ON

Physiology and Hygiene

FOR

Educational Institutions and General Readers.

FULLY ILLUSTRATED.

BY

JOSEPH C. HUTCHISON, M. D.,

President of the New York Pathological Society, Vice-President of the New York
Academy of Medicine, Surgeon to the Brooklyn City Hospital, late President
of the Medical Society of the State of New York, etc.

---

NEW YORK:

CLARK & MAYNARD, PUBLISHERS,

5 BARCLAY STREET.

1872.

---

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870,
By CLARK & MAYNARD.
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

---

TO MY WIFE,

WHOSE SYMPATHY HAS, FOR MORE THAN TWENTY YEARS, LIGHTENED THE
CARES INCIDENT TO

AN ACTIVE PROFESSIONAL LIFE,

THIS HUMBLE VOLUME

IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED.

---

PREFACE.

———•———

This work is designed to present the leading facts and principles of human Physiology and Hygiene in clear and concise language, so that pupils in schools and colleges, and readers not familiar with the subjects, may readily comprehend them. Anatomy, or a description of the structure of an organ, is of course necessary to the understanding of its Physiology, or its uses. Enough of the former study has, therefore, been introduced, to enable the pupil to enter intelligently upon the latter.

Familiar language, as far as practicable, has been employed, rather than that of a technical character. With a view, however, to supply what might seem to some a deficiency in this regard, a Pronouncing Glossary has been added, which will enable the inquirer to understand the meaning of many scientific terms not in common use.

In the preparation of the work the writer has carefully examined all the best material at his command, and freely used it; the special object being to have it abreast of the present knowledge on the subjects treated, as far as such is possible in a work so elementary as this. The discussion of disputed points has been avoided, it being manifestly inappropriate in a work of this kind.

Instruction in the rudiments of Physiology in schools does not necessitate the general practice of dissections, or of experiments upon animals. The most important subjects may be illustrated by drawings, such as are contained in this work. Models, especially those constructed by Auzoux of Paris, dried preparations of the human body, and the organs of the lower animals, may also be used with advantage.

The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to R. M. Wyckoff, M.D., for valuable aid in the preparation of the manuscript for the press; and to R. Cresson Stiles, M.D., a skilful microscopist and physician, for the chapter "On the Use of the Microscope in the Study of Physiology." Mr. Avon C. Burnham, the well-known teacher of gymnastics, furnished the drawing of the parlor gymnasium and the directions for its use.

Brooklyn, N. Y., 1870.

---

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
	PAGE
THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY	15
The Bones—Their form and composition—The Properties of Bone—The Skeleton—The Joints—The Spinal Column—The Growth of Bone—The Repair of Bone.
CHAPTER II.
THE MUSCLES	25
The Muscles—Flexion and Extension—The Tendons—Contraction—Physical Strength—Necessity for Exercise—Its Effects—Forms of Exercise—Walking—Riding—Gymnastics—Open-air Exercise—Sleep—Recreation.
CHAPTER III.
THE INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN	41
The Integument—Its Structure—The Nails and Hair—The Complexion—The Sebaceous Glands—The Perspiratory Glands—Perspiration and its uses—Importance of Bathing—Different kinds of Baths—Manner of Bathing—The Benefits of the Sun—Importance of Warm Clothing—Poisonous Cosmetics.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD	53
The Source of Food—Inorganic Substances—Water—Salt—Lime—Iron—Organic Substances—Albumen, Fibrin, and Casein—The Fats or Oils—The Sugars, Starch, and Gum—Stimulating Substances—Necessity of a Regulated Diet.
CHAPTER V.
FOOD AND DRINK	64
Necessity for Food—Waste and Repair—Hunger and Thirst—Amount of Food—Renovation of the Body—Mixed Diet—Milk—Eggs—Meat—Cooking—Vegetable Food—Bread—The Potato—Fruits—Purity of Water—Action of Water upon Lead—Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate—Effects of Alcohol.
CHAPTER VI.
DIGESTION	80
The Principal Processes of Nutrition—The General Plan of Digestion—Mastication—The Teeth—Preservation of the Teeth—Insalivation—The Stomach and the Gastric Juice—The Movements of the Stomach—Gastric Digestion—The Intestines—The Bile and Pancreatic Juice—Intestinal Digestion—Absorption by means of Blood-vessels and Lacteals—The Lymphatic or Absorbent System—The Lymph—Conditions which affect Digestion—The Quality, Quantity, and Temperature of the Food—The Influence of Exercise and Sleep.
CHAPTER VII.
THE CIRCULATION	101
The Blood—Its Plasma and Corpuscles—Coagulation of the Blood—The Uses of the Blood—Transfusion—Change of Color—The Organs of the Circulation—The Heart, Arteries, and Veins—The Cavities and Valves of the Heart—Its Vital Energy—Passage of the Blood through the Heart—The Frequency and Activity of its Movements—The Pulse—The Sphygmograph—The Capillary Blood-vessels—The Rate of the Circulation—Assimilation—Injuries to the Blood-vessels.
CHAPTER VIII.
RESPIRATION	123
The Objects of Respiration—The Lungs—The Air-Passages—The Movements of Respiration—Expiration and Inspiration—The Frequency of Respiration—Capacity of the Lungs—The Air we Breathe—Changes in the Air from Respiration—Changes in the Blood—Interchange of Gases in the Lungs—Comparison between Arterial and Venous Blood—Respiratory Labor—Impurities of the Air—Dust—Carbonic Acid—Effects of Impure Air—Nature's Provision for Purifying the Air—Ventilation—Animal Heat.
CHAPTER IX.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM	148
Animal and Vegetative Functions—Sensation, Motion, and Volition—The Structure of the Nervous System—The White and Gray Substances—The Brain—Its Convolutions—Cerebellum—The Spinal Cord and its System of Nerves—The Anterior and Posterior Roots—The Sympathetic System of Nerves—The Properties of Nervous Tissue—Excitability of Nervous Tissues—The Functions of the Spinal Nerves and Cord—The Direction of the Fibres of the Cord—Reflex Activity and its Uses—The Functions of the Medulla Oblongata and the Cranial Ganglia—The Reflex Action of the Brain.
CHAPTER X.
THE SPECIAL SENSES	177
The Production of Sensations—Variety of Sensations—General Sensibility—Pain and its Function—Special Sensation, Touch, Taste, Smell, Sight, and Hearing—The Hand, the Organ of Touch—The Sense of Touch—Delicacy of Touch—Sensation of Temperature and Weight—The Tongue the Organ of Taste—The Nerves of Taste—The Sense of Taste, and its Relations with the other Senses—The Influence of Education on the Taste—The Nasal Cavities, or the Organs of Smell—The Olfactory Nerve—The Uses of the Sense of Smell—The Sense of Sight—Light—The Optic Nerve—The Eyeball and its Coverings—The Function of the Iris—The Sclerotic, Choroid, and Retina—The Tears and their Function—The Movements of the Eyeball—The Function of Accommodation—The Sense of Hearing and Sound—The Ear, or the organ of Hearing—The External, Middle, and Internal Ear.
CHAPTER XI.
THE VOICE	227
Voice and Speech—The Larynx, or the Organ of the Voice—The Vocal Cords—The Laryngoscope—The Production of the Voice—The Use of the Tongue—The different Varieties of Voice—The Change of Voice—Its Compass—Purity of Tone—Ventriloquy.
CHAPTER XII.
THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY	236
The Law of Tissues—Necessity of the Microscope—Different kinds of Microscopes—Additional Apparatus—Preliminary Studies—The Study of Human Tissues—Tissues of the Inferior Animals—Incentives to Study.
APPENDIX.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES	247
GLOSSARY	252

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.	PAGE
Frontispiece, Viscera in Position
1. Section of bone,	17
2. Structure of bone, magnified,	17
3. The skeleton,	18
4. Cells of cartilage,	20
5. Elbow-joint,	21
6. Spinal column,	22
7. The muscles,	24
8. Muscular tissue, magnified,	25
9. Biceps muscle of the arm,	26
10. View of knee-joint,	27
11. Appliance for strengthening the muscles,	35
12. Appliance for strengthening the muscles,	35
13. Parlor gymnasium,	36
14. Root and transverse section of hair, magnified,	43
15. Granules of potato starch,	61
16. Section of the trunk,	81
17. Section of a tooth,	82
18. Section of the jaws,	82
19. Section of the jaws—right side,	84
20. Structure of a salivary gland,	87
21. Head of a horse, showing salivary gland, etc.	87
22. Section of chest and abdomen,	90
23. Organs of digestion,	91
24. The lacteals,	97
25. Blood corpuscles,	102
26. Blood corpuscles of man and lower animals,	103
27. Circulation of the blood,	108
28. Heart and large vessels,	109
29. Section of the heart,	110
30. Form of the pulse,	116
31. Valves of the veins,	117
32. Web of frog's foot, magnified,	119
33. Circulation in a frog's foot,	119
34. Organs of the chest,	124
35. Larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes,	125
36. Diagram of the structure of the air-cells,	125
37. Section of the lungs,	126
38. Section of mouth and throat,	127
39. Ciliated cells,	128
40. Cerebro-spinal system,	151
41. Upper surface of the cerebrum,	153
42. Vertical section of the brain,	154
43. Base of the brain,	155
44. Brain and spinal cord,	156
45. Sense of touch,	185
46. Section of nasal cavity,	193
47. Front view of the eye,	200
48. Vertical section of eye,	202
49. Diagram for blind point of eye,	207
50. Retinal image,	210
51. Different shapes of the globe of the eye,	212
52. Function of accommodation,	214
53. Diagram of the ear,	218
54. Section of the ear,	221
55. Section of larynx and trachea,	229
56. View of vocal cords by the laryngoscope,	232
57. Different positions of vocal cords,	232
58. Simple microscope,	238
59. Compound microscope,	239
60. Household microscope,	240
61. Popular microscope,	241

INTRODUCTION.

———•———

The Human Body is the abode of an immortal spirit, and is the most complete and perfect specimen of the Creator's handiwork. To examine its structure, to ascertain the uses and modes of action of its various parts, how to protect it from injury, and maintain it in a healthy condition, is the design of this work.

The departments of knowledge which are concerned in these investigations, are the science of Human Physiology and the art of Hygiene.

Physiology treats of the vital actions and uses of the various parts of living bodies, whether vegetable or animal. Every living thing, therefore, has a Physiology. We have a Vegetable Physiology, which relates to plants; and an Animal Physiology, relating to the animal kingdom. The latter is also divided into Comparative Physiology, which treats of the inferior races of animals, and Human Physiology, which teaches the uses of the various parts of the human body.

Hygiene, or the art of preserving health, is the practical use of Physiology. It teaches us how to cultivate our bodily and mental powers, so as to increase our strength and to fit us for a higher enjoyment of life. It also shows us how to prevent some of the accidents which may befall the body, and to avoid disease. It is proper that we should understand the construction and powers of our bodies; but it is our duty, as rational beings, to know the laws by which health and strength may be maintained and disease warded off.

There are various means by which we gain important information respecting the Physiology of man. Plants aid us in understanding the minute structure of the human body, its circulation, and absorption. From inferior animals we learn much in respect to the workings of the different organs, as we call those parts of the system which have a particular duty to perform. In one of them, as in the foot of the frog, we can study the circulation of the blood; in another, we can study the action of the brain.

By vivisection, or the laying bare of some organ of a living animal, we are able to investigate certain vital processes which are too deeply hidden in the human body to be studied directly. This is not necessarily a cruel procedure, as we can, by the use of anÆsthetics, so blunt the sensibility of the animal under operation, that he need not suffer while the experiment is being performed. There are other means by which we gather our information. There are occasionally men, who, from some accident, present certain parts, naturally out of view, in exposed positions. In these cases, our knowledge is of much greater value than when obtained from creatures lower in the scale of being than man.

We are greatly aided, also, by the use of various instruments of modern invention. Chief among these is the microscope, which is, as we shall learn hereafter, an arrangement and combination of lenses in such a way as greatly to magnify the objects we wish to examine.

We have much to say of Life, or vital activity, in the course of our study of Physiology; but the most that we know of it is seen in its results. What Life is, or where its precise position is, we are not able to determine. We discover one thing, however, that all the parts of the body are united together with wonderful sympathy, so that one part cannot be injured and other parts not suffer damage. It is further evident that all organs are not equally important in carrying on the work of Life; for some may temporarily suspend their action, without serious results to the system, while others must never cease from acting. Yet there is nothing superfluous or without aim in our frames, and no part or organ can suffer harm without actual loss to the general bodily health. On this point Science and Holy Writ strictly agree.

---