is tied round his neck and he is mounted on a donkey. He is then called Valam and taken from the bower through the village accompanied with music and crowds of people, who utter in a loud voice coarse and vulgar expressions as the procession moves on. At times they play jokes with the Valam, and give him blows on the head with their fists.58

In some places, this procession is called Valama Valami and is celebrated on the night preceding the Holi. Two poor stupid persons are dressed as bride and bridegroom, the latter in a ridiculously grotesque dress. They are married on the following morning, when vulgar songs are sung. The Valam and Valami are represented by two naked idols, made of rags, of a man and a woman. They are carried through the village in a noisy procession and married on an altar of black earthen vessels. They are then placed erect on two wooden posts side be side.59

In some villages, a large stone is placed in a spacious compound in the centre of the village, and broken earthen vessels are suspended over it with cords from the wooden bower erected over the stone. An ass is brought to the spot, and a fool decked with a garland of worn out shoes is mounted on it with his face turned towards the tail of the ass. He holds the tail of the ass in his hands as reins and is carried in procession through the village to be brought back to the bower and married to another fool, dust, ashes and water being freely used in the service.60

In some localities naked images of a husband and wife are set in a cart and taken through the village accompanied with music, the crowd singing indecent songs all the way long.61

On the Holi holiday children are presented with harda (garlands of balls made of sugar) by their relatives and the friends of their families.62

The Holi fire is extinguished by women on the morning of the following day. The earthen vessels containing wheat and gram which are put into the pit of the Holi before the fire is lighted are then taken out. The grain is cooked by the fire of Holi, and is called Ghugari. It is distributed among the villagers, the belief being that those who eat it are protected against disease by the goddess of the Holi.63

There are many other superstitious beliefs held by people in connection with the Holi.

According to one belief, those who expose themselves to the heat of the Holi fire keep good health during the ensuing year. According to some, this can be secured by eating sugar-cane heated over the fire. Juvari stems heated over the fire are given to cattle with the same object.64

Some believe that if salt heated over the Holi fire is given to cattle it protects them against epidemics.64

Virgins take home a little of the Holi fire and light five cow-dung cakes with it in the courtyard of their house. When the cakes are burnt, the ashes are removed and the spot is purified with a plaster of cow-dung. Next, they draw some auspicious figures on the spot and worship them for a number of days in the belief that this ensures good health to their brothers.65

Among Gujarat Hindus no special ceremonies are performed when a girl attains puberty, except that on the third or fifth day she is bathed by an unwidowed woman and dressed in green or saffron-coloured robes. She is given rice in milk, sweetened with sugar, and is presented with a piece of green satin.66

In some places, the girl is bathed on the fourth day and given kansar to eat. She then bows to her mother-in-law and makes her a present of half a rupee. The mother-in-law blesses her and presents her with a bodice cloth.67

After the bath, a mark with red powder is made on her forehead and she is taken to the temple of the family deity.68

In some places, the red powder mark is made under the girl’s right arm in the belief that this ensures to her the birth of many children.69

In some localities the girl is bathed on the third day, dainty dishes are served her, and she is presented with a cocoanut by each of her kinsfolk.70

In some castes, when a girl attains puberty, a feast of cooked rice and molasses is given to the caste people. In other castes, pieces of cocoanut kernel are distributed among children, and the girl is presented with a robe and bodice by her parents-in-law.71

In some castes, a girl is not allowed to cook before she attains puberty.72

No ceremonies are performed when a boy attains puberty, probably because in the case of boys the change is not so marked as in the case of girls.