During the last century of the Judges, there was a growing tendency toward a more settled form of government; and the wise rule of Samuel inspired a still stronger desire for a better organization of the state. The rival tribes of Ephraim and Judah were conciliated by the choice of a king from the weak tribe of Benjamin, equally dependent upon both; and Saul, an obscure farmer of Gibeah, was called to the throne. The events of his reign are here related only so far as is necessary to present the localities referred to, which may be grouped under the following heads: 1. His Appointment. 2. His Wars. 3. His Pursuit of David. 4. His Death.

I. Saul's Appointment as King. (1 Sam. 9-12.) This is connected with four places. Ramah, the residence of Samuel (probably Neby Samwil, 3½ miles nearly north of Jerusalem), where Saul was privately crowned; Mizpeh, an unknown place, near by, and also north of Jerusalem, where he was introduced to the people as king; Gibeah (Tuleil el Ful, 4 miles north of Jerusalem), his home and capital; and Gilgal, in the Jordan Valley, where he was formally recognized as king, after his victory at Jabesh-gilead. The places named in the account of Saul's search for his father's stray asses, which led him to Samuel, are not known with certainty; but Shalisha may be Sirisia, 13 miles north of Lydda, and Zuph may be another name for Zophim, or Ramah, of which the name in full was Ramathaim-zophim.

II. The Wars of Saul. (1 Sam. 11-18.) These were as follows:

1. The Ammonite War. (1 Sam. 11.) The Ammonites were a roving, predatory, cruel people, ancient enemies of Israel, living east of the Moabites. Under their king, Nahash, they invaded the territory east of the Jordan, and besieged Jabesh-gilead (ed Deir). Word came to Saul, who instantly summoned the warriors of Israel. They met at Bezek (not the same with the Bezek of Judges 1:4, but probably the ruin Ibzik, a little north of Tirzah), marched against the Ammonites, and, under Saul's vigorous leadership, utterly discomfited them. The relief of Jabesh-gilead, Saul's first victory, greatly strengthened his authority as king, over the tribes.

2. The First Philistine War. (1 Sam. 13, 14.) At the time of Saul's accession, the Philistine outposts held Geba, Bethel, and other places in the mountain region. Saul undertook to free the land, and summoned the Israelites, who came tremblingly, being thoroughly cowed under their oppressors. Saul's son Jonathan struck the first blow, by attacking the Philistines at Geba (Jeba), near Gibeah, Saul's capital; and soon followed it up by a great victory at Michmash, across the valley from Geba. The Israelites now gained courage, and pursued the Philistines, even to their own borders. Nevertheless, the Philistines continued to hold their fortresses in Israel through all the reign of Saul, and wars were constant between the two races.

Three other wars of Saul are named in a single verse (1 Sam. 14:47), without mention of particular events. These are as follows:

3. The Moabite War. These people lived south of the brook Arnon, and east of the Dead Sea. The war with them may have taken place in connection with the Ammonite campaign, already referred to. No battle-fields are named, so that the places of the war cannot be given. It resulted in the defeat of the Moabites, but not in their subjection to Israel.

4. The Edomite War perhaps occurred at the same time, and may have been caused by an alliance of Edom, Moab and Ammon against Israel, as all these tribes lived near each other, the Edomites south of the Dead Sea. Probably after the victory at Jabesh-gilead, Saul pursued the flying Ammonites, ravaged their territory, and then entered the lands of Moab and of Edom.

5. The Syrian War. This was against "the kings of Zobah." (1 Sam. 14:47.) Zobah was situated near Damascus, northeast of Palestine, and was the head of a kingdom until subjected in the reign of David. It is likely that Saul's campaign was a defensive one, protecting his border against a Syrian inroad, but no places or particulars are named.

6. The Amalekite War. (1 Sam. 14:48; 15:1-35.) This marked the turning point in Saul's career; for, though a signal victory, it was the occasion of his alienation from Samuel, the priests and the prophetic order, and the beginning of his decline. The Amalekites were wild Bedouins of the desert, whose presence made the southern border unsafe, and against whom an ancient ban had been pronounced. They were to be utterly destroyed, not merely conquered or despoiled. Saul assembled his army at Telaim, on the southern border (probably el Kuseir, between Beersheba and the Dead Sea), and marched into the land of the Amalekites, destroyed their principal city, laid waste their country, and brought away their king a prisoner. But the command had been, not to plunder, but to destroy; as the safety of Israel (and, we may add, the salvation of the world through Israel) was endangered by these nomad hordes; and Saul, after leading his host with their plunder over the mountains of Judah, met Samuel at Gilgal, and received a rebuke for his disobedience, and the warning of his own rejection as the theocratic king.

7. The Second Philistine War. (1 Sam. 17, 18.) War was the normal condition between the Israelites and the Philistines, and there were doubtless many battles and campaigns of which no mention is made. But this was notable for the first appearance of David, the destined king, who had been privately anointed by Samuel at Bethlehem. The Philistines were encamped at a place called Ephes-dammim, or Shochoh, and the Israelites across the Valley of Elah, where between the two hosts David met the gigantic Goliath of Gath, and killed him, in a deed of mingled skill and courage. As a result the Philistines fled, and were pursued by Israel even to the gates of Ekron and Gath. David was now brought prominently into notice, and became one of Saul's household at Gibeah, though soon an object of suspicion by the jealous king.

III. Saul's Pursuit of David (1 Sam. 19-28) is the principal subject of the history during the close of his reign. We have indicated upon the map, by a red line, the wanderings of David during this period, as nearly as the localities have been identified, and have marked each place by a number.

1. At Gibeah, the capital, David was more than once threatened with death, until at last he fled from Saul's wrath to Ramah.

2. At Ramah, David was with Samuel and the "sons of the prophets," in a neighborhood called Naioth, "pastures," or "dwellings." Here Saul came to slay him, but was overcome by the ardent worship of the prophetic band, and, forgetting his errand, joined in their devotions, while David escaped once more to Gibeah. (1 Sam. 19:18-24.)

3. At Gibeah, David found a place of hiding for a few days, and then met his friend Jonathan, in the farewell interview, when "the arrows" were shot as tokens. (1 Sam. 20.)

4. David's first stopping place, in his permanent exile, was at Nob, where stood the Tabernacle. Here he received food, and took the sword of Goliath, which he carried as his weapon during his wanderings. This act of hospitality afterward cost the high-priest and many of his order their lives, at the hand of Saul. (1 Sam. 21:1-9; 22:6-23.) Nob was probably about two miles north of Jerusalem.

5. From Nob, David made his way down the mountains to Gath, at that time the head of the Philistine league. Here he was suspected by the Philistines, and compelled to escape by a stratagem. (1 Sam. 21:10-15.)

6. He found a hiding place in the Cave of Adullam. This was in the Shefelah, or low country, perhaps at Beit-jibrin, where immense caverns are found. Here a force of men gathered around him, and his aged parents and brothers joined him, probably from a well-grounded fear, that Saul, who about this time slaughtered the priests for an act of kindness to David, would not scruple to kill the members of his family. (1 Sam. 22:1, 2.)

7. To find a safe refuge for his parents, David left Judah, and went into the land of Moab. Here he placed his parents in the care of the king of Moab, while David and his men took up their abode at Mizpeh of Moab, in a place called "the hold." This may have been at Kerak. (1 Sam. 22:3-5.)

8. By the advice of the prophet Gad, who probably had been one of his companions at Samuel's "school of the prophets," in Ramah, David led his little army back to the land of Judah, and made his headquarters in the Forest of Hareth (perhaps Kharas, in the mountains near Hebron). Here he received news of the massacre of the priests, and was joined by Abiathar, bearing the ephod of the high-priest. (1 Sam. 22:5, 20-23.)

9. Next, he led his men to Keilah (Kilah, in the mountains northwest of Hebron), to repel an attack of the Philistines. But, learning that the ungrateful people were about to betray him to Saul, he removed in haste to the wilderness between Hebron and the Dead Sea, called Jeshimon, "waste." (1 Sam. 23:1-13.)

10. In this wilderness David remained for a time, at Ziph (Tell Zif, south of Hebron). Here he met his friend Jonathan for the last time. His followers scattered, and David was alone, except for the presence of a few faithful companions. The Ziphites were willing to betray him to Saul, and he was again compelled to flee. (1 Sam. 23:14-24.)

11. His next hiding place was a mountain in the wilderness of Maon, 7 miles south of Hebron. Here he was again in great danger from Saul, but was saved by an opportune foray of the Philistines, which called the king and his troops away. (1 Sam. 25:24-28.)

12. From Ziph he took refuge in the almost inaccessible mountains of En-gedi (Ain-jedy), overlooking the Dead Sea. Here David showed his generosity in sparing Saul, when it was in his power to slay him. (1 Sam. 24.)

13. About the time of Samuel's death, David returned into the south of Judah, to the neighborhood of Maon, 7 miles south of Hebron. (See above, Nos. 10, 11. The likeness of the account in the two visits, has suggested that but one event may be related in both.) Here the narrow-minded Nabal was saved from David's wrath by the wisdom and generosity of his wife, Abigail, who, after Nabal's death, became David's wife. (1 Sam. 25.) About this time, and while David was in or near this locality, occurred David's act of mercy in sparing Saul's life a second time, when by moonlight he penetrated to the very centre of Saul's camp. (1 Sam. 26.)

14. Despairing of safety in Saul's realm during his reign, David finally took refuge in Gath (Tell es Safieh), on the Shefelah, the capital of the Philistines. Here he was more kindly received than before (see No. 5), as his relations with Saul were better understood, and he was able to obtain from Achish, the king of Gath, the grant of a city as his home. (1 Sam. 27:1-4.)

15. The place allotted to David, was Ziklag, on the south of Judah, which was at that time recognized as a possession of the Philistines. Its location is unknown, but we have followed Conder in placing it at Zuheilikah, 11 miles south of east from Gaza. Here David remained during the closing years of Saul's reign. He accompanied the Philistines as far as Aphek, in Mount Ephraim, but was sent back, from a fear lest he might desert to the Israelites. Returning, he found his home plundered by a roving band of Amalekites, pursued them, rescued his family and possessions, and also took a great quantity of booty, which he judiciously used in making presents to the leading people of various places in Judah, after the death of Saul. (1 Sam. 27, 29, 30.) These places are located upon the map as far as they are known.

16. From Ziklag David went up into the mountain region at Hebron, soon after the death of Saul. Here he was made king, first of the tribe of Judah, and afterward of all Israel. (2 Sam. 2:1-3.)

IV. Saul's Death. This took place B.C. 1010, when Saul had reigned 40 years. We have noticed two wars with the Philistines as prominent in the history of Saul's reign. We call the last campaign of Saul the third Philistine war, as no others are related, though their existence may be inferred. This marked the flood tide of Philistine power; for it left them at Saul's death in command not only of the Plain of Esdraelon and the Jordan Valley, but of all the centre of the country. Their armies met at Aphek, in the tribe of Benjamin (their old rallying place, 1 Sam. 4:1), and thence marched northward to the Plain of Esdraelon, at the foot of Mount Gilboa, on which the Israelites were encamped. Saul, full of fear, went around the Philistine camp to the village of Endor, where he sought the counsel of a "woman having a familiar spirit," and met the spirit of Samuel, which gave him warning that on the morrow he should die. The battle was fought on the next day. Saul and three of his sons, including the princely Jonathan, were slain; and Israel experienced the heaviest defeat thus far in its history. All the middle section of the land of Palestine was conquered by the Philistines, cutting the tribes in sunder in each direction, from north to south and from east to west. At such a low ebb were the fortunes of the Chosen People, when David ascended the throne. Saul's body was fastened up on the wall of the Canaanite city of Beth-shean, but was rescued by the warriors of Jabesh-gilead, in grateful remembrance of Saul's brave deed in behalf of their city, early in his reign. (1 Sam. 31.)

Upon the map the following are indicated: 1. The portions of the land under Philistine and Canaanite control are given in yellow, while the territory governed by Saul is shown in pink. The mountain region was held by Israel, and the lowlands, both by the sea and the Jordan, by the Philistines. 2. The names of Philistine cities are printed in red. Some of these were their own hereditary possessions; others (as Aphek, Geba and Bethel) were fortresses in the mountain region, garrisoned to hold Israel in subjection. 3. The battle-fields and wars of Saul are indicated by flags, and numbered. (1.) Jabesh-gilead, over the Ammonites. (1 Sam. 11.) (2.) Michmash, over the Philistines. (1 Sam. 14.) (3.) In Moab, at some unknown place. (1 Sam. 14:47.) (4.) In Edom, at a place also unknown. (1 Sam. 14:47.) (5.) Over the Syrians of Zobah. (1 Sam. 14:47.) This we have indicated as taking place in the half tribe of Manasseh, East; but its precise location is unknown. (6.) "A city of Amalek," place unknown. (1 Sam. 15:5.) (7.) Valley of Elah, over the Philistines. (1 Sam. 17:2.) (8.) Mount Gilboa. (1 Sam. 31.) 4. The various places named in Saul's pursuit of David are shown upon the map, with their most probable identifications. These places are: (1.) Gibeah. (2.) Ramah. (3.) Gibeah. (4.) Nob. (5.) Gath. (6.) Adullam. (7.) Mizpeh of Moab. (8.) Hareth. (9.) Keilah. (10.) Ziph. (11.) Maon. (12.) En-gedi. (13.) Maon. (14.) Gath. (15.) Ziklag. (16.) Hebron.

I. Saul's Appointment. Ramah, Gibeah, Gilgal, Shalisha, Zuph.

II. Wars of Saul. 1. Ammonite. (Jabesh-gilead, Bezek.) 2. First Philistine. (Geba, Michmash.) 3. Moabite. 4. Edomite. 5. Syrian. 6. Amalekite. (Telaim, Gilgal.) 7. Second Philistine. (Valley of Elah.)

III. Pursuit of David. 1. Gibeah. 2. Ramah. 3. Gibeah. 4. Nob. 5. Gath. 6. Adullam. 7. Mizpeh of Moab. 8. Hareth. 9. Keilah. 10. Ziph. 11. Maon. 12. En-gedi. 13. Maon. 14. Gath. 15. Ziklag. 16. Hebron.

IV. Saul's Death. Aphek, Gilboa, Beth-shean, Jabesh-gilead.