  Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and treated of in the Shastras and Puranas, numerous other minor deities, none of whom however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes. The principle underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor deities, who for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men. There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or metal. Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or samanya-puja and special or vishesha-puja. There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays and Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured. The days for special worship are the Navaratra holidays, the second day of the bright half of Ashadh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar, The Navaratra days are said to be the most auspicious days for devi-worship. People believing in the power of the matas observe fast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of the Navaratra known as Mata-ashtami, taking only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule, especially the suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of dates and milk. On Mata-ashtami and Kali-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats or buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual offerings of lapsi, vadan and bakla. On Divasa, the last day of Ashadh, the ninth month, low-caste people bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear them with red-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts, lapsi, bakla of adad (Phaseoleus radiatus) or kansar On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of Ashadh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on certain musical instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with iron chains or cotton braided scourges. In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as utar is sometimes gone through. An utar is a sacrificial offering of the nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top, and containing lapsi, vadan, bakla, a yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts. Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day of the utar ceremony, and a ceremony known as Danklan-beswan or the installation of the dankla Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of the same order. The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and Kathiawar:— (1) Suro-puro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (palio) is erected to his memory. (2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dada (sire).—This is said to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Charans, who invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters. (3) Sarmalio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhari and many other places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him. (4) Shitala is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kalavad and Syadla are places dedicated to her. (5) Ganagor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her honour. (6) Todalia.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary—Padal or Jampa. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sanka) or passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvalia Koli, and who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her. (7) Buttaya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the vicinity of Sanka. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brahmans, for which purpose four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the village. (8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit. (9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest. (10) Pir.—This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is erected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee. (11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by chamars (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvada (i.e., a quarter inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to (12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sadhu of the Maragi sect, a Koli by birth, acts as pujari. (13) Shakta (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a Chumvalia Koli. On the Navaratra days, as well as on the following day, Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her name. (14) Harsidh.—Gandhavi in Barda and Ujjain are the places dedicated to this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusa, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the village. (15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make pilgrimage. In the village of Jasdan, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of Kalu-Pir in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe Other minor deities are Shikotar, believed by sailors to be able to protect them from the dangers of the deep; The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God, He is the chief rain-sender It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgita the saying of Krishna: ????????? ??????????? “I am the very light of the sun and the moon. The Parmar Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun deity of Mandavraj, in curing hydrophobia. Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as Suraj-Ram, Bhanu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Ram. Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Mandavraj, indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these cradles are made of precious metal. At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmar Rajputs, as well as the Kathis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in company with their newly-married brides. The sun is ?????????? the observer of all things and nothing can escape his notice. Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the ‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour, for attaining ???? ???????—eternal exemption from widowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him. According to Forbes’s Rasmala, the sun revealed to the Kathis the plan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Than, was set up by the Kathis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of the sun and his image are adored. People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Surya-dasha, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows prescribed by Hindu astrology. Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of their cattle. The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:— (1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him. (2) Brihadaranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans—portions of Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as well as mental prayers to the sun. (3) Bibhrad—the fourth chapter of the Rudri. (4) A passage in Brahman—a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the words ?????????? Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to Sun-worship. (5) Surya-Purana—A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of the sun. (6) Surya-kavacha. (7) Surya-gita. (8) Surya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of Surya. It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a wooden stick, known as datan Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto Savitri, the sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning prayers and arghyas to the sun. The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gayatri mantra. The Gayatri is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it does, the highest laudations of him. A ceremony, called Suryopasthan, in which a man has to stand facing the sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is performed as a part of the sandhya. An ashtadala or eight-cornered figure. Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for Sun worship Hexangular figure. Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a copper disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the five-fold ceremonials. ????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ? ????????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ? A namaskar or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and a good dinner to a Brahman. In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the following special foods are prescribed in particular months: (1) In Kartika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant. (2) In Margashirsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied sugar. (3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass. (4) In Magha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be swallowed. (5) In Phalguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk. (6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses. (7) In Vaishakha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is to lick their own palms three times. (8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of pure water. (9) In Ashadha, three chillies may be eaten. (10) In Shravana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted. (11) In Bhadrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of. (12) In Ashvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the form of an ointment or of powder. Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour. People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the day, and that too in bajas or dishes made of khakhara (or palash) leaves. This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some mysterious relation between Surya and the khakhara. If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the devotees. Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each month The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankranti days and the solar eclipses. In each year there are twelve Sankranti days on which the sun moves from one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these Sankrantis, but Makara-Sankranti, which falls on the 12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important. On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon Rahu, prayers being offered for the sun’s success. When the sun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all kinds of grain. The Chaturmas-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again. Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the vow of the sun in the following manner. People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence (dasha) of Surya, observe vows in the sun’s honour and go through the prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and engage the services of priests to recite On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and the homa sacrifice is performed. If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on such an occasion. A Nagar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her wedding. In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the following mantra is chanted ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ? ?????? ????????????? ??????????????? ? It means—one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhaskar, Bhanu, Ravi, Surya, Divakar, which destroy sin. The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadaso bharvo. Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun). Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin. The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as of Ganpati, Mahadev or Vishnu It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common now than formerly. Women observing the chaturmas-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh (the ninth month) to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kartik (the first month) first worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchamrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a penda During the month of Shravan (the tenth month) and during the Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take turns round holy images and objects. People observing the chaturmas-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-vivaha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the monsoon months. Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it. The Shastras authorise four pradakshinas (or perambulations) for Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half) Sometimes in pradakshinas the votary repeats the name of the deity round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in Shlokas. ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ? ?????? ??? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ? ???? ???? ? ?????? ?????????????? ? ? ???? ???? ?????????? ??????????????? ? ‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshina.’ The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the phera of lakh-choryasi The reason why pradakshinas are taken during the day is that they have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all human actions. As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic development. The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts, and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer. The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat. The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means. A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after the birth of a child, and the Namkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies. Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmazaryan. In difficult labour cases, chakrava water is sometimes given to women. The chakrava is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to drink. Swastika. The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe. Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure. The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhantsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the figure ? indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed represents the male principle, linga-rup, that is the producer, through the medium of activity in the great womb or maha-yoni. When the line assumes the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and inanimate. The circumference being Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which is the Swastika. Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the name of Swastika. Various ways of drawing the Swastika. There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below, but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ?, was also originally drawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may be nothing more than the letter ? (ka), written in the old style and standing for the word kalyan or welfare. Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni, A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions; The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity. On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of cloth is marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child is placed upon it. Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated. A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the figure one (?) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshina, and a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are the yajamans or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their pujya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is considered inauspicious. The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the date of separation. It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of Jogmaya. Jogmaya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two separated beings. The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnan or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles, indicates salvation. Jain Swastika. Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia (Swastika) ‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes Lord Krishna in his dialogue with Arjuna, A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also look at silver and gold coins for luck. The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a path containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees. The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhadrapad (the 11th month of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the fourth day of the dark half, On the fourth day of the dark half of Phalgun (the 5th month of Gujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth. Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a kundali Kundali. The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her crescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future events. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second day of the bright half of Ashadh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus), the sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the moon be hidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy during the whole of Ashadh, and will prove unfavourable to vegetable growth. Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on the Bij day of Ashadh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it foreshadows a season of drought. If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Ashadh, excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises quite clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if she is partly covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of the clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis, If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to the west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed to rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same line, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue. The Bij (2nd day) and the ninth day of Ashadh (the 9th month of the Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on a Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall on Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring on a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday or a Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall. Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bij, or the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine. The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological as well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a curse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of rain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalya, the wife of Gautama, and with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble object. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn, and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform his religious services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached Ahalya, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it was not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the favours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the water of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not yet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected the treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalya to turn into a stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face. Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajapati, the son of Brahma, gave all his The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon. Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of Ganpati was severed by Shiva’s trident, it flew off and fell into the chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of god Krishna or Vishnu The moon is often called mriganka (lit. deer-marked) and mriga-lanchhana (lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out of compassion, and thus his lap became stained. Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis spicigera). It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except during the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar rays. Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the Bij and Punema vows. A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is afterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanuman. The soot, which is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day—the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin—is said to possess much efficacy in strengthening the eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any disease during the ensuing year. Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the night of Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts, churned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious things. The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Surya bleed in the fight with Rahu and their forms get blackened Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon, goes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling against either of them causes an eclipse. A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon either of them causes an eclipse. It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin accumulates in this world. As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an eclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha for their release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an eclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy passages from the Shastras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the sun. Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain such as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt. Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is valued by those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations, and prayogas, applications or experiments, which ordinarily require a long time to take effect, produce the wished for result without delay if performed during the process of an eclipse. If a man’s wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an eclipse lest his child become deformed. After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging the floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed, in order to get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse. Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse, but after it After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have again seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes happens that the sun or the moon sets gherayala (while still eclipsed), and people have then to fast for the whole of the night or the day after, until the sun or the moon is again fully visible. There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shastra to the effect that Rahu would surely devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the bright half of a month were to recur on the Amavasya (the last day) of that month. The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the eclipse). With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the abodes of the gods, Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttanapad, attained divine favour by unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens as the immovable pole-star. According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other, according to their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury) and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rashi for one month; Chandra (the Moon) occupies a rashi for 135 ghadis, If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a rupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number of enemies. If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or the 12th square in a man’s kundali, it causes despondency of mind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary wants. The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square is auspicious. Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal and Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rahu, and Ketu are downright malevolent. When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated by vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles of food or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain number of days. Similarly, in propitiating Rahu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet of adad (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra (Venus) favours chola (dolichos sinensis). Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular grahas, and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different things, too, are given in charity in honour of different planets. All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on the occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before occupying a newly erected building. It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra (Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of the planet. Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most often worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed on the occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread The fifth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad (the eleventh month of the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of the saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day. Brahmans set up seven chats The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brahmans on cocoanut-day (the 15th day of the bright half of Shravan) on the occasion of changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the constellation on the same day. In the performance of the Nil-parvan ceremony, which is held to propitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf and a heifer to be married, an entertainment being simultaneously given to one hundred and eight Brahmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed before or at the time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and worship are offered to the saptarshi. Every Brahman must offer arghyas Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after the Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of life. The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tara-baras (or the star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives of the deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that day in honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping the stars at night. It is customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to give them away in charity. Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness this rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a sight of the stars. Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which means, “I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli, are supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market. The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a person within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible to him. The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra, It is also believed that when Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana, adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of Sita in the swayamvara (or maiden’s-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow was split into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows in the sky. The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad rainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular directions. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is expected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is apprehended to be distant. If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement of rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after rainfall, the rain will probably cease. The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some believe that it shortens a man’s life and brings misfortunes to him. According to the Puranas, the milky way or akash-ganga is the celestial River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagirath to the earth. Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which the holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth. Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vaman (or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his third footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known as akash-ganga. Akash-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and eighty lacs of stars. The Musalmans declare the milky way to be the track formed by the footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of his night-journey to Heaven. The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything is to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the manek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower for a thread-ceremony, The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhurt are treated of at length in a book called Dharma-sindhu. On the Dasara Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and also when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the limits of the bridegroom’s village. In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi is lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday. Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half of Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in his Varaha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the nether regions by the demon Shankhasur. On the eighth day of the bright half of Magh and also of Ashvin (the fourth and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasad (gift). No cooked food is allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after meals are given away to cows. When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth’s surface, as much of the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering it and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then placed on it as the Chada or rent of the spot. On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brahmans outside the village limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring milk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single copper-pieces thereon. Some ambitious Brahmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan tree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an image of Parthishwar—Lord of the Earth—hoping thereby to obtain wealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is believed to confer wealth and male issue. When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called medini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are allowed to touch it. The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects which are to be It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things, such as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is that the earth itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to this deity by a contact with the earth and would thus become incapable of any further use, as things that are dedicated to one deity cannot again be offered to another. During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in honour of Vishnu and Mahadeva; on the occasion of offering prayers to the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like Vishnuyaga, Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the observance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divasa or the 15th day of the dark half of Ashadh (the ninth month), the Janmashtami or the 8th day of the dark half of Shravana (the tenth month), the days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, Mahashivaratri or the 14th day of the dark half of Magh, the Ekadashi day or the 11th day of both the bright and dark halves of a month, A Brahman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which, according to the Shastras, should be devoted to the acquirement of learning, and which commences from the date of his being invested with the sacred thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three) and a widow are not allowed by the Shastras to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the ground. Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days. A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on the ground, which It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sathara—i.e., the spot lately occupied by a corpse in the house—to be suna or unoccupied for a single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive days from the date of demise. Pilgrims, The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When in the least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra’s voice is heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes downright angry. Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-danda A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the chariot of Bhagwan. The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl whom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a heavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his sister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with fetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki, and slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he disposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however, on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or lightning. The Shastras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as pashupataka is peculiar to Shiva and the Gandiva bow to Arjuna. Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of Megharaja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his approach: The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on particular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season. Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month). Thunder or lightning in the Hasta If thunder is heard during the Ardra nakshatra, the rainfall will be delayed for a month. Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the bright half of Ashadh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall, while its absence indicates a probable scarcity of rain. Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain. Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly, continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and property of people. Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of the bright half of Ashadh—(or, as some say, on the second day of Shravan) The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and sometimes even the death of pregnant women. Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered inauspicious. The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds—the seven swargas (celestial regions) and the seven patals (nether regions) Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who supports the world; Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny or injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at the sight of it. According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia or the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake is caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another in order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of the burden. There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside in the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings fight among themselves. According to the Varaha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor of some unprecedented calamity. The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or Jamuna), the Narbada, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kaveri, the Godavari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Damodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahanad, the Gomati (near Dwarka), the Brahmaputra, the Sabarmati, the Ghels (near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadra, the Bhadrashita, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the Tamraparni, the Sita and the Alakananda. Any point where three rivers meet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of many traditions, and books have been written to celebrate their merits. The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari are said to be the holiest of all rivers. It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kashi (Benares) to take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangajal (water of the Ganges), and to worship the Ganga when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage. A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it; abil gulal (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya (an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them. The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to be so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for years in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of its divine nature. It is further called patit-pavan (lit. purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins, either by a single draught or by bathing in it. A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first ten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges. Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the stream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks offering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the arati, The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna. It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumna or have once tasted its water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Godavari are known as the site of the hermitage of Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rashi (the constellation Leo) The mere sight of the Narbada has the same effect as a bath in the Ganges or the Jumna. The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahuti with divine knowledge on the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and funeral ceremonies—Shraddhas—are performed on its banks in honour of departed female ancestors. Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images of Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shaligram stone is found in this river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish sports of Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana. On the banks of the Phalaku or Phalgu, Ramachandra performed Shraddha ceremonies in honour of his father Dasharath. A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the bather. When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury, the king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods may subside. Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools which are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has the same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally suitable places for the performance of Shraddha ceremonies. These kunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of them has a certain mahatmya or peculiar merit of its own. Six miles to the east of Dwarka, near the sea-coast, there is a kund called Pind-tarak, where many persons go to perform the Shraddha and the Narayan-bali ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water, they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead of sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is believed to earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors in heaven. The Damodar kund is situated near Junagadh. It is said that if the bones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation are dipped in this kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha (or final emancipation). There is a vav or reservoir on Mount Girnar, known as Rasakupika-vav. It is believed that the body of a person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of stone or iron is dipped in the vav, it is instantly transformed into gold. But the vav is only visible to saints and sages who are gifted with a supernatural vision. Kashipuri (Benares) contains a vav called Gyan-vav, in which there is an image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the water from this vav is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine knowledge. In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgam, there is a kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring water at the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining silent the while. A bath in the Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji is said to cause the wishes of the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition There is a kund called Zilaka near Zinzuwada with a temple of Naleshwar Mahadev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of King Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an underground route. A great fair is held there on that day, when people bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor. There is a kund in Baladana near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the favourite mata of the Charans. In this kund, black or red gagar bedinus—pieces of cotton thread—are sometimes seen floating in the water. They appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them. The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones foretell prosperity. In Bhadakon near Chuda there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair is held there annually on the last day of Bhadrapad. Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount Girnar; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place, confers male issue on the bather. The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District Other holy kunds are: the Bhim kund, the Gomukhi-ganga, and the Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnar near the temple of Bhimnath Mahadeo; the Radha kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwarka; the Rama-sarovar, the Sita kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya (Oudh); Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarat. There is a belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in a waterfall, and offer a cocoanut. If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh (cow’s-mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred as the holy Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for absolving persons from their sins. When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of his worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into a degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released from this state till Shraddhas have been duly performed in its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it with proper ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive the funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become ghosts and goblins, Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach the water; for instance, in Monapuri and Sasai, there are two ghunas (mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the lives of one or two buffaloes every year. Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas, There is a vav called Nilkanth vav near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have been turned into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents herself to the people. Another ghost haunts an old vav, called Madha, in Vadhwan and drowns one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named Kshetrapal resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vav, and saves those who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he falls in any other part of the vav. The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh, when they grow javaras (tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them to her, remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in her honour. Darya-Pir, the patron of Luvanas (merchants) and Kharvas (sailors), resides in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people on the second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass a little water through his sieve. It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who tries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his saviour. Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samadhi (i.e., drowns himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the Jumna. In such a case the relatives and other persons refrain from interference, and do not try to rescue the person. When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely spot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious hour on which the work of digging should be commenced. On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the Brahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati—the protector of all auspicious ceremonies—is first installed on the spot and worshipped with panchamrit. Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily, till water appears in the well. The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwar is believed to cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the water of the Gomukhi-ganga near Girnar, makes one proof against an attack of cholera. The water of a gozara well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account of a person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and cough. There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against cough, The water of the Mrigi kund near Junagadh remedies leprosy. The Pipli well near Zalawad and the Detroja-vav near Kolki are well-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on the digestion. If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water of that well is believed to have medicinal properties. The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life of its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its parents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells. In the island of Shial there is a vav called Than-vav, where mothers, who cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause the due secretion of milk. The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be born to them should marry each other. But it happened that both the kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the children attained a marriageable age, they were married to each other according to the agreement. But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her supposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the counterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining the truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled, with a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Man-sarovar, the animals went into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an immediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse and a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their example and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by girls in a garabi (song) during the Navaratra holidays. There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwarka, the capital of god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to the eyes of mortals. Similarly, the golden Lanka of Ravan is still believed to exist under the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Ravan, and visible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons. Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such beings. The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried off Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for having bathed in the Jumna before dawn. Kalindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumna with the object of securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this by Arjuna, went to the place and married her. There is a story in the Puranas that a king, named Nandraj, used to bury his treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel) which furnished a safe passage through the water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen of Nandraj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the sea. It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhagvat-puran that the ten thousand sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under water. Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus, some are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for possessing many tirthas (holy spots): some because they were visited by Rama or the Pandavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters: and some contain the sources of holy rivers. Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyadri and the Satpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himalayas, the Vindhya Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other sacred mountains are Girnar and Shetrunja in Kathiawar, Mount Abu, Pavagad near Baroda, Brahmagiri Arasur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo, Govardhan near Mathura, Revatachal near Dwarka, and Hinglaj in Sind. It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where Girnar and Abu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage Vasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of Brihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought to the notice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send his two sons Girnar and Abu to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnar required sixty-eight tirthas to accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods. Girnar is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed wings. Pavagad is known for the temple of Mahakali Mata. It is said that King Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to demand a boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed him. Hanuman, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain Govardhan to meet Rama. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rama constructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to Lan?ka, and how Hanuman supplied the requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst engaged on this work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain to the site of the bridge, when Rama issued an order that all monkeys who were fetching mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot where they stood at the moment of the order. Hanuman could not disobey the order of his lord, and he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathura. In order to fulfil Hanuman’s promise, however, Vishnu held the mountain over his head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna incarnation. It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan formerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom, and introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his little finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The mountain was supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of mud and worship it on the Janmashtami day (i.e., the eighth day of the dark half of Shravan). The Oshama Hill near Patanvav (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is noted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahadev, and Matari Mata. It is said that Bhima Mount Shetrunja (or ShatruÑjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims are believed to be purified from the moment they come within six miles of the mountain. Mount Abu possesses the temple of Amba Mata where Krishna’s hair was clipped for the first time. The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance of eighteen days’ journey by road from Karachi. The Mata is ministered to by a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bavas, Khatris, Chhipas, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the doors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have visited the Mata, they again shut in the same mysterious manner. As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of rivers, the Himalayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess many holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinarayan, Kedarnath, Hardwar, etc. Badrinarayan is the favourite resort of those who have relinquished the world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine Being. The sages Nara and Narayan are said to have performed religious austerities in this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning hearths with them to protect themselves against cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The method of crossing this river is to suspend sikans or slings above its water and to swing from one sling to another. A hill called Swargarohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north of Badrikedarnath and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the Pandavas had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the sin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they tried to ascend to heaven by the Swargarohan Hill, only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to reach their goal: the rest were frozen in the snow. Mount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the northern part of the Himalayas. The mountain is described as always covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces made of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani (crystal stone). Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the centre of the earth. It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a class of recluses, called Aghori-bavas, who devour human beings. The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down the rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes the harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer. According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is controlled by the sun-god. Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vayu (the god of wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by some to have power over the seasons. The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct the fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra who fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of his thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of his worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the submersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khal or passage in the Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually runs off. Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about a fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited, and prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony, called Parjanya-shanti, is said to have been performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have been successful in bringing rain. It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a sacred hymn to the malar tune. There is a tradition that the well-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion of the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the performance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which is brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to a different tune. Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring rain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden stool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with leaves of the Gidotan or Tindotan creeper, and is called mehulo or meghalo. The whole party then sing songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of water is poured over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their trouble. Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected and when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous ways, and after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings. The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain to be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect of their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare baklan To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Aladra vow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular day none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes, or attend to any of the multifarious household duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A complete cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers are the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a procession to the confines of the village and makes an offering to the waters. In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of human bones, A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering an oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called Kasatia ganth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three weeks, and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra, and offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god. In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse to religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This fondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or religious observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or Ganagor, Vat-Savitri, Molakat, Goutrat, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat, Uma masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such vows. On the fourth day of the dark half of Shravan, women observe a vrat called Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other things placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes food for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves of bajra-flour and some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some women take ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow’s milk is strictly forbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using things which have been cut by a knife or scissors. The worship of the goddess Randal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati women. A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and a bajat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth is spread on the bajat, and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and ornaments to represent the goddess Randal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly burning before the goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to the goddess, and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of melodious garabis (songs). On the Nagapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of Shravan, The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark half of Shravan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen leaves of this tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium. Rishi-panchami, Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies, auspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part. Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed woman or an unmarried girl. At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the forehead of the bridegroom and carry a laman-divo It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and these marks are made by women only. The Shastras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities, and have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are not authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that the Shastras regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them the privileges given to the latter. They are not allowed to learn the Vedas nor can the Gayatri-mantra be taught to them. The result is that women are not qualified to perform the ceremonial worship of such higher-grade deities as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Ganpati, and Hanuman; It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis spicegera) on the Dasara day, and the Hutashani fire on the day of Holi. Women are not allowed to worship the god Kartikey, who is said to shun women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit his image. The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of the birth of Hanuman, and a vrat called Hanuman-jayanti is observed on this day. This vrat, The ceremonies of Shraddha People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and fiends, usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance of their mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black art: for instance, Maran, A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sadhana before the goddess Jhampadi for the sake of progeny. The man who performs the sadhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday night, and to fetch therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of the sadhana, the man takes his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or hollow bracelet with the ashes brought from the cemetery, and puts it on his arm above the elbow. Dhobis, Malis, Valands and other low-caste people remain naked while worshipping Bhairav. Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of serpent-bites by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water in order to gain efficacy for their mantras. Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects remain naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods. The hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used by thieves in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes prepared by a blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kali-chaudas, both being naked at the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion are believed to secure success for the thief, who scrupulously sets aside the first booty acquired by the help of the ganeshio for the blacksmith as a reward for his services. He does not grudge the reward however large the booty may be. In making dice according to the directions of Ramalashastra, the workers should remain naked. There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured if the maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree, and puts a circlet of them round the neck of the child. If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then ties and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process twenty-one times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue of curing Taria Tav or periodical fever. In the preparation of Nargudikalpa It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the morning and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankranti day. A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his thread investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle of the boy presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on. In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted with the belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing the rain. Some persons however attribute this quality to the stones on such sacred mounts as Girnar, Abu, and Pavagadh. It is a common practice to submerge the image There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading a life of purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation, merging into the Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise) where meritorious persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly cares. The stars are the spirits of so many righteous persons who are translated to swarga for their good actions, and are endowed with a lustre proportionate to their individual merits. But every moment of enjoyment in swarga diminishes the store of merit: and those whose whole merit is thus exhausted, on receiving their proportionate share of pleasures, must resume their worldly existence. The Bhagavad-gita says: “?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????” i.e., “they enter the mortal world when their merit is expended.” Meteors are believed to be spirits of this description who fall from their position as stars, to live again on this earth. Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced when the vimans (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each other. Meteors are also held to be the agar or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped either by a curious water-bird, Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of Indra, and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth. It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when sins accumulate in the celestial world. The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the Varahasanhita. Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious or baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they are seen to fall. Meteors from the Vayu-mandal, (or the group of stars known by the name of Vayu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic: those from Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human happiness; if they fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to all kings; those from Agni-mandal, threaten war between nations. During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction in which a meteor is seen to shoot. The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity to the king and the nation. Allah! He is the light of the Heavens and the Earth. The likeness of His Light being similar to a lamp in a glass.—Fazlullah Latfullah. Poshi Poshi Punemadi, Agashe randhi khichadi, jame bhaini benadi. ???????? ??????????????????? ?????????????????? ? ???? ??????? ??????????? ????????????????? ? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????????? ???????? ? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ? ? ? Rao Saheb P. B. Joshi. The Mrig constellation is also said to represent the goddess Saraswati, who had assumed the form of a gazelle in order to escape the amorous grasp of Brahma, her father. While the deer in the Mrig constellation is Saraswati, the Ardra constellation is Mahadev who had followed to chastise Brahma, who also is seen as the Brahma constellation.—Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. It is also said that the name of Ram or Krishna is repeated, because the falling star enters the Court of God Bhagwan.—The Schoolmaster of Lakhapadar. |
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