  The life of Mary Tudor has been in its place described as supremely tragic; that of Mary Stewart presents a tragedy not greater but more dramatic— whatever view we may take of her guilt or innocence with regard to Darnley, to Bothwell, to the conspirators who would fain have made her Queen of England. Of the misdeeds laid to her charge, that of unchastity has no colourable evidence except in the case of Bothwell, for whom it may be considered certain that she had an overwhelming passion; and even there the evidence is not more than colourable. That she was cognisant of the intended murder of Darnley can be doubted only by a very warm partisan: but in weighing the criminality even of that, it must be remembered not only that Darnley himself had murdered her secretary before her eyes, and had insulted her past forgiveness, but that political assassinations were connived at by the morals of the times. Henry VIII. had preferred to commit his murders through the forms of law, but had encouraged the assassination of Cardinal Beton which John Knox applauded. In Italy, every prominent man lived constantly on his guard against the cup and the dagger. Philip, Parma, Alva, Mendoza, encouraged the murder of Elizabeth, and incited or approved that of Orange. The royal House of France was directly responsible for the slaughter of St. Bartholomew. Henry III. of France assassinated Henry of Guise; the Guises in turn assassinated Henry. Many of the Scottish nobility, including certainly Lethington and Morton, if not Murray, were beyond question as deep as Mary, if not deeper, in the murder of Darnley. And in England it may be said frankly that there was no sentiment against political murder, but only against murder without sanction of Law. Given a person whose life was regarded as possibly dangerous to the State, the public conscience was entirely satisfied if any colourable pretext could be found on which the legal authorities could profess to find warrant for a death sentence, though the proof, on modern theories of evidence, might be wholly inconclusive. In plain terms, if Mary had not followed up the murder by marrying the "first murderer," the deed would not have been regarded as particularly atrocious, or as placing her in any way outside the pale. But that marriage was fatal. Darnley was killed because while he lived his intellectual and moral turpitude were perfectly certain to wreck his wife's political schemes; but the new marriage was equally destructive politically and drove home the belief that passion, not politics, was the real motive of the murder. Whether politics or passion were the real motive, whether either would have sufficed without the other, whether even together they would have sufficed without the third motive of revenge for Rizzio, no human judgment can tell. But if under stress of those three motives in combination, Mary connived at the murder, it proves indeed that her judgment failed her, but not that according to the standards of the day she was unusually wicked. As to her conduct in England—whatever it was—in connexion with the Ridolfi, Throgmorton, and Babington plots. In the first place, she owed Elizabeth no gratitude. She was perfectly well aware that the Queen kept her alive because—unlike her ministers and her people—she thought Mary alive was on the whole more useful than dangerous. Mary always without any sort of concealment asserted throughout the eighteen years of her captivity her quite indisputable right to appeal to the European Powers for deliverance. She always denied that she had any part in or knowledge of schemes for Elizabeth's assassination. Those denials were never met by any evidence [Footnote: Cf. Hume in State Papers, Spanish, III., iii.] more conclusive than alleged copies of deciphered correspondence, or the confessions of prisoners on the rack or under threat of it. But assuming that her denials were false, that in one or other instance or in all three she was guilty, she did only what Valois and Habsburg and half the leading statesmen in Europe were doing, with the approbation of Rome, and without Mary's excuse. For they had the opportunity of overthrowing Coligny, Orange, Henry of Guise, and Elizabeth herself in fair fight; Mary had not: her crime therefore at the worst was infinitely less than theirs. To a caged captive much may be forgiven which in those others could not be forgiven. And if in her prison she did assent to her own deliverance by assassination, and condescend (as no doubt she did) to use in some of her dealings with her captor some of that duplicity whereof that captor was herself a past mistress—if she used on her own behalf the weapons which were freely employed against her—she displayed at all times other qualities which were splendidly royal. She never betrayed, never disowned, never forgot a faithful servant or a loyal friend. If she bewitched the men who came in contact with her, she was the object of a no less passionate devotion on the part of all her women; not that transient if vehement emotion which a fascinating fiend can arouse when she wills, but a devotion persistent and enduring. And withal she dreed her weird with a lofty courage, faced it full front with a high defiance, which must bespeak for ever the admiration at least of every generous spirit. All this we may say and yet do justice to the attitude towards her of the people of England. For to them, her life was a perpetual menace. The idea of her succession was to half of them unendurable, yet if Elizabeth died it could be averted only at the cost of a fierce civil war, aggravated almost certainly by a foreign invasion. About her, plots were eternally brewing which if they came to a head must involve the whole nation in a bloody strife. She engaged when she could in negotiations which could not do otherwise than imperil the peace of the realm. If no law or precedent could be found applicable to such a situation, there was clear moral justification for removing such a public danger in the only possible way. Mary's release would only have aggravated it; her death was the one solution. England had no hesitation in assuming the grim responsibility which the Queen of England was fain to evade at her servants' expense. APPENDIX DBIBLIOGRAPHYThe works enumerated in this bibliography are such as may usually be found in the larger public libraries, or are available to members of the London Library. In most cases a few words of description are added, and the whole list has been so classified that the reader—it is hoped—will be able without much difficulty to pick out those volumes which will best help him whether to a general view or in gathering detailed information on specific points. * * * * * To a student "taking up" the Tudor period, the best brief general introduction, as a preliminary survey of the whole subject is to be found— judging from the writer's early experiences—in two small volumes in the "Epoch" Series (Longmans), Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution, and Creighton's Age of Elizabeth. The continuous narrative, in extenso, is presented consecutively in The Tudor Period, vol. i., by W. Busch (translated by A. M. Todd) for Henry VII.: Brewer's Henry VIII. (2 vols.) for Henry VIII. to the fall of Wolsey: Froude's History of England (12 vols.) from the fall of Wolsey to the Armada—cautious though the reader must be; with Major Martin Hume's Treason and Plot for Elizabeth's closing years. Proceeding to the detailed list; the first division gives authorities covering all sections of the Tudor Period. Then, under each reign, are the authorities for that reign, selected as being on the whole the most prominent or the most informing. These are divided into contemporary, i.e. Tudor; Intermediate; and Modern, i.e. publications (roughly) of the last half century. Further classification is introduced, where it seems likely to be of assistance. TUDOR PERIOD CONTEMPORARYThe Carew Papers (Ireland). Four Masters, Chronicle of The: Celtic Chronicles, collated and translated circa 1632 by four Irish Priests. Hakluyt's Voyages. The Hatfield Papers (Historical MSS. Commission). The period before Elizabeth occupies only half of vol. i.; the rest of which, with the following volumes of the series, is devoted to that reign. Rymer's Foedera. Stow, Annals and Survey of London and Westminster. INTERMEDIATEHallam's Constitutional History of England. A valuable study of the constitutional aspects of the period; and especially of the attitude of the Government to the great religious sections of the community. Hook's Lives of the Archbishops; a work somewhat coloured by the author's ecclesiastical predilections. Lingard's History of England; a fair-minded account written avowedly from a Roman Catholic point of view. Valuable data have however been brought to light since Lingard wrote. Von Ranke's Englische Geschichte, translated as "History of England principally in the seventeenth century": not a detailed history of this period, but marked by the Author's keen historical insight. ——— History of the Popes, for those aspects of the period suggested by the title: see also Macaulay's Essay on this work. Strype's Ecclesiastical Memorials, containing transcripts of many important documents. The compiler however occasionally went astray; as in a remarkable instance noted at p. 129. MODERNAshley, W. J., Introduction to English Economic History. Brown, Cambridge Modern History: vol. ii., The Reformation. Useful for reference, and containing a very full bibliography of the subject. Cc. xiii.-xvi. deal more particularly with England. Also vol. iii., The Wars of Religion. Chambers, Cyclopaedia of English Literature, containing useful surveys, criticisms, and extracts. [New edition.] Chambers, E. K., The Mediaeval Stage, invaluable prolegomena to a History of the Elizabethan stage as yet unwritten. Clowes, Sir W. Laird, The Royal Navy; vol. i. Cunningham, W., Growth of English Industry and Commerce: the best Green, J. R., Short History of the English People, admirably reproducing the atmosphere of the period. Lang, Andrew, History of Scotland, vols. i. and ii.: a strong corrective to the ordinary English treatment of Scottish relations. Morley, Henry, English Writers; partly critical, partly consisting of numerous and ample extracts. Rait, J. S., Relations between England and Scotland, 500 to 1707. A short study. Rogers, Thorold, Six Centuries of Work and Wages, and History of Social England, edd. H. D. Traill and J. S. Mann. Contributions by leading authorities, dealing at length with aspects commonly neglected in Political Histories. Stubbs (Bishop), Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Medieval and Modern History; and Lectures on European History (pub. 1904, delivered twenty-five years earlier); very useful to the student, from their extremely lucid method. HENRY VII CONTEMPORARYAndrÉ, Bernard, De Vita atque gestis Henrici Septimi, and Annales Henrici Septimi (to be found in Gairdner's Memorials, infra). AndrÉ was the court historiographer, and was blind. Honest, but not altogether trustworthy, or adequate. Fabyan, Robert, New Chronicles of England and France, (supplement), ed. Ellis: and London Chronicle: both, in their present form, probably summaries from the original record compiled by Fabyan as the events took place; upon which original it would seem that both Hall and Stow largely based their Chronicles of the reign. Hall, Edward, Chronicle: compiled chiefly from Polydore Vergil, and Italian Relation, An, (Author unknown: ed. Camden Society), by an Italian visitor to England. Letters and Papers, Richard III. and Henry VII., ed. Gairdner. Letters and Papers Henry VIII., (vols. i. and ii.) ed. Brewer. Letters, Despatches and State Papers, from Simancas, ed. Bergenroth. Spanish relations. Lyndsay of Pitscottie, Historie of Scotland: picturesque but not too trustworthy. Macchiavelli, N., The Prince. An interesting contrast to the political philosophy of the Utopia. Memorials of Henry VII., ed. Gairdner: contemporary records. More, Sir T., Utopia, first book (illustrating social and economic conditions). Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner; correspondence of the Paston family. Polydore Vergil, Historiae Anglicae Libri. P. V. was an Italian who came to England in 1502. For the earlier years of Henry VII. he had access to good sources of information; for the latter years he was a witness, but with the inevitable limitations of a foreign observer. INTERMEDIATEBacon, Francis, History of the Reign of King Henry VII. This has been the basis of all the popular histories, for the reign. It is often referred to as "contemporary". But Bacon was not born till fifty years after Henry's death, and did not write the history till he was over fifty himself. His work contains much that is merely rhetorical amplification of above named contemporary authorities, with occasional imaginative variations and misreadings: nor does he appear to have had additional sources of information. Ware, De Hibernia; a supplement to which contains annals of Irish MODERNBusch, Wilhelm, England under the Tudors, vol. i., Henry VII. Gairdner, J., Henry VII. (Twelve English Statesmen series), an admirable study but with less detail; written before Busch's work was published. Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reformers, Colet, Erasmus and More: an illuminating study. HENRY VIIICONTEMPORARY: A. DOCUMENTARYCalendar of State Papers (1) State Papers, Henry VIII. A series of eleven volumes edited before the commencement of the series next named. These are referred to in this work as "S. P."; and the next series mentioned, as "L. & P." (2) Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII. Vols. i.-iv. ed. Brewer, vols. v. ff. ed. J. Gairdner and others. Dr. Brewer carried his work down to the fall of Wolsey, arranging all available documents so far as possible chronologically, but without other classification. His introductions have been edited as two solid volumes (v. infra) by Dr. Gairdner. The subsequent editors were restricted as to the length of introduction permitted but the same system of arrangement is followed. Throughout, all documents of any importance are transcribed with fulness. (3) State Papers, Venetian, (4) State Papers, Ireland, (5) (State Papers, Spanish;_ all official collections throwing some light on (various aspects of the history. [2, 3, and 5 belong to the Rolls series.] Hamilton Papers (Scotland) 2 vols.: full transcriptions of the Hamilton collection of Papers. Letters of Thomas Cromwell, ed. Merriman, a complete collection of all the available letters of Cromwell, with a historical survey. B. CHRONICLES AND OTHER PUBLICATIONSBuchanan, G., History of Scotland; the author was an excellent scholar but a violent partisan with a rudimentary idea of evidence. Cavendish, Life of Cardinal Wolsey. The author was a member of Wolsey's household, from 1526, and regarded him with affection and admiration. Fabyan: see under Henry VII. Fish, Simon, The Supplicacyon for the Beggers, a pamphlet illustrating the most extravagant anti-clerical attitude, just before Wolsey's fall. Foxe, J., Acts and Monuments, commonly known as the "Book of Martyrs". The work of a strong but honest partisan and a good hater. Narratives of the Reformation by the same author. Hall's Chronicle: see under Henry VII. Holinshed, Raphael, Chronicle: compiled in the reign of Elizabeth. It forms with Hall's Chronicle, the basis of the popular impressions of English History down to Elizabeth, partly no doubt because Shakespeare, drawing upon those works, has made those popular impressions permanent. Knox, John, History of the Reformation; less valuable perhaps as a record of facts set forth with a strong bias than as a revelation of the mental attitude of the great Reformer and his followers. Latimer, Hugh, Sermons. Lyndsay, Sir David, Poetical Works, for Social and Ecclesiastical conditions in Scotland. Lyndsay of Pitscottie, Historie of Scotland. See under Henry VII. More, Thomas, Utopia (1516) expresses the ideas of an advanced political thinker, and incidentally, directly or by implication, conveys much information as to prevalent social economic and intellectual conditions. Pole, Reginald (Cardinal), Epistolae, illustrating the Cardinal's own views. Roper, W., Life of Sir T. More, whose son-in-law the author was. Sanders, Nicholas, History of the Anglican Schism presented from the extreme (contemporary) Catholic point of view. Skelton, J., Poems. Macchiavelli, N., The Prince. INTERMEDIATEBurnet, Gilbert, History of the Reformation; painstaking, liberal-minded and Orthodox, but requiring modification in the light of later information. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico and Peru: the classical work on the subject. Robertson, Charles V. Strype, Memorials of Cranmer. MODERN: A. GENERALArmstrong, E., Charles V., the best record of the Emperor's career. Brewer, J. S., The Reign of Henry VIII.: Introductions to the vols. of "L. & P." to the fall of Wolsey: edited in 2 vols. by J. Gairdner. Incomparable as an examination and exposition of the Cardinal's career. Creighton (Bishop), Wolsey (in the Twelve English Statesmen series), practically an exposition of Brewer for the general reader. Froude, J. A., History of England from the fall of Wolsey to the defeat of the Armada. An English classic, but an unsafe guide. Mr. Froude studied and made use of an immense mass of evidence not before available; but his transcriptions and summaries are not always distinguishable nor always accurate. He was unable to describe otherwise than picturesquely and impressively, and his colouring of events is frequently imaginative; he was overpowered by an anti-clerical passion and an almost blind enthusiasm for Henry VIII. Oppenheim, M., History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, etc. Seebohm, F., Era of the Protestant Revolution ("Epoch" series), professedly for school use, but extremely useful to even advanced students. Pollard, A. F., Henry VIII.; a sumptuous study. MODERN: B. REFORMATIONDixon, R. W., History of the English Church (vols. i. and ii.): actually, of the Reformation in England, down to Elizabeth. Further volumes have however been added. The author holds a brief against the anti-clericals of every kind; his view may be summarised as Anglo-Catholic: the precise antithesis of Froude. He is full and careful in his documentary evidence, but is so persistently ironical as occasionally to convey prima facie an impression diametrically opposed to what was intended. Gairdner, J., History of the English Church in the Sixteenth Century, concluding with the death of Mary. An admirably judicial survey, with a moderate predilection for the Conservative side. Gasquet, F. A., Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries, and The Eve of the Reformation. Very able and judicial statements of the case for Home and the loyal Roman Catholics. Innes, A. D., Cranmer and the English Reformation (in "The World's Mason, A. J., Thomas Cranmer (in "Leaders of Religion"): a short study. Moore, Aubrey, History of the Reformation. This volume consists almost entirely of notes, varying in fulness, for courses of lectures delivered by Canon Moore. The student will find them of much assistance in classifying and correlating events, and touched with flashes of insight. The High Anglican position is taken for granted throughout. Pollard, A. F., Cranmer (in "Heroes of the Reformation" series); somewhat fuller than the above-mentioned studies. Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reformers. (See under Henry VII.) Taunton, E., Thomas Wolsey, Reformer and Legate—from the Roman point of view. Westcott (Bishop), History of the English Bible. EDWARD VICONTEMPORARY: A. DOCUMENTARYCalendar of State Papers, Edward VI., etc., Domestic; vol. i. (Rolls.) Little more than a catalogue. Somewhat amplified by the Addenda in vol. vi. Calendar of State Papers, Edward VI., Foreign, 1 vol. (Rolls.) Fairly full. Calendar of Scottish State Papers, Ed. Bain. Hamilton Papers (Scotland). B. CHRONICLES AND OTHER PUBLICATIONSBuchanan, History of Scotland. Foxe, Acts and Monuments. Holinshed, Chronicle. Knox, History of the Reformation. Lyndsay of Pitscottie, Historie of Scotland. Literary Remains of Edward VI., Ed. Nichols. Pole, Reginald, Epistolae. Sanders, Nicholas, History of the Anglican Schism. Smith, Sir T., De Republica Anglorum INTERMEDIATEAs for Henry VIII. MODERN: A. GENERALArmstrong, E., Charles V. Dicey, A. V., The Privy Council. Froude, J. A., History of England. In this and the next reign, Oppenheim, M., The Royal Navy, etc. Pollard, A. F., England under Protector Somerset. The best work on the time; though the impression given of Somerset is somewhat more favourable than the facts quite warrant, the rehabilitation was to a great extent necessary and justified. Much information as to authorities is given in the bibliography. Tytler, P. F., England in the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary. B. REFORMATIONDixon, History of the English Church, vols. iii, iv. Gairdner, J., History of the English Church in the Sixteenth Gasquet, F. A., Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer. Innes, A. D., Cranmer and the English Reformation. Mason, A. J., Thomas Cranmer. Moore, Aubrey, History of the Reformation. Pollard, A, F., Cranmer. MARYCONTEMPORARYCalendar of State Papers, Mary, Foreign, 1 vol. Otherwise, the list of contemporary authorities is the same as for Edward INTERMEDIATEAs for Henry VIII. MODERNStone, J. M., Mary I. Queen of England takes the place of England under Protector Somerset for Edward VI. The facts are fairly and honestly stated; though the perspective differs considerably from that of Protestant writers, the bias is not nearly so marked as in the same writer's work on the Renaissance: and the portrait of Mary herself is probably the truest we have. Otherwise, the list for Edward VI. is practically repeated for Mary. ELIZABETHCONTEMPORARY: A. DOCUMENTARYCalendar of State Papers, Edward VI., etc., Domestic: (Rolls). Vol. i. 1547-80. A meagre catalogue. Vol. ii. 1580-90, somewhat less meagre. Vols. iii.-vi. 1590-1603, generally full transcriptions; but the Introductions are of much less use to the student than in Henry VIII. L. & P., or the other "Rolls" series of Elizabeth. Vols. vi. and vii., addenda to vols. i. and ii.; the description, as for vols. iii-vi. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, Elizabeth: (Rolls). 14 vols., 1558-81. Very full and informing; the introductions being very useful guides to the contents. Calendar of State Papers, Irish: (Rolls). Sufficiently full and satisfactory. Calendar of State Papers, Spanish: (Rolls). 1558-1603. Selected and translated by Major Martin Hume, chiefly from the Simancas archives. Very valuable, and full for most of the period. Slate Papers relating to the Spanish Armada: 2 vols.: ed. Professor Laughton, whose Introduction is of great interest. Sidle Papers: Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots. Hamilton Papers. Hardwicke Papers. Letters of Mary Queen of Scots: ed. A. Strickland. Statutes and Constitutional Documents: ed G. W. Prothero. B. CHRONICLES AND OTHER PUBLICATIONSBuchanan, History of Scotland. Camden, W., Britannia, a survey of the realm, and Annals of Queen Elizabeth. Foxe, J., Book of Martyrs. Holinshed, Chronicle. Knox, John, Works. Lesley, John (Bishop of Ross), History of Scotland. The Bishop was in constant diplomatic employment, on behalf of Mary. Lyndsay of Pitscottie, Historie of Scotland, ending 1563. Marprelate Tracts. Sanders, N., History of the Anglican Schism. Raleigh, Sir W., Works; notably The Discovery of Guiana, The Fight at the Azores, and the Relation of the Cadiz Action. But the works contain passim discussions which throw light on contemporary history. Spenser, E., Faerie Queen, Book I.; the Elizabethan spirit embodied in poetry. Not less necessary to a sympathetic understanding of the times than the Canterbury Tales, or Milton's Poems, for other periods. INTERMEDIATEBurnet, History of the Reformation. Macaulay, Lord, Essay on Burleigh and his Times, ostensibly a critique on the Nares Biography. Nares, E., Memoirs of Lord Burleigh. Neal, D., History of the Puritans. Strype, Annals of the Reformation; and Lives of Parker, Grindal, and Whitgift. Wright, T., Queen Elisabeth and her Times. MODERNBeesley, E. S., Queen Elizabeth in the Twelve English Statesmen series. Rather a biography than a history; i.e. the Queen's personality holds almost exclusive possession of the stage. Brown, P. Hume, Scotland in the Time of Queen Mary; a study of social conditions, not politics or persons, in Scotland; inferentially, useful to the student of English social conditions. Corbett, J., Drake and the Tudor Navy, 2 vols., the most complete study of the Naval development under Elizabeth. Indispensable for this subject. Also Drake in the English Men of Action series. Creighton (Bishop), Queen Elizabeth. Dixon, History of the English Church. Fleming, D. Hay, _Mary Queen of Scots; (to her captivity in England). Frere, W. H., History of the English Church. Froude, History of England, vols. vii.-xii.; closing with the Armada. Mary Queen of Scots is the wicked heroine, Burghley the hero, the dramatic presentation of other characters depending largely on—and varying with—their relations to these two. These preconceptions must be borne in mind, in following a most fascinating narrative. Mr. Froude accumulated an unprecedented quantity of evidence, but does not always present it with accuracy, or weigh its value. The Elizabethan Seamen is also an interesting and graphic study. Harrison, F., William the Silent, in the "Foreign Statesmen" series. Hosack, J., Mary Queen of Scots and her Accusers, a vigorous presentation of the case on Mary's behalf. Hume, Martin: (1) The Courtships of Queen Elizabeth—a special aspect of the reign which called for a specific treatment. (2) The Love Affairs of Mary Queen of Scots treated from the political, not the dramatic, point of view. (3) The Great Lord Burghley, a sympathetic study. (4) The Year after the Armada, to be read in conjunction with Corbett's Drake. (5) Treason and Plot, the best account of the Queen's closing years. (6) Life of Sir Walter Ralegh. (7) Introductions to the State Papers, Spanish, Elizabeth. Jusserand, J. J., The Elizabethan Novel, a very interesting study, by a Frenchman, of this particular literary development; and A Literary History of the English People. Lang, Andrew, The Mystery of Mary Stewart, a most ingenious examination of a practically insoluble problem: performed in the true spirit of historical investigation. The conclusions, with a less exhaustive treatment of the evidence, are presented in the History of Scotland—which is also a running criticism on English affairs as they affected, or were affected by, Scotland. Laughton, Introduction to the State Papers relating to the Armada. Lee, Sidney, Life of Shakespeare; and Great Englishmen of the Moore, Aubrey, History of the Reformation. Motley, J. R., Rise of the Dutch Republic, the classical work on the subject. Oppenheim, M., History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, etc. Procter, F., and Frere, W. H., New History of the Book of Common Rodd, Sir Rennell, Raleigh in English Men of Action series. Seeley, Sir J. R., The Expansion of England, lecture v.; and, The Sichel, E., Catherine de Medici, etc.; an account of some leading characters on the Continent. Skelton, J., Maitland of Lethington, an able study of the "Scottish Tomlinson, J. R., The Prayer-Book, Articles, Homilies—from a strongly "Protestant" point of view. [Illustration: Spanish America about 1580] Produced by Karl Hagen, David Moynihan, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. 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