Such diseases as cholera and small-pox are believed to be brought on by the wrath of the Matas or Devis caused by neglecting to offer the usual oblations. In order to propitiate them, Brahmans are engaged to recite the Chandipath and to offer havans (sacrificial offerings). Very often the festival known as ujani is observed, in which all the villagers go outside the village to take their meals, and return home in the evening after witnessing the ahuti (the offering of cocoanuts to the sacrificial fire).1

Another belief personifies the diseases as malin or evil spirits who are fond of human prey. To ward them off, a dhara-vadi, or stream of milk, is poured out in the village or a magic thread is passed round. The chariot2 of the Mata is driven through the village with the same object.3

There is a popular tradition that in ancient times cholera was subjugated by king Vikrama, and was buried underground. Once upon a time the British excavated the place in the belief that treasure was concealed there, and thus cholera was released. After many soldiers had fallen victims, the disease deity was at last propitiated by an oblation, and was handed over to the Bhangis (or scavengers).4

This association of the Bhangis with cholera is present in most of the beliefs current about the disease. There is a story that once upon a time a number of students had put up in a house by which a Bhangi was in the habit of passing frequently. He daily used to hear the students reciting the sacred texts and this produced in his mind the desire to become a Sanskrit scholar. For this purpose, having concealed his low birth, he went to Benares and by diligent study, soon became a pandit. He even married a girl of high caste. But his imposture being at last discovered, he burnt himself to death, and his ashes gave rise to the disease known as cholera.5

At the present day, if the epidemic breaks out, the Bhangis are often suspected in some way or other of having brought it about. It is said that they make statues of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and after piercing them with needles and pins, either throw them into the wells which are daily used by the villagers6 or bury them in a spot over which the people frequently pass. The whole affair is managed very secretly and at the dead of night. The slightest rumour of such proceedings causes a tumult in the village, and the Bhangis are then in danger of being severely handled by the enraged villagers.7

Another method by which the Bhangis are supposed to bring about cholera is to sprinkle the blood of a black cow on the image of Hanuman. The god is deeply offended at the insult, and in consequence spreads cholera in the neighbourhood. For this reason, offerings are burnt before Hanuman in order to stop an epidemic of cholera.8

Bhangis are also supposed by some to accomplish the same result by the help of malin or evil deities who are first gratified by the offering of victims.9 One of such deities is Ramdepir, to whom bali-dan (offering of a victim) is made by the people, through the medium of Bhangis, for the prevention of cholera.9

An outbreak of cholera offers a good opportunity to the Bhangis, who extort dainties and small sums of money from the people. Persons attacked by cholera often seek the services of a Bhangi and promise him liberal gifts if they are cured. The latter generally treats his patients by tying a magical thread round their elbows.10

It is said that the Bhangis have to present an offering to their malin or evil goddess every third year, and that, in so doing, they kill a black animal before the goddess. They then place an iron pan full of sesamum oil on the fire, and suspend the body of the animal above it. It is believed that as many human beings will fall victims to cholera as the number of the drops of blood that fall from the body of the animal into the iron pan.11

Another deity whose wrath is supposed to be responsible for the breaking out of cholera is Mahamari Devi.12 The worshippers of this goddess are Bhangis. She is believed to send forth cholera when her oblations are stopped,13 and her favour is regained by renewing the offer of these oblations. Sometimes the Navachandi sacrifice is performed at the principal village-gates, and the chandipath is recited at the other gates. A number of Brahmans and virgins are also feasted, and presented with garments. A magic cotton thread is passed round the village and a dhara-vadi, or stream of milk, is poured out. The bhuvas go round the village playing upon the harsh unpleasant danklan. A goat is then taken to the temple of the Mata, and the bhuvas, after cutting out its tongue, dip their hands in its blood and strike them against the doors of the temple. The goat is then killed and similar blood-marks are made upon every door in the village as well as on the village-gates, where an iron nail is driven into the ground with an incantation. A lime is then cut, and an oblation is offered to the Mata. Such a process is believed to stop the progress of the epidemic.13

Other deities connected in popular belief with cholera are the goddesses Visuchika14 and Chandika.15 Visuchika is conciliated by burnt offerings: the recitation of the chandipath wins the favour of Chandika. There is also a giantess named Karkata who is supposed to be responsible for cholera. She is said to have sprung from the sweat on the forehead of Brahma and to reside in the chandra mandal (or lunar sphere).16

One of the remedies adopted to stop an epidemic of cholera is to propitiate Shiva by the performance of Rudrayag,17 Maharudra,17 Shatachandi,17 Homahavan and by bestowing gifts on Brahmans and other holy men.18 Sometimes vows are observed with the same object in honour of a minor local deity named Lala Hardev.19 Another method of driving off the disease is to convey it to the body of a goat or a ram, or a he-buffalo, and to drive the animal out of the village.20

Small-pox is believed to be the act of the goddess Shitala Mata, who spreads the disease whenever she is desirous of having victims.21 Thus, in cases of small-pox, the patient very often receives no medical treatment, the only remedies adopted being directed towards the propitiation of the Mata.22 A number of vows are taken in the Mata’s name, to be fulfilled after the patient has recovered. Many people accomplish their vows before the Shitala Mata at Kalavad in Jamnagar. A vow to visit this place after the patient’s recovery, and to abstain from certain things till the day of the visit, is taken by the mother of the affected person in case of a severe attack. But almost every village contains a temple of Shitala Mata, and those, who cannot go to Kalavad, vow in the name of the local Mata.21 One of such vows is to go to the temple of the Mata with a burning hearth on the head.21 Such a vow is generally undertaken by the patient’s mother.

Ordinarily in a case of small-pox, the patient is not allowed to bathe till he is completely free from all traces of the disease. A bath is then given on a Sunday, a Tuesday, or a Thursday, with water which has been heated by being placed in the sun. An image of Shitala Mata is set up in the house near the water room, and the patient worships the image after the bath. The image is drawn in cowdung with two cotton seeds to represent the eyes. An offering of kulera23 and curds is made to the goddess. Five virgins are invited to dinner, and are served with cold food. All the members of the household also partake of cold food. On the 7th or the 13th day of the bright half of a month the patient is taken to the temple of Shitala Mata, when a cocoanut is broken in the presence of the goddess. Half of the cocoanut is brought home, the other half being carried away by the Mata’s attendant. Some people place a new earthen vessel filled with water near the goddess. Silver eyes, which may be worth anything between half an anna and half a rupee, are dedicated to the Mata.21

The first visit to the Mata should take place on a Sunday or a Tuesday. The things vowed to the goddess are dedicated on this occasion. It is also necessary to go to the goddess again on the next Tuesday or Thursday after the first visit. This time only water and red lac are offered.24

During the course of the disease no low-caste person and no woman in her monthly course is allowed to cast his or her shadow on the patient.21 The women in the house are prohibited from combing their hair, or churning curdled milk, or indulging in sexual intercourse. Such acts are believed to cause extreme displeasure to the Mata, who then causes some limb of the patient to be affected. Branches of nimb leaves are suspended over the doors of the house, and also round the patient’s bed. The same leaves are used to fan the patient.21

When a child suffers from the disease, it is often weighed against dates, which are first dedicated to the goddess, and then distributed amongst the poor.25 The child is taken to bow down before the goddess after nine or ten days from the date of attack, and the mother of the child offers several things to the Mata, among which are grapes, sugar, a pinch of flour, a small earthen bowl full of water, and a blank sheet of paper.26

Different things are dedicated to the goddess according as the disease affects one part of the body or another. For instance, flour of bajra or juvari is offered in case of bronchitis; silver models of the human eye when the disease affects the eyes; a goras (a black earthen vessel full of curds) in case of morbid heat; a piece of black paper, in high fever, and salt if there is an itching sensation.27 The Mata is said to live on cold food and to be very fond of things which have a cooling effect such as fruits, sugar, etc. The same things are given to the patient as food.28

To secure the protection of Shitala Mata for their children, women annually observe the vow of shili satem on the 7th day of the dark half of Shravan. On this day the Mata is said to visit every house and to roll herself on the hearth. No fire is, therefore, lighted in the hearth on this day: for if the Mata comes and is scorched by the fire she is sure to bring misfortune on that household. For this reason, a number of dainties and all the food necessary for the day is prepared on the previous day. On the day of shili satem, juvari seeds are spread on the hearth, and after being sprinkled with red lac, a cowdung bowl containing a plant called va?a is placed upon them. The women of the house bathe with cold water and take only one meal during the day. They further abstain from sewing and embroidering during that day. Sometimes a Brahman is engaged to recite the Shitala shloka from a book called Rudrayamal.29

The following legend is related of shili satem. A certain woman once forgot to extinguish the fire in her hearth on Randhan Chhetha (lit. cooking sixth), i.e., the day previous to shili satem. On the next day, the Mata was scorched in the stomach when she came to roll herself on the hearth. In extreme anger the goddess cursed the woman saying that her only son would be burnt to death; and immediately the boy died. In her anguish the unfortunate mother confessed her fault to a friend, who advised her to go to the jungle and entreat the Mata to give back her son. She found the goddess rolling in distress under a babul tree. The woman slowly approached her, and began to comb out the Mata’s hair. She then placed her son in the Mata’s lap and entreated the goddess to revive the boy. The Mata felt much relieved by the woman’s attentions and blessed her saying that her bosom should be as quiet as her own head. Immediately, at these words, the boy revived, to the intense joy of his mother.30

Women whose relatives have recovered from a dangerous attack of small-pox observe a vow on every satem, i.e., the 7th day of the dark half of every month. They first bathe with cold water and, after offering an oblation of kulera, take their meals only once during the day. This food has to be prepared on the previous day.

Shitala Mata is described as riding an ass in a nude state with the half of a supadun (a winnowing fan) for an umbrella and with a swing in one hand, and a broom in the other.31 But more usually the Mata is represented by a mere trunkless head in stone, besmeared with red lead. This is said to be the head of Babhrivahan, the son of Bhima32 the second of the Pandavas by a Nag mother. At the time of the Great War, he was sent by his mother from his residence in the patal (the regions below this world) to assist his father, and as he did not know the Pandavas, he was asked to join the weaker side. On coming to the earth he first met with Krishna who took a promise from him to lop his own head off. In return, Krishna promised him that he would be immortal, invisible and worshipped by all, and the head was set up on the flag of the Pandavas. This head began to trouble the Pandavas after their victory, and could only be quieted by the promise of Krishna to have him recognised as a deity with unlimited powers. This head afterwards came to be known as the controller of small-pox. How the head of the male Babhrivahan came to be identified with Shitala Mata, it is difficult to explain.33

There is a tradition that a Kunbi once recovered his eyesight, lost in an attack of small-pox, by worshipping Shitala Mata, and by vowing not to tie his lock of hair till his blindness was cured.34

It is said that the powderlike substance which falls from the scabs of small-pox cures cataract if applied to the eyes.34

Daksha Prajapati once celebrated a great sacrifice, but did not invite his son-in-law Shiva. The latter was extremely enraged at the insult, and eight sorts of fever were in consequence produced by his breath at that time.35 According to another story zar or fever was created by Shiva in order to assist the demon Banasur in his contest with god Krishna, and it can be cured by the recitation of a piece called Ushaharan, from the Harivansha.36 Some persons attribute fever to the wrath of Vishnu, and declare that it can be avoided by the recitation of Vishnusahasranama.37 Others believe it to be due to the anger of Shiva, and say that it can be cured by pouring a stream of water over the image of Shiva by offering bel leaves (Aegle marmelos) to him, and by reciting the Mrityunjaya mantra in his honour.38 Others again ascribe it to the displeasure of the gods Hari39 and Har,39 saying that the heat is caused by the wrath of Shiva.40

The following are some of the remedies adopted in cases of fever:

(i) The recitation of sacred hymns in honour of the gods.

(ii) The worship of Narsinh.41

(iii) Rudrabhishek—pouring a stream of water on the image of Shiva with the recitation of verses in his honour.

(iv) Drawing the jantra of Mrityunjaya (lit. Death-conquering, an epithet of Shiva) as shown below.

(v) Tying a magic thread round the arm.42 On a Sunday or a Tuesday a woollen thread or a piece of five-coloured silken thread is taken to a bava or a jogi, who mutters a few mystic words, and makes seven knots in the thread. The thread is treated with frankincense, and then tied round the arm.43

Periodical fevers are believed to be under the control of certain spirits. There is a story connected with almost every sort of fever, and it is believed that a person who listens to such a story is cured of fever.44 The following legend is connected with ekanterio—intermittent fever occurring on alternate days. Once a Bania, on his way to a village, came across a banyan tree where he unyoked his bullocks and went to a distance to seek for water. Ekanterio (the spirit controlling intermittent fever) resided on this tree, and when the Bania had gone sufficiently far he stole from behind the tree and carried away the Bania’s carriage together with his family. The Bania was much surprised to miss them on his return, but he soon found out the author of the trick, and pursued Ekanterio. That spirit however would not listen to the Bania’s entreaties to return his carriage, and the matter was at last referred for arbitration to Bochki Bai. The latter decided in favour of the Bania, and confined Ekanterio in a bamboo tube. He was released on the condition that he would never attack those persons who listen to this story.45

There is a flower garden to the west of Jodia where there is a tree called ghelun (mad) tree. Vows in honour of this tree are believed to be efficacious in curing fever.45

It has been already said above that such epidemic diseases as cholera or the plague are often supposed to be the result of the sinister practices of the Bhangis. There is a belief that the Bhangis sometimes prepare an image out of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and pierce it with needles, and it is said that for every hole made in the image one human being falls a victim to some epidemic disease. Such an image is sometimes placed in an earthen vessel and buried underground in a public way so that every passer-by treading on the spot where it is buried may be attacked by some disease. Or it is thrown into the well which is most used by village people, with the object that all persons drinking water from the well may perish by the disease.46

The Bhangis are also accused of causing an epidemic by means of boiling the ear of a buffalo and the flesh of an ox together in one vessel, it being believed that the virulence of the disease varies in proportion to the extent to which the boiling proceeds. This process is supposed to cause a disease among cattle also.47

Another belief is that the Bhangis charm seeds of adad and cloves by repeating magic incantations over them, and afterwards strew them on a highway in order that those who step on them may be attacked by cholera or some similar disease.48 One motive suggested for such action is that they are thereby likely to receive their garments, which would be used for covering the bodies.49 Also at the outbreak of such an epidemic, clothes, cocoanuts, ghi, molasses, wheat flour, etc., are offered by the people to the Bhangis, who in return give a dora, a piece of thread, of black wool to be worn by the afflicted persons.50

But apart from such beliefs, the appearance of an epidemic is also attributed to other causes. There is the usual belief that it is caused by the diminution of virtue and the increase of sin among people and the consequent wrath of the gods, who are only propitiated by the people again reverting to righteous ways and by the performance of sacrifices in their honour.51

There is also a belief that the sixty-four Joganis, when they are desirous of victims, cause baneful epidemics among mankind, the remedies in such a case being such as offering a goat or a he-buffalo to them, or the observation of an ujani in their honour.

The following tale is related regarding an occurrence said to have taken place not long ago in the village of Verad. The headman of the village who was a Rajput by birth but who had lost his caste owing to irregular conduct with a woman, died of fever, and as he was an outcaste his body was buried instead of being cremated. Soon after, a number of persons in the same village happened to die of the same fever and the people conjectured that the late patel’s corpse must be lying in its grave with its face downwards chewing the khahan (? perhaps kaphan, i.e. the cloth in which a corpse is wrapped). Many thought that the health of the village would not be restored until the corpse was replaced in the correct position with its face upwards and unless the kaphan was taken out of its mouth. But none ventured to do so, being dissuaded by the fear of meeting with a worse fate.

But although they did not open the grave yet they arranged for certain vows to be taken in honour of the dead man, and that put a stop to the disease.52

Another story from the same place is that when small-pox once raged furiously in that village, the people of the place celebrated a magnificent feast of dainties prepared of wheat-flour, ghi, molasses, rice and pulse, and afterwards the Dheds of the village lopped off the head of a dead he-buffalo, burying it at the spot where the feast was held.53

The remedies adopted for the abatement of epidemic diseases have already been mentioned above, the most common being the winding of a cotton-thread, the pouring out of dharavadi, i.e., milk, in the village, and the taking of the rath of the Mata in a procession beyond the village boundary, the epidemic being supposed to be expelled in the rath. In the last case, after the rath has been taken to the neighbouring village, a charmed peg is sometimes driven into the ground near the village boundary to prevent the epidemic from crossing back again.54

Mention has already been made of the deities which protect the cattle and to whose displeasure diseases among cattle are attributed. It is said that such diseases are very common during the vishi of Shiva. A cycle of twenty years is called a vishi, three such cycles making a complete samvatsar of sixty years. Each of such vishis is presided over and named after each of the three gods of the Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The vishi of Brahma is characterized by protection and creation, that of Vishnu by growth and that of Shiva by destruction, the last often bringing on such calamities as plague, famine and diseases among cattle.55

The following are some of the remedies practised by the village people in the case of certain cattle-diseases.

In the case of such diseases as mova kharava or the like, there is a practice of burying a plough near one’s gates, which is afterwards covered with dust gathered from three streets and is worshiped with a branch of a tree, a plate of iron and red lead. This ceremony has to be performed either on a Sunday or a Tuesday, and the man who performs it has to remain naked at the time.56

For the cure of valo (a disease in which the throat is inflamed), pieces of the stalk of kukad-vel (a kind of creeper) are tied round the neck or the horns of the diseased animal and no other food except ghi and molasses is allowed to it for two or three days. A handful of salt is sometimes thrown on the back of the animal.57 Sesamum oil is also said to work as a good medicine in the case of the same disease.58

Another remedy for the same disease is to pass a knotted bamboo stick with seven knots seven times over the back of the ailing animal.59

Ghi is sometimes used as a medicine in the case of small-pox. In the case of shakario or kalo va, the animal is branded in the affected limbs. To one suffering from a stye in the eye an ointment prepared from the horn of a deer is applied, while a mixture of whey and salt is said to be useful in most eye maladies. The treatment for the swelling of the belly is a mixture of molasses, ajamo (ligusticum ajwaen) and sanchal (a kind of salt). To cure an animal of khapari (a disease which affects milch-cattle), the milk of the affected animal is poured on rafda (a kind of jujube tree). If after delivery, some part of the embryo remains inside an animal, milk and molasses are given to expedite its removal.60

In the case of kharava the ailing animal is made to move about in hot sand and is treated with salt, which is first fried on the fire of Holi. The remedy for the disease known as kumbhava is to give a dose of castor oil, sanchal, ajamo and hot water to the sick animal and also to tie a magic thread round its neck.61

A disease called okarinu (i.e., vomitting) sometimes breaks out among sheep. In this case the shepherds separate all the affected animals from the herd and remove them to a distance. All the sheep which die of the disease are buried deep in a pit, which is guarded for several days, lest some other animals dig it up and let lose the buried epidemic by exposing the carcasses. It is believed that the contagion of this disease lies in the ears; and the ears of all the sheep in the herd are carefully watched if they bleed.62

The twin gods Ashvini Kumar are sometimes propitiated by means of an anushthan (the performance of religious austerities in their honour) in order that they may put a stop to a disease among cattle.63

It appears that dancing often forms a part of the process of exorcism. Frequently dancing is accompanied by the beating of cymbals and drums and other loud noises. A mandalu is convened at the house of the person who is to be exorcised i.e., a number of bhuvas are invited to attend along with a number of low-caste drummers, and afterwards the ceremony of utar is gone through; the utar is then taken to a cemetery.64

Sometimes the beating of drums and cymbals is alone resorted to for expelling an evil spirit from the person of a patient. It is believed that this process is effectual in proportion to the degree of the intensity of the noise created.65 The patient is asked to sit facing the east. The Baval or Vaghri i.e., the drummer, sits in front of him, and not only beats the drum as loudly as he can, but also sings hymns at the top of his voice in honour of his favourite goddess. In the meanwhile, the bhuva, who is also in attendance, begins to be possessed, and discloses the fact by convulsive fits. After a while, the bhuva suddenly stamps his foot furiously on the floor, and, seizing the patient by a lock of his hair, and perhaps even giving him a blow on the back, asks in a stern voice, “Who art thou? speak out at once why thou hast come or else I will burn thee to death.”66

The patient will then perhaps reply: ‘Don’t you know me? I am charan’, or I am zamhadi, (a female spirit guarding the village gates) or Vagharan67 or Purvaj (the spirit of a deceased ancestor). Regarding the reason for possession, the evil spirit will give some such explanation as follows:—“Once upon a time the patient was taking a loaf and vegetables which he hid from me, and therefore I shall leave his person only with his life.” The bhuva will then say “life is precious and not so cheap as you think. If you want anything else, say so and leave this person.” After a dialogue such as the above, the bhuva and the spirit come to some compromise, and the bhuva then leads a procession with the utar either to the village boundary or to a cemetery. The bhuva then draws a circle on the ground with the point of a sword which he carries, and places the utar within the circle. He then slightly cuts the tip of his tongue with the edge of the sword, and spits blood into a fire lighted for the purpose. The smoke of this fire is supposed to carry the offering to the evil spirit. The utar is then taken away by the drummers, who share it secretly with the bhuva. In the event of the patient deriving no benefit from this ceremony, the bhuva advises the patient’s relatives to repeat the process.68

The following ceremony is sometimes performed in order to ascertain whether a person is under the influence of an evil spirit or not. A bhuva is invited to the patient’s house in the company of drummers, and there he dances for some time amidst the din produced by the beating of the drums and by the loud recitation of hymns in honour of his favourite goddess. Afterwards a handful of grain is passed round the head of the patient and presented to the bhuva for inspection. The bhuva selects a few seeds from the grain and making certain gestures, offers them to the patient with either the words ‘vacho’ or ‘vadhavo’. In case the bhuva says ‘vacho’ and the number of seeds happens to be even, what he declared to be the cause of the patient’s trouble is believed to be true. So also if the bhuva says vadhavo and the number of seeds proves to be odd. But in case the number of seeds proves to be odd when the bhuva says ‘vacho’, or even, when he says vadhavo, then his explanation of the cause of the patient’s trouble is not credited.

Sometimes Brahmans instead of bhuvas are engaged to exorcise an evil spirit from the body of a sick person. A bell-metal dish, containing adad (phaseolus radiatus), wheat and jowari, is placed on a copper jar and struck violently with a stick, called velan, so as to produce a loud noise. The patient, who is made to sit in front, begins to tremble and sometimes even to rave. The Brahmans also create a loud noise and in a loud voice ask the patient who the evil spirit is and what it wants. The patient will then give out the name of some notorious dakan (witch) or of one of his deceased ancestors and will add that he desires a certain thing which he was used to get while in human form. The evil spirit is then propitiated by offering the things asked for and is requested to leave the body of the patient.69

The following are other methods of expelling an evil spirit from the body:—

Either lobhan, i.e., incense powder, or chillies or even the excreta of dogs are burnt under the nose of the patient, who, overpowered by the unpleasant odour, is supposed to give out the name of the evil spirit and also what the latter wants.

Water is charmed with incantations, and is either dashed against the patient’s eyes or is given to him to drink.70

If the evil spirit possessing a patient is a purvaj, i.e., the spirit of a deceased ancestor, either Narayan-bali Shraddha or Nil-Parvani Shraddha or Tripindi Shraddha is performed in order to propitiate it, and a party of Brahmans is invited to dinner. In case the purvaj is a female, a cocoanut is installed in a gokhalo (a niche) in the wall to represent it, ghi lamps are lighted, and frankincense is burnt every morning before it. On the anniversary of the death of the purvaj a party of goranis (unwidowed women) is invited to dinner.71

If a woman is believed to be possessed by a dakan, she is made to hold a shoe in her teeth and is taken to the village boundary, where the shoe is dropped, and a circle is drawn round it with water from a bowl carried by the party. The holding of the shoe by the teeth signifies a vow on the part of the dakan never to re-enter the person of the exorcised woman.72

The following are other occasions for religious dancing, namely during the Nav-ratra holidays (i.e., the festival which commences from the 1st day of the bright half of Ashvin and lasts for nine days); at the time of offering oblations to the village-gods; on the occasion of setting up a pillar in memory of a deceased person; at the time of the Nilotsava73 ceremony.

At the time when Randal the wife of Surya is installed and worshipped, a party of young women dance in a circle before the goddess to the accompaniment of garabis.74

The eighth day of the bright half of Ashvin is dedicated to the worship of the Matas and devis (minor goddesses), and on this day, bhuvas have to dance each before his favourite mata. This they have also to do on the 1st day of the bright half of Ashadh. Bhuvas are also invited to dance on the Diwasa day i.e., the last day of Ashadh.74

The bhuva occupies a high place in the esteem of the village people, and commands much respect. In the first place, his position is that of a medium between the gods and goddesses on the one hand and human beings on the other.75 He is the interpreter of the will of the gods, which he expresses to the public when in a state of trance. Besides he is believed to have power over the evil spirits which are visible to a bhuva though cannot be seen by ordinary eyes.76 He is the guardian of the village, his duty, being to protect the people from the malignant influence of the evil spirits.76

In the next place, it is also the office of the bhuva to treat the sick. In cases when medicine is unavailing and where the malady is supposed to be the work of some evil spirit, the opinion of the bhuva is sought by the relations of the patient and is given by the test of the scrutiny of grain.77 When the sick person is found to be under the influence of a spirit, the common mode of exorcising is to take an utar to the cemetery. An image of a human being is prepared out of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and is passed round the body of the sick person. The bhuva then holds the image near his heart and stretches himself on a bier with the image on his bosom. In this condition the bhuva is taken to the cemetery, and the evil spirit is believed to be driven by these means out of the patient’s body.78

The bhuva distributes doras (magic threads) and anklets among the people. Such things are coveted for their efficacy in warding off the influence of evil spirits and are often sought after by people for their cattle as well as for themselves.79 The prosperity of the danklan-vagadnars (those who beat the drum) depends to a large extent on the success of the bhuva’s business, and for this reason, the drummers are often very good advocates of the bhuva and take every opportunity of glorifying his powers and merits.

The respect which a bhuva commands in this way is sometimes increased by the performance of such tricks as his putting lighted torches into his mouth, placing his hand in boiling oil, and similar performances.

But although there may be some bhuvas who profit by imposing upon the credulity of the villagers, there are many bhuvas who do not work with the expectation of any reward, and are only actuated by benevolent motives. Many of them honestly believe that at the time when they are thrown into a state of trance, the matas or deities actually enter their bodies and speak their wishes through them as a medium.

In some villages, the office of the bhuva is hereditary, and lands have been assigned to them in remuneration for their duty80. In addition to this religious calling, a bhuva often follows some other profession as that of agriculture, weaving or spinning.81

The bhuva generally belongs to some low caste and may be a Koli, Bharvad, Rabari, Vaghri or even a Chamar. The bhuvas are also known as pothias. One good qualification for becoming a bhuva is to possess the habit of throwing one’s self into convulsive fits followed by a state of trance, especially on hearing the beating of a danklan (drum). At such a time the mata or devi is supposed to possess the person of the bhuva and to speak out her wishes on being questioned. Some bhuvas are regularly possessed by some devi or mata on every Sunday or Tuesday.82

A typical bhuva has a braid of hair on his head, puts one or more iron or copper anklets round his leg or elbow, and makes a mark with red lead on his forehead. A bhuva attending upon the goddess Meldi is generally83 a Vaghri by caste and always wears dirty clothes. A Bharvad bhuva has generally a silver anklet round his waist. A bhuva has to observe a fast on all the nine days of the Nav-ratras. If a bhuva happens to come across another bhuva in convulsive fits or in a trance, he must need go into fits as well.

Generally speaking every bhuva keeps an image of his favourite mata in or near his own dwelling. Generally he erects a hut for the purpose and hoists a flag upon it. Near the image are placed a number of conch-shells and stones and brooms of peacock feathers. The deity is not systematically worshipped every day but receives adoration every Sunday and Tuesday. Sometimes the bhuva has a disciple—a sevaka—who does the duty of dashing bell-metal cymbals at the time when the bhuva throws himself in a trance.84

When a new bhuva is to be initiated into the profession, he is made to sit before an image of the mata, where he goes into convulsive fits while the danklan vagadnars beat the drums and loudly recite hymns in honour of the deity. Afterwards he is taken to a cemetery accompanied by the drummers and an expert bhuva, where the latter marks out a square on the ground with the edge of a sword. The novice is asked to lie prostrate within the area thus marked out and to get up and lie again, doing the same four times, each time with his head towards each of the four quarters. The bhuva who initiates the novice and who is thenceforth considered to be the guru or preceptor of the latter, ties a rakhadi (a piece of silk thread) round the elbow of the pupil.85

Every bhuva is required to propitiate his favourite goddess every third year, the ceremony which is then performed being called Khad-Khadya-besadvi. This is performed either during the Nav-ratra holidays or during the bright half of either the month of Magh or Chaitra. All the bhuvas in the village are invited on the occasion, when there is ganja-smoking or bhang-drinking, partly at night. After the supper which follows this party, all the bhuvas gather together and go into convulsive fits till they are almost suffocated. Cocoanuts are then dedicated and cracked before the mata, and the kernel is distributed among those present. The party then break up.86

It is believed by some people that the spirit of a Muhammadan saint, living or dead, dwells in such trees as the Khijado, i.e., Shami (Prosopis spicigera) and Baval, i.e., Babhul (Acacia arabica). It is known by the name of chitharia that is, the ragged Pir. It is a common belief that if a mother fails to offer a rag or a piece of cloth to such a holy tree while passing by it, her children run the risk of falling ill. Women and ignorant people, therefore, make a point of offering rags to such trees whenever they happen to pass by them.87

According to another belief, travellers, in order to accomplish their journey safely, offer rags to such of the Khijado, Baval or Limdo (Nim) trees as are reputed to be the residences of spirits, if they happen to be on their road.88

Some believe that both male and female spirits reside in the Khijado, Baval and Kerado trees, and throw rags over them with the object of preventing passers by from cutting or removing the trees. Some pile stones round their stems and draw tridents over them with red lead and oil. If superstitious people come across such trees, they throw pieces of stones on the piles, believing them to be holy places, and think that by doing so they attain the merit of building a temple or shrine. A belief runs that this pile should grow larger and larger day by day, and not be diminished. If the base of such a tree is not marked by a pile of stones, rags only are offered; and if rags are not available, the devotee tears off a piece of his garment, however costly it may be, and dedicates it to the tree.89

Once, a child saw its mother offering a rag to such a tree, and asked her the reason of the offering. The mother replied that her brother, that is the child’s maternal uncle, dwelt in the tree. Hence a belief arose that a chithario (ragged) uncle dwells in such trees. Others assert that the chithario pir dwells in such trees, and they propitiate him by offering cocoanuts and burning frankincense before it.89

There is a Khijado tree near Sultanpur which is believed to be the residence of a demon mamo. This demon is propitiated by the offerings of rags.

Some declare that travellers fix rags of worn out clothes to the trees mentioned above in order that they may not be attacked by the evil spirits residing in them. Another belief is that the spirits of deceased ancestors residing in such trees get absolution through this form of devotion. It is also believed that a goddess called chitharia devi resides in such trees, and being pleased with these offerings, blesses childless females with children, and cures persons suffering from itch of their disease. There is a further belief that ragged travellers, by offering pieces of their clothes to the Khijado, Baval or Kerado trees, are blessed in return with good clothes.

Some believe that Hanuman, the lord of spirits, resides in certain trees. They call him chithario or ragged Hanuman. All passers by offer rags to the trees inhabited by him. There is such a tree near the station of Shiroi. There is a tamarind tree on the road from Tamnagar to Khantalia which is believed to be the residence of chithario Hanuman and receives similar offerings. Another tamarind tree of this description is near Marad and there is a Khijado tree on the road between Kalavad and Vavadi which is similarly treated.90

It is related by some people that in deserts trees are rare and the summer heat is oppressive. To the travellers passing through such deserts, the only place of rest is in the shadow of a solitary tree that is to be met occasionally. In order that no harm be done to such trees, some people have given currency to the belief that a spirit called mamo dwells in such trees and expects the offering of a rag and a pice at the hands of every passer by.90

Some are of opinion that the bhuvas, in order to raise money from the credulous by terrifying them, daub a tree within the limits of each village with the form of a trident, and fix rags to it, stating that it is the abode of a mamo or a pir. At times they ask their clients to offer certain things to such trees, which they appropriate to themselves.91

There is also a belief, that the holy trees that receive offerings of rags from travellers, are the abodes of gods or evil spirits, and are distinguished from other trees of the same species by the epithet of chithario. Some people hoist flags on such trees instead of offering rags.

In some places, the Boradi (jujube), Pipal, Vad (banyan) and the sweet basil receive offerings of a pice and a betelnut from travellers, while the Khijado and Baval are given rags.92

It is stated by some people that the belief in chithario pir has grown during the last four hundred years.

Rags are never offered to wells, but it is common to offer them copper coins and betelnuts. Sometimes flags are hoisted near holy wells in honour of the water-goddess Jaldevki. Travellers hoist flags on certain wells and throw copper coins into them in the course of their journey. The origin of this offering is said to be in the desire of travellers to prevent people from committing a nuisance near wells.

Some wells are noted as being the abode of spirits who have the power of effecting certain cures. It is customary to throw a pice in such wells. When a person is bitten by a rabid dog, he goes to a well inhabited by a vachharo, the spirit who cures hydrophobia, with two earthen cups filled with milk, with a pice in each, and empties the contents into the water.

It is a belief among Hindus that to give alms in secret confers a great merit on the donor. Some of the orthodox people, therefore, throw pice into wells, considering it to be a kind of secret charity.

The belief in the practices adopted for transferring disease from one person to another obtains mostly among women, who have recourse to such practices for curing their children.

One of such practices is to lay a suffering child in the cradle of a healthy child. This act is believed to result in transferring the disease of the ailing child to the healthy child. Another practice is that the mother of the sickly child should touch the mother of a healthy child with the object of transferring the disease of her child to the child of the latter. Some believe that the mere contact of an ailing child with a healthy child is sufficient to transfer the malady of the former to the person of the latter. Others maintain that this can be brought about by a mother either by touching the cradle of another child or by touching the person of another woman. There are others, who hold that the disease of a sickly child can be transferred to another child by feeding the latter with the leavings of the former. There is a further belief that a mother can transfer the disease of her suffering child to the child of another woman by applying the end of her robe to the end of the robe of the latter. In some places, when a child begins to weaken, its mother makes an idol of cow or buffalo dung, and keeps it fixed to a wall of the house, in the belief that the child will be cured slowly as the idol dries. It is stated that instances are actually known of the recovery of children by this process. These methods of transferring disease are called tuchakas i.e. mystic methods. As a rule superstitious women practise them on Sundays or Tuesdays, as it is believed, that to be efficacious, they must be practised on these days.

In addition to the tuchakas above stated the utars, doras, etc., already described, are used for curing diseases.

Some diseases are attributed to vir possession. Virs are male spirits fifty two in number. The bhuvas or exorcists are believed to have control over them, and are supposed to be able to detect an illness caused by possession by a vir. In such cases, the bhuvas drive away the evil spirits from the patients by magic incantations, or transfer them to others by waving a certain number of grain seeds round the head of the patient. By another process the bhuvas can confine the evil spirit in a glass bottle, which is buried underground.

In order to eradicate a dangerous disease, an utar is frequently offered to a dog, in the belief that by eating the utar the disease is transferred to the dog.

In some places, diseases of long standing due to spirit possession are cured by employing a bhuva, (exorcist), who, accompanied by others of his order, goes to the patient’s house, makes a bamboo bier, waves an utar round the patient’s head, and lays himself on the bier with the utar by his side. The bier is carried to the burning ground by four persons to the accompaniment of the beatings of drums, followed by the exorcists, who throw baklans (round flat cakes of juvari flour) into the air as the procession moves on. When the party reach the burning ground, the bier is put down, and the bhuva, shaking violently, offers the utar to a spirit of the place. He then prostrates himself four times with his face turned towards the four directions and drives a nail into the ground at each turn. Next, the bhuva lets loose a goat or a ram, to which the vir in the body of the patient is supposed to be transferred. It is said that the performance of this rite relieves the patient’s mind of anxiety regarding the cause of his disease, and he thereafter shows signs of improvement.93

When a man is suffering from anjani (a sore or mole on the eye-lid) he goes to another person’s house and strikes earthen vessels against his door saying “I have shaken the vessels. May the anjani be with me to-day and with you tomorrow”. It is also stated that such a patient goes to the house of a man who has two wives while the latter are asleep, and taps his door uttering the words “Anjani ghar bhangani aj mane ane kal tane” i.e., “May anjani, the breaker of the house, be to-day with me and tomorrow with thee.” This process is believed to transfer the disease from the person of the patient to that of the husband of the two wives.

A common method for transferring disease is to wave water round a sick person and give it to another to drink. Similarly, a goblet filled with water is passed round a patient’s head and offered to a bhuva, who drinks off the contents.

A belief prevails all over Gujarat that a disease can be passed from one species of animals to another, and various practices are adopted to effect this. Generally a bhuva or exorcist arranges the transfer. The bhuva, accompanied by a troupe of dancers and drummers, visits the house of the sick person and, after examining corn seeds danas which have been waved round the patient’s head on a night preceding a Sunday or Tuesday, declares that the evil spirit possessing the patient requires a living victim. A cock, goat or a male buffalo is then brought as a substitute for the patient, is waved round him, the tip of its right ear is cut off, and it is offered to the mata or goddess, that is, it is released to stray as it pleases. These goats, etc., are called mata’s goats, mata’s cocks, or mata’s male buffaloes, and are seen wandering about in many villages. Sometimes the goat, etc., is killed before the image of the mata and the bhuva dipping the palms of his hands into its blood, presses them against the doors of every house in the village. In the case of an outbreak of epidemic, the victim is set at liberty beyond the limits of the village affected. It is believed by some people that the animal to which a disease is conveyed in the above manner, dies of its effects.94

In some places the patient is supposed to be possessed by a goddess instead of by an evil spirit. A goat, cock or a male buffalo is offered to the goddess in the same way as to an evil spirit.

In some villages, when there is an outbreak of a serious epidemic, it is customary to drive a buffalo beyond the village boundary, with the disease on his back. The back of the buffalo which is chosen for this purpose is marked with a trident in red lead and covered with a piece of black cloth, on which are laid a few grains of adad and an iron nail. Thus decorated, the buffalo is driven beyond the limits of the village. It is believed that an animal driven in this way carries the disease wherever it goes.

Very often, the beast to which a disease is transferred is kept tied to a post all its life, with the belief that by so doing the disease remains enchained. Jain teachers confine a disease in a bottle and bury it underground. Sometimes, a disease is passed on to a crow, whose legs are tied to a pillar, thus making it a life-long prisoner.

Once upon a time, when there was an outbreak of cholera in a certain village, a bava (recluse) happened to arrive on the scene. He caught two rams, made them move in a circle, and left them in the burning ground, where they died, the epidemic disappearing with their death. Hence a belief gained ground that an epidemic of cholera can be expelled by passing it on to two rams or goats.95

It is related that, at Gondal, a case of cholera was cured by a Bhangi (sweeper) by waving a cock round the patient’s head.96

A few years ago there lived in Khakhi Jalia, a village in the vicinity of Kolki, a Khakhi (recluse) named Narandas, who, when laid up with fever, passed on the disease to his blanket, and after a time drew it back to his own person.