  The previously published data on the western Eskimo are few in number and mostly not as well documented as would be desirable. There are, however, a good number of references to the physical characteristics of the people by explorers. The main of these are given below. These references in general are not of much scientific value, yet in some instances they approach this closely and are of considerable interest collectively. 1784, Cook: The inlet which we had now quitted, was distinguished by Captain Cook with the name of Prince William's Sound. *** The natives whom we saw were in general of a middling stature, though many of them were under it. They were square or strong chested, with short thick necks, and large broad visages which were for the most part rather flat. The most disproportioned part of their body appeared to be their heads, which were of great magnitude. Their teeth were of a tolerable whiteness, broad, well set, and equal in size. Their noses had full round points, turned up at the tip; and their eyes, though not small, were scarcely proportioned to the largeness of their faces. They had black hair which was strong, straight, and thick. Their beards were in general thin or deficient, but the hairs growing about the lips, of those who have them, were bristly or stiff and often of a brownish color; and some of the elderly men had large, thick straight beards. *** The complexion of some of the females, and of the children, is white without any mixture of red. Many of the men, whom we saw naked, had rather a swarthy cast, which was scarcely the effect of any stain, as it is not their custom to paint their bodies. Vol. 3, page 31: All the Americans we had seen since our arrival on that coast (west coast of Alaska) had round, chubby faces, and high cheek bones, and were rather low of stature. Ibid., page 72: Norton Sound.—The woman was short and squat and her visage was plump and round. *** Her husband was well made and about 5 feet 2 inches in height. His hair was black and short, and he had but little beard. His complexion was of a light copper cast. *** The teeth of both of them were black, and appeared as if they had been filed down level with the gums. 1821, Kotzebue: Kotzebue Sound.—The Americans [i. e., Eskimo] are of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance; their countenances *** are characterized by small eyes and very high cheek bones. 1832, Beechey: The western Esquimaux appear to be intimately connected with the tribes inhabiting the northern and northeastern shores of America, in language, features, manners, and customs. They at the same time, in many respects, resemble the Tschutschi, from whom they are probably descended. *** They are taller in stature than the eastern Esquimaux, their average height being about 5 feet 7½ inches. They are also a better looking race, if I may judge from the natives I saw in Baffin's Bay, and from the portraits of others that have been published. At a comparatively early age, however, they (the women in particular) soon lose this comeliness, and old age is attended with a haggard and careworn countenance, rendered more unbecoming by sore eyes and by teeth worn to the gums by frequent mastication of hard substances. 1850, Latham: Physically the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. The Eskimos of the Atlantic are not only easily distinguished from the tribes of American aborigines which lie to the south or west of them, and with which they come in contact, but they stand in strong contrast and opposition to them—a contrast and opposition exhibited equally in appearance, manners, language, and one which has had full justice done to it by those who have written on the subject. It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian-America, and the parts that look upon the Pacific. These are so far from being separated by any broad and trenchant line of demarcation from the proper Indians or the so-called red race, that they pass gradually into it, and that in respect to their habits, manner, and appearance, equally. So far is this the case that he would be a bold man who should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes of Russian-America, to say here the Eskimo area ends and here a different area begins. 1853, Hooper: Kotzebue Sound Esquimeaux.—The men generally were taller than the average of Europeans, strongly built and well formed; some had well-marked features ***. The women, were generally short, the visages of the younger ones tolerably good but *** the very reverse was the case with the dames of more advanced age. Their figures inclined to the squat, their mien and expression promised intelligence and good nature. Although both sexes had in most instances the round flat face of the Mongolian cast, a few individuals possessed well-defined, though petite features, and all had fine eyes. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 31 Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island (Photos by Collins and Stewart, 1927.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 32 School Children at Wales BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 33 a, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927) b, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 34 King Island Eskimo: A Family Group BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 35 King Island Native BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 36 a, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) b, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H. Nowell.) A Fine Full-blood Eskimo Pair, Northern Bering Sea Region BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 37 Typical Full-blood Eskimo. Northern Bering Sea Region (Photo by Lomen Bros.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 38 Elderly Man, St. Lawrence Island (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.) 1853, Seemann, vol. II, pages 49-51: The Eskimos.—By comparing the accounts transmitted by different writers we find that the various tribes, however widely separated geographically, differ but slightly from each other in appearance, manners, customs, or language. They are, however, by no means as uniform in size as might have been expected. Those inhabiting the vicinity of Norton and Kotzebue Sounds are by far the finest and tallest, while those living between Cape Lisburne and Point Barrow are, like the tribes of the eastern portions of America, much shorter in stature, and bespeak the inferiority of the districts in which they live. Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active. The hands and feet are small and beautifully formed, which is ascribed by some writers to their sedentary habits, but this cannot be the case, as probably no people take more exercise or are more constantly employed. Their height varies. In the southern parts some of the men are 6 feet; in the more northern there is a perceptible diminution, though by no means to the extent generally imagined. Their faces are flat, their cheek bones projecting, and their eyes small, deeply set, and, like the eyebrows, black. Their noses are broad; their ears are large, and generally lengthened by the appendage of weighty ornaments; their mouths are well formed, their lips are thin. *** The teeth of the Eskimos are regular, but from the nature of their food and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to the gums at an early age. Their hair is straight, black, and coarse; the men have it closely cut on the crown, like that of a Capuchin friar, leaving a band about two inches broad, which gradually increases in length towards the back of the neck; the women merely part their hair in the middle, and, if wealthy, ornament it with strings of beads. The possession of a beard is very rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent. Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly be called dark; on the contrary, it displays a healthy, rosy tint, and were it not for the custom of tattooing the chin some of the girls might be called pretty, even in the European acceptation of the term. 1861, Richardson: The Eskimos are remarkably uniform in physical appearance throughout their far-stretching area, there being perhaps no other nation in the world so unmixed in blood. Frobisher's people were struck with their resemblance in features and general aspect to the Samoyeds and their physiognomy has been held by all ethnologists to be of the Mongolian or Tartar type. Doctor Latham calls the Samoyeds Hyperborean Mongolidae, and the Eskimos he ranges among the American Mongolidae, embracing in the latter group all the native races of the New World. The Mongol type of countenance is, however, more strongly reproduced in the Eskimos than in the red Indians—the conterminous TinnÉ tribes differing greatly in their features, and the more remote Indians still more. Generally the Eskimos have broadly egg-shaped faces with considerable prominence of the rounded cheeks caused by the arching of the cheek bones, but few or no angular projections even in the old people, whose features are always The complexions of the Eskimos when relieved from smoke and dirt are nearly white and show little of the copper color of the red Indians. Infants have a good deal of red on the cheeks, and when by chance their faces are tolerably clean are much like European children, the national peculiarities of countenance being slighter at an early age. Many of the young women appear even pretty from the liveliness and good nature that beams in their countenances. The old women are frightfully ugly ***. The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable show of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin. *** The Eskimo beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European one. The hair of the head is black and coarse, the lips thickish, and the teeth of the young people white and regular, but the sand that, through want of cleanliness, mixes with their food, wears the teeth down at an early age almost to the level of the gums, so that the incisors often have broad crowns like the molars. The average stature of the Eskimos is below the English standard, but they can not be said to be a dwarfish race. The men vary in height from about 5 feet to 5 feet 10 inches or even more. They are a broad-shouldered race, and when seated in their kayaks look tall and muscular, but when standing lose their apparent height by a seemingly disproportionate shortness of the lower extremities. This want of symmetry may arise from the dress, as the proportions of various parts of the body have not been tested by accurate measurements. The hands and feet are delicately small and well formed. Mr. Simpson (Blue Book, 1855) observed an undue shortness of the thumb in the western Eskimos, which, if it exists farther to the east, was not noted by the members of the searching expeditions. 1870, Dall: Page 136: The Innuit, as they call themselves, belong to the same family as the northern and western Eskimo. I have frequently used the term Eskimo in referring to them, but they are in many respects very different people. *** It should be thoroughly and definitely understood that they are not Indians nor have they any known relation, physically *** to the Indian tribes of North America. Their grammar, appearance, habits, and even their anatomy, especially in the form of the skull, separate them widely from the Indian race. On the other hand, it is almost equally questionable whether they are even distinctly [distantly?] related to the Chukchees and other probably Mongolian races, of the eastern part of Siberia. The Innuit of Norton Sound and the vicinity are of three tribes, each of which, while migrating at certain seasons, has its own peculiar territory. The peninsula between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds is inhabited by the Kaviaks or Kaviagemut Innuit. The neck of this peninsula is occupied by the Mahlemut Innuit. The shore of Norton Sound south of Cape Denbigh to Pastolik is the country of the Unaleets or Unaligmut Innuit. The habits of these tribes are essentially similar. They are in every respect superior to any tribe of Indians with which I am acquainted. Their complexion I have described as brunet. The effect of the sun and wind, especially in summer, is to darken their hue, and from observing those who lived in the fort, I am inclined to think that a regular course of bathing would do much toward whitening them. They are sometimes very tall; I have often seen both men and women nearly 6 feet in height and have known several instances where men were taller. Their average height equals that of most civilized races. Their strength is often very great. I have seen a Mahlemut take a 100-pound sack of flour under each arm and another in his teeth and walk with them from the storehouse to the boat, a distance of some 20 rods, without inconvenience. Page 140: The women *** are often of pleasing appearance, sometimes quite pretty. They preserve their beauty much longer than Indian women. Their clear complexion and high color, with their good humor, make them agreeable companions, and they are often very intelligent. A noticeable feature is their teeth. These are always sound and white, but are almost cylindrical, and in old people are worn down even with the gums, producing a singular appearance. The eyes are not oblique as in the Mongolian races, but are small, black, and almost even with the face. The nose is flat and disproportionately small. Many of the Innuit have heavy beards and mustaches, while some pull out the former. Page 17: I *** made the acquaintance of a fine-looking young Mahlemut who *** introduced me to his wife and child, the latter about 2 years old. The former was not particularly ugly or pretty. *** The husband was a fine-looking, athletic fellow, standing about 5 feet 5 inches, with a clear brunet complexion, fine color, dark eyes, and finely arched eyebrows. The flat nose, common to all the Eskimo tribes, was not very strongly marked in him, and a pleasant smile, displaying two rows of very white teeth, conquered any objection I might have felt to his large mouth. The baby looked like any other baby. *** Page 376: It has been frequently remarked that the Tuski and Innuit tribes have a Mongolian cast of countenance. This, upon an actual comparison, will be found to be much less than is usually supposed. The real points of resemblance are principally in the complexion, which is somewhat similar, and in the eyes. But the eyes of the Innuit are not oblique, as in the Chinese. They have an apparent obliquity, which is due to the peculiar form of the zygomatic arch, but the eyes themselves are perfectly horizontal. The prominent characteristics of the Orarian The mean capacity (in cubic centimeters) of three Tuski skulls from Plover Bay, according to Doctor Wyman, was 1,505; that of 20 crania of northern Page 401: The Kaniagmuts are of middle stature and a complexion more reddish than that of the Aleutians or more northern Innuit. They are stoutly built, with large broad faces, and their hair is coarse, black, and straight. Page 407: The Magemuts *** are tall, finely formed, and have very fair complexions. Blue eyes are not unknown among them, but their hair is black and their beards are very light. The Ekogmuts. *** A noticeable feature in many of them is the extreme hairiness of their persons. Many have very strong black beards and hairy bodies. Page 410: The Point Barrow tribe are said by Richardson to be called NuwungmËun. *** These northern Innuit are very few in number. *** Simpson mentions that their thumbs appeared to be disproportionately short. The same may be true of the Norton Sound Innuit; at all events, no white man can wear one of their mittens comfortably until the thumb is lengthened. Doctor Otis, of the United States Army Medical Museum, says that the skulls found in the northern mounds have the same peculiarities which distinguish all Orarian crania, and that both are instantly distinguishable from any Indian skulls. 1874, Bancroft (compilation): "The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: A fair complexion, Simpson, 1875: These people are by no means the dwarfish race they were formerly supposed to be. In stature they are not inferior to many other races and are robust, muscular, and active, inclining rather to spareness than corpulence. The tallest individual was found to be 5 feet 10½ inches, and the shortest 5 feet 1 inch. The heaviest man weighed 195 pounds, and the lightest 125 pounds. The individuals weighed and measured were taken indiscriminately as they visited the ship, and were all supposed to have attained their full stature. Their chief muscular strength is in the back, which is best displayed in their games of wrestling. The shoulders are square, or rather raised, making the neck appear shorter than it really is, and the chest is deep; but in strength of arm they can not compete with our sailors. The hand is small, short, broad, and rather thick, and the thumb appears short, giving an air of clumsiness in handling anything; and the power of grasping is not great. The lower limbs are in good proportion to the body, and the feet, like the hands, are short and broad with a high instep. Considering their frequent occupations as hunters, they do not excel in speed nor in jumping over a height or a level space, but they display great agility in leaping to kick with both feet together an object hanging as high as the chin, or even above the head. In walking, their tread is firm and elastic, the step short and quick; and the toes being turned outward and the knee at each advance inclining in the same direction, give a certain peculiarity to their gait difficult to describe. The hair is sooty black, without gloss, and coarse, cut in an even line across the forehead, but allowed to grow long at the back of the head and about the ears, whilst the crown is cropped close or shaven. The color of the skin is a light yellowish brown, but variable in shade, and in a few instances was observed to be very dark. In the young, the complexion is comparatively fair, presenting a remarkably healthy sunburnt appearance, through which the rosy hue of the cheeks is visible; before middle life, however, this, from exposure, gives place to a weather-beaten appearance, so that it is difficult to guess their ages. The face is flat, broad, rounded, and commonly plump, the cheek bones high, the forehead low, but broad across the eyebrows, and narrowing upwards; the whole head becomes somewhat pointed toward the crown. The nose is short and flat, giving an appearance of considerable space between the eyes. The eyes are brown, of different shades, usually dark, seldom if ever altogether black, and generally have a soft expression; some have a peculiar glitter, which we call gipsy-like. They slope slightly upwards from the nose, and have a fold of skin stretching across the inner angle to the upper eyelid, most perceptible in childhood, which gives to some individuals a cast of countenance almost perfectly Chinese. The eyelids seem tumid, opening to only a moderate extent, and the slightly arched eyebrows scarcely project beyond them. The ears are by no means large, but frequently stand out sideways. The mouth is prominent and large, and the lips, especially the lower one, rather thick and protruding. The jawbones are strong, supporting remarkably firm and commonly regular teeth. In the youthful these are in general white, but toward middle age they have lost their enamel and become black or are worn down to the gums. The incisors of the lower jaw do not pass behind those of the upper, but meet edge to edge, so that by the time an individual While young the women are generally well formed and good looking, having good eyes and teeth. To a few, who besides possessed something of the Circassian cast of features, was attributed a certain degree of brunette beauty. Their hands and feet are small, and the former delicate in the young, but soon become rough and coarse when the household cares devolve upon them. Their movements are awkward and ungainly, and though capable of making long journeys on foot, it is almost painful to see many of them walk. Unlike the men, they shuffle along commonly a little sideways, with the toes turned inwards, stooping slightly forward as if carrying a burden, and their general appearance is not enhanced by the coat being made large enough to accommodate a child on the back, whilst the tight-fitting nether garment only serves to display the deformity of their bow legs. *** The physical constitution of both sexes is strong, and they bear exposure during the coldest weather for many hours together without appearing inconvenienced, further than occasional frostbites on the cheeks. They also show great endurance of fatigue during their journeys in the summer, particularly that part in which they require to drag the family boat, laden with their summer tent and all their moveables, on a sledge over the ice. Extreme longevity is probably not unknown among them; but as they take no heed to number the years as they pass, they can form no guess of their own ages, invariably stating "they have many years." Judging altogether from appearance, a man whom we saw in the neighborhood of Kotzebue Sound could not be less than 80 years of age. He had long been confined to his bed and appeared quite in his dotage. There was another at Point Barrow, whose wrinkled face, silvery hair, toothless gums, and shrunk limbs indicated an age nothing short of 75. This man died in the month of April, 1853, and had paid a visit to the ship only a few days before, when his intellect seemed unimpaired, and his vision wonderfully acute for his time of life. There is another still alive, who is said to be a few years older. 1877, Dall: Page 9: The Orarians are distinguished *** by a light fresh yellow complexion, fine color, broad build, scaphocephalic head, great cranial capacity, and obliquity of the arch of the zygoma. Page 17: The Ekogmut inhabit the Yukon delta from about Kipniuk to Pastolik ***. Their most noticeable personal peculiarity consists in their hairy bodies and strong beards. 1884, Hooper: About 3,000 Innuits inhabit the northwest coast of America, from the Colville River, on the east, to Bering Strait, including the islands therein, on the west. Many of these came under my observation while cruising in the Arctic Ocean in command of the Corwin. In appearance they are tall and muscular, many being 6 feet in height, and some were seen that would exceed that even. Their peculiar dress gives them The face of the Innuit is broad below the eyes, the forehead is narrow and receding, the chin and lower jaw broad and heavy. The nose is usually broad and flattened, but not always; occasionally one is seen whose features are well formed and handsome. In the young children this is the almost invariable rule; many of them are really beautiful. The eyes are small and black, and appear to be slightly oblique, and for this reason, perhaps more than any other, they have been classed with the Mongolidae. They have large mouths, thick, loosely hanging lips, and fine, strong teeth. These, however, from eating raw food, are usually very much worn. The labrets worn in the lips are hideous-looking things, made of bone, glass, stone, ivory, or in fact anything within the reach of the native which can be worked into the requisite shape. They have rather light skin, very different from the Indians of the plains; and in this also they differ from the Tchuktchis, being much lighter, and when cleansed from the dirt which usually covers them, and freed from the sunburn and tan due to long exposure, they become quite fair. They have small, well-formed hands and feet, much smaller in proportion than white men. This was particularly noticeable when buying boots and mittens from them for our use; only the largest sizes made by them could be used at all. They are generally without beard, but as the men grow old, they sometimes have a thin, straggling mustache and beard, but it is never full and regular. The hair is coarse and black. 1885, Ray: Pages 37-38: The following table will show that physically the Inyu of North American coast does not conform to the typical idea of the Eskimo. They are robust, healthy people, fairer than the North American Indian, with brown eyes and straight black hair. The men are beardless until they attain the age of from 20 to 25 years, and even then it is very light and scattering, and is always clipped close in the winter; at this season they also cut off their eyebrows and tonsure their crown like a priest, with bangs over their forehead. Their hands and feet are extremely small and symmetrical; they are graceful in their movements when unincumbered by heavy clothing. Page 46: Physically both sexes are very strong and possess great powers of endurance. 1888, Murdoch: In stature these people are of a medium height, robust, and muscular, inclining rather to spareness than corpulence, though the fullness of the face and the thick fur clothing often gives the impression of the latter. There is, however, considerable individual variation among them in this respect. The women are as a rule shorter than the men, occasionally almost dwarfish, though some women are taller than many of the men. The tallest man observed measured 5 feet 9½ inches and the shortest 4 feet 11 inches. The tallest woman was 5 feet 3 inches in height and the shortest 4 feet ½ inch. The heaviest man weighed 204 pounds and the lightest 126 pounds. One woman weighed 192 pounds and the shortest woman was also the lightest, weighing only 100 The face is broad, flat, and round, with high cheek bones and rather low forehead, broad across the brow and narrowing above, while the head is somewhat pointed toward the crown. The peculiar shape of the head is somewhat masked by the way of wearing the hair and is best seen in the skull. The nose is short, with little or no bridge—few Eskimo were able to wear our spring eyeglasses—and broad, especially across the alÆ nasÆ, with a peculiar, rounded, somewhat bulbous tip, and large nostrils. The eyes are horizontal, with rather full lids and are but slightly sunken below the level of the face. The mouth is large and the lips full, especially the under one. The teeth are naturally large, and in youth are white and generally regular, but by middle age they are generally worn down to flat-crowned stumps, as is usual among the Eskimo. The color of the skin is a light yellowish brown, with often considerable ruddy color on the cheeks and lips. There appears to be much natural variation in the complexion, some women being nearly as fair as Europeans, while other individuals seem to have naturally a coppery color. In most cases the complexion appears darker than it really is from the effects of exposure to the weather. All sunburn very easily, especially in the spring, when there is a strong reflection from the snow. The old are much wrinkled, and they frequently suffer from watery eyes, with large sacks under them, which begin to form at a comparatively early age. There is considerable variation in features, as well as complexion, among them, even in cases where there seems to be no suspicion of mixed blood. There were several men among them with decided aquiline noses and something of a Hebrew cast of countenance. The eyes are of various shades of dark brown—two pairs of light hazel eyes were observed—and are often handsome. The hair is black, perfectly straight, and very thick. With the men it is generally coarser than with the women, who sometimes have very long and silky hair, though it generally does not reach much below the shoulders. The eyebrows are thin and the beard scanty, growing mostly upon the upper lip and chin and seldom appearing under the age of 20. In this they resemble most Eskimo. Back, however, speaks of the "luxuriant beards and flowing mustaches" of the Eskimo of the Great Fish River. Some of the older men have rather heavy black mustaches, but there is much variation in this respect. The upper part of the body, as much as is commonly exposed in the house, is remarkably free from hair. The general expression is good humored and attractive. The males, even when very young, are remarkable for their graceful and dignified carriage. The body is held erect, with the shoulders square and chest well thrown out, the knees straight, and the feet firmly planted on the ground. In walking they move with long swinging elastic strides, the toes well turned out and the arms swinging. *** I should say that they walked like well-built athletic white men. The women, on the other hand, although possessing good physiques, are singularly ungraceful in their movements. They walk at a sort of shuffling half trot, with the toes turned in, the body leaning forward, and the arms hanging awkwardly. A noticeable thing about the women is the remarkable flexibility of the body and limbs and the great length of time they can stand in a stooping posture. *** Both men and women have a very fair share of muscular strength. Some of the women especially showed a power of carrying heavy loads superior to most white men. We were able to make no other comparisons of their strength with ours. Their power of endurance is very great, and both sexes are capable of making long distances on foot. Two men sometimes spend 24 hours tramping through the rough ice in search of seals, and we knew of instances where small parties made journeys of 50 or 75 miles on foot without stopping to sleep. The women are not prolific. Although all the adults are or have been married, many of them are childless, and few have more than two children. One woman was known to have at least four, but investigations of this sort were rendered extremely difficult by the universal custom of adoption. Doctor Simpson heard of a "rare case" where one woman had borne seven children. We heard of no twins at either village, though we obtained the Eskimo word for twins. 1890, Murdoch: The people who live on the extreme northwest corner of our continent are far from being an ugly or an ill-made race. Though they are not tall—a man of 5 feet 10 inches is a tall man among them—they are well proportioned, broad shouldered, and deep chested. The men, as a rule, are particularly well "set up," like well-drilled soldiers and walk and stand with a great deal of grace and dignity. The women do not have such good figures, but are inclined to slouchiness. They are seldom inclined to be fleshy, though their plump, round faces, along with their thick fur clothing, often give them the appearance of being fat. They generally have round, full faces, with rather high cheek bones, small, rounded noses, full lips, and small chins. Still, you now and then see a person with an oval face and aquiline nose. Many of the men are very good looking, and some of the young women are exceedingly pretty. Their complexion is a dark brunet, often with a good deal of bright color on the cheeks and especially on the lips. They sunburn very much, especially in the spring, when the glare of the sun is reflected from the snow. They have black or dark-brown eyes and abundant black hair. The women's hair is often long and silky. When they are young they have white and regular teeth, but these are worn down to stumps before middle life is reached. Cheerful and merry faces are the rule. 1890, Kelly: Personal appearance.—There are three types observable among the Arctic Eskimos of Alaska. The tall, cadaverous natives of Kangoot, Seelawik, Koovuk, and Kikiktowruk, on Kotzebue Sound, who live on fish, ptarmigans, and marmots. They always have a hungry look and habitually wear a grin of fiendish glee at having circumvented an adverse fate. There is a tendency among these people to migrate north. Then there is the tall, strongly knit type of the Nooatoks, a gigantic race, of a splendid physique that would be remarkable in any part of the world. Rugged as the mountains among which they live, vigorous and courageous, they stop at nothing but the impossible to accomplish a desired end. Their food supply is the reindeer, mountain sheep, ptarmigans, and fish. There are many of the coast natives of this type, but they lack the healthy glow and the indomitable will of the Nooatoks. The third type is the short, stumpy one, probably that of the old Eskimo before the admixture with southern tribes, now found on the Arctic coast. *** The Eskimos have coarse, black hair, some with a tinge of brown. Many of the coast people of both sexes are bald from scrofulous eruptions. Males have the crown of the head closely cropped, so that reindeer may not see the waving locks when the hunter creeps behind bunch grass. They have black eyes and high cheek bones. The bones of the face are better protected from the severity of the climate by a thicker covering of flesh than southern races. Among the coast people the nose is broad and flat, with very little or no ridge between the eyes. The adult males have short mustaches, and some of the elder ones—more noticeable in the interior—have rough, scraggy beards. Generally their beard is very scant, and most of them devote otherwise idle hours to pulling out the hairs. 1900, Nelson: The Eskimo from Bering Strait to the lower Yukon are fairly well-built people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in height. The Yukon Eskimo and those living southward from that river to the Kuskokwim are, as a rule, shorter and more squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are darker of complexion than those to the northward, and have rounder features. The men commonly have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, becoming at times a thin beard 2 or 3 inches in length, with a well-developed mustache. No such development of beard was seen elsewhere in the territory visited. The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, which unite to give their faces a curiously pointed, triangular appearance. At the village of Kaialigamut I was impressed by the strong development of the superciliary ridge. From a point almost directly over the pupil of the eye and extending thence inward to the median line of the forehead is a strong bony ridge causing the brow to stand out sharply. From the outer edge of this the skull appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal area a considerable enlargement beyond that usually shown. This curious development of the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge of the nose is low, as usual among these people, so that the shelf-like projection of the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the men and appears to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere in this district it was noted only rarely here and there. All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and Romanzof, and thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion. Some of the women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink cheeks, differing but little in complexion from that of a sallow woman of Caucasian blood. This light complexion is so exceptionally striking that wherever they travel these people are readily distinguished from other Eskimo, and before I visited their territory I had learned to know them by their complexion whenever they came to St. Michael. The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and squarely built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the flat marshy country about Big Lake, which is situated between the Kuskokwim and the Yukon. It is a well-populated district and its inhabitants differ from those near the coast at the capes referred to, in being taller, more slender, and having more squarely cut features. They also differ strikingly from any other Eskimo with whom I came in contact, except those on Kowak River, in having the bridge of the nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to suggest the aquiline nose of our southern Indian tribes. The Eskimo of the Diomede Islands in Bering Strait, as well as those of East Cape and Mechigme and Plover Bays on the Siberian coast, and of St. Lawrence Island are tall, strongly built people and are generally similar in their physical features. These are characterized by the unusual heaviness of the lower part of the face due to the very square and massive lower jaw, which, combined with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, flat face. These features are frequently accompanied with a low retreating forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive physiognomy. The bridge of the nose is so low and the cheek bones so heavy that a profile view will frequently show only the tip of the person's nose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being completely hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less oblique than is common among the people living southward from the Yukon mouth. Among the people at the northwestern end of St. Lawrence Island there is a greater range of physiognomy than was noted at any other of the Asiatic localities. The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and well-developed superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are remarkable for the irregularity of their features, amounting to a positive degree of ugliness, which is increased and rendered specially prominent by the expression produced by the short, tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small beady eyes. The women and children of this place are in curious contrast, having rather pleasant features of the usual type. The Eskimo from Upper Kowak and Noatak Rivers who were met at the summer camp on Hotham Inlet are notable for the fact that a considerable number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a cast of countenance very similar to that of the Yukon TiennÉ. They are a larger and more robustly built people than these Indians, however, and speak the Eskimo language. They wear labrets, practice the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. *** Among them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of men and women on the Siberian coast between East Cape and Plover Bay. This latter is undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the case of the man seen at Hotham Inlet the same result had been brought about by the Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo south of Bering Strait on the American coast not a single instance of this kind was observed. The age of the individuals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must have been born at a time when vessels were extremely rare along these shores. As a further argument against this curly hair having come from white men, I may add that I saw no trace of it among a number of people having partly Caucasian blood. As a general thing, the Eskimo of the region described, have small hands and feet and the features are oval in outline, rather flat and with slightly oblique eyes. Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasant and attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming prominent after The Malemut and the people of Kaviak Peninsula, including those of the islands in Bering Strait are tall, active, and remarkably well built. Among them it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet tall and of proportionate build. I should judge the average among them to be nearly or quite equal in height to the whites. Among the coast Eskimos, as a rule, the legs are short and poorly developed, while the body is long with disproportionately developed dorsal and lumbar muscles, due to so much of their life being passed in the kaiak. The Eskimo of the Big Lake district, south of the Yukon, and from the Kaviak Peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kotzebue Sound, are on the contrary very finely proportioned and athletic men who can not be equaled among the Indians of the Yukon region. *** There were a number of half-blood children among the Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with people from vessels and others, who generally show their Caucasian blood by large, finely shaped, and often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number of these mixed bloods was not very great. 1905, Jackson: The Eskimos of Alaska are a much finer race physically than their kindred of Greenland and Labrador. In the extreme north, at Point Barrow, and along the coast of Bering Sea they are of medium size. At Point Barrow the average height of the males is 5 feet 3 inches and average weight 153 pounds; of the women, 4 feet 11 inches and weight 135 pounds. On the Nushagak River the average weight of the men is from 150 to 167 pounds. From Cape Prince of Wales to Icy Cape along the Arctic Coast and on the great inland rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean they are a large race, many of them being 6 feet and over in height. 1916, Hawkes: The Alaskan Eskimo are a taller and more symmetrical people than their brethren of the central and eastern districts. They lack that appearance of stoutness and squatness inherent in the eastern stock, and for proportion and development of the various parts of the body they do not compare unfavorably with Indians and whites. It is not unusual to find in an Alaskan Eskimo village several men who are 6 feet tall, with magnificent shoulders and arms and bodily strength in proportion. The usual height, however, is about 168 centimeters for men, which is some 10 centimeters above the height of the eastern Eskimo. *** The average for women among the western Eskimo is 158 centimeters, which approximates the height of the men in the Hudson Bay region, 158 centimeters (Boas). The female type in Alaska is taller and slimmer than in the east, and the width of the face is considerably less. Eskimo women of large stature are often seen in the northern section of 1923, Jenness: In his report on the Copper Eskimos, D. Jenness gives excellent descriptive notes on this group with references to others. These notes, too voluminous to be transcribed, may well be consulted in these connections. FOOTNOTES:Older Anthropometric Data on the Western EskimoSTATURE AND OTHER MEASUREMENTS ON THE LIVINGThe earliest actual measurements of the living among the western Eskimo are those given in Captain Beechey's Narrative (1832, p. 226), where we read that of the Eskimo of Cape Thompson (north of Kotzebue Sound) "the tallest man was 5 feet 9 inches (175.3 centimeters), the tallest woman 5 feet 4 inches (162.6 centimeters) in height." As seen before, Beechey also stated that the stature of the Eskimo increases from the east to the west. In 1881-82, Lieutenant Ray collects and in 1885 reports evidently careful measurements of 51 men and 30 women from the villages of Uglaamie, at Cape Smythe, now Barrow, and Nuwuk, on Point Barrow.
In 1892, in connection with the preparation of the anthropological exhibits for the World Exposition at Chicago, an extensive effort was made under the direction of Frederick W. Putnam and Franz Boas to secure, by the help of a group of specially instructed students, physical data on many tribes of the American aborigines, and this included a contingent of the western Eskimo. An abstract of the results was reported by Boas in 1895. In 1901 Deniker, in his Races of Man (p. 580), reports the stature of 85 Eskimo of Alaska, doubtless males, as 163 centimeters. There are no details, no references, and I have not been able to trace the source of the measurement. During the years 1897-1899 A. J. Stone made an extended journey along a portion of the upper Yukon and through parts of northwestern Alaska and the Mackenzie River basin, for the American Museum of Natural History. On this journey he made some measurements of Indian and Eskimo, and these were published in 1901 by Franz Boas.
In addition, Doctor Jenness, in 1913, measured 13 adult male Point Hope Eskimo for stature, head length, and head breadth.
Doctor Jenness
FOOTNOTES:THE SKULLThe first western Eskimo skull collected for scientific purposes was apparently that of a female St. Lawrence Islander. It was taken from the rocks of the island by the Kotzebue party in 1817. It was reported upon phrenologically in 1822 by Gall. In 1839 Morton, in his "Crania Americana" (p. 248), gives measurements and the illustration of a western Eskimo skull from Icy Cape, collected by Dr. A. Collie, surgeon of H. M. S. Blossom. The principal measurements of this evidently female skull were: Length, 17.02 centimeters; breadth, 12.70; height, 12.70. Cephalic index, 74.6. In 1862 My opportunities for examining Esquimaux crania have been sufficient to furnish me with very satisfactory data for forming an opinion on the true Arctic skull form. In addition to the measurements of 38 skulls, *** I have recently compared and carefully measured six Tchuktchi [probably Asiatic coast Eskimo] skulls, in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, exhumed from the burial place of a village called Tergnyune, on the island of Arikamcheche, at Glassnappe Harbor, west of Bering Strait, and during a In Prehistoric Man, Volume II, Plate XV, this author gives also the measurements of the Icy Cape skull recorded by Morton. The principal mean measurements of the six Tchuktchi skulls (both sexes) were: Height, 17.60 centimeters; breadth, 13.59; height, 13.77; cranial index, 77.2. The next measurements on western Eskimo crania are those given in 1867 by J. Barnard Davis (Thes. cran.). This author measured 6 skulls, 3 of which were from Port Clarence (Seward Peninsula), 2 from Kotzebue Sound, and 1 from Cape Lisburne. The measurements, regrettably, are in inches. They include the greatest glabello-occipital length, greatest breadth, height (plane of for. magn. to vertex), height of face (chin-nasion), and breadth of face (d. bizygom. max.). The cranial index of the 4 specimens identified as male averaged 75.5 (75-76), that of the 2 females 77.5 (77-78). On page 226 the author mentions also an artificially deformed skull of a Koniag; this was in all probability a wrong identification for no such deformations are known from the island (Kodiak). In 1868 Jeffries Wyman The identification of the specimens was partly erroneous. The data with corrected identification are republished by Dall (q. v.) in 1877. And the same skulls figure in all future measurements. In 1875 Topinard The main measurements of Barnard Davis's western Eskimo skulls, converted to metric values, follow. The sex identification in some of the specimens is doubtful.
The next records are those by George A. Otis, published in 1876 in the Check List of the Specimens in the Section of Anatomy of the United States Army Medical Museum, Washington (pp. 13-15). Aside from those on Greenland crania the author gives here the measurements of 3 presumably Eskimo skulls collected by Dall; of 2 western Eskimo skulls, no locality; and of 3 Mahlemut skulls, probably from Norton Sound (St. Michael Island). In his later (1880) catalogue, In 1878, Rae I had the privilege of attending the series of admirable lectures so ably given by Professor Flower at the Royal College of Surgeons a few weeks ago on the "Comparative Anatomy of Man," from which I derived much useful information and on one point very considerable food for thought. I allude to the wonderful difference in form exhibited between the skulls of the Eskimos from the neighborhood of Bering Strait, and of those inhabiting Greenland, the latter being extremely dolichocephalic, whilst the former are the very opposite—brachycephalic, the natives of the intermediate coast, from the Coppermine River eastward, having mesocephalic heads. In 1879 Lucien Carr, in his "Observations on the Crania from the Santa Barbara Islands, California" Meanwhile W. H. Dall has published (1877) his monograph on the "Tribes of the Extreme Northwest,"
There were also taken the weight, capacity, circumference, longitudinal arch, length of the frontal, parietal, and occipital, "zygomatic diameter," and in two specimens of each series the facial angle. To-day these data have but a historical value. In 1882, Quatrefages and Hamy,
In 1883 Dr. Irving C. Rosse, in his "Medical and Anthropological Notes on Alaska," The next data on the western Eskimo skull are in rather unsatisfactory condition. They are those of Boas. In his report on the "Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer," Deniker (1901) and later Martin (1914) repeat the data given by Boas. In 1890 Tarenetzky In 1900 Sergi In 1916 E. W. Hawkes presented a thesis on the "Skeletal Measurements and Observations on the Point Barrow Eskimo, with Comparisons from other Eskimo Groups." The measurements, though the first taken by this author, have evidently been taken in a painstaking manner and according to modern methods, and are therefore of some value. An abstract of those on the adults follows:
In 1923 Cameron
The last contribution to the craniology of the western Eskimo before the present report are the data embodied in my "Catalogue of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections," published in 1924. For ready survey the old records on western Eskimo crania are given in the following table. A sex distinction in the earlier reports was mostly impracticable or remained doubtful.
FOOTNOTES:Present Data on the Western EskimoTHE LIVINGBarring the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands in the south and the Chukchee territory in the west, the Bering Sea is wholly the sea of the Eskimo, the Indians occupying the inland but reaching nowhere to the coast. There is doubtless much of significance in this remarkable distribution. It is now quite certain that the Eskimo has not been pressed out by the Indian; there are as a rule no traces of him farther inland than where he has been within historic times. On the other hand no Indian remnants or remains are known from any part of the coasts or islands within the Eskimo region; though the study of the older sites in these regions has barely as yet begun, besides which (see Narrative) it is a serious question whether really old sites could now be located in these regions at all even if they had once existed. At all events the Eskimo appears from all indications to be the latest comer, and judging from his remains his occupancy here is not geologically ancient; it is one to be counted, apparently, in many hundreds of years rather than in thousands. The Aleuts in the south are, as I have pointed out in the Catalogue (No. 1, 1924, p. 39), not Eskimo but Indians, related to the general Alaska Indian type; and the Pribilof Islands appear never to have been occupied until fairly recently, when a good number of Aleuts, mostly mixed bloods, have been transported and established there in the interest of the seal fisheries. MEASUREMENTS OF LIVING WESTERN ESKIMOThanks to Moore, Collins, and Stewart, all of the National Museum, instructed by me and working with the same instruments, we now have several small to fair series of measurements on the living western Eskimo of both sexes. They are tabulated below. They are the first made on these groups and will be of much interest both in general and in connection with the measurements made on the skulls and bones of most of the same people. The main points shown are as follows: Stature.—The stature of the males ranges from markedly to moderately submedium. There is a considerable similarity. Only the Yukon group and that of Togiak reach near or slightly above medium, the general human medium for males approaching 165 centimeters. The female stature on the St. Lawrence Island averages 12 centimeters less than that of the males, which is about the difference found in most other peoples. At Hooper Bay, and especially at the Nunivak Island, the difference is less, indicating either that the males are slightly stunted or that the growth of the females is somewhat favored. Height sitting.—The height-sitting-stature index ranges from slightly to quite notably higher than it is in other races, indicating a tendency toward a relatively long trunk and somewhat short limbs. A study of the long bones shows that this is due especially, if not wholly, to the relative shortness of the tibia; and the subdevelopment of this bone may, it seems, be ascribed to a great deal of squatting both at home during the long winters and in the canoes. The male Eskimo show more difference from other males in this respect than the Eskimo females show from other females. Arm span.—Relatively to the stature the length of the arms in the Eskimo males is shorter than it is in other racial groups, though there appears to be some inequality in this respect. This shortness would be especially marked if we compared the arm span with the height sitting. It is due essentially to a shortness of the distal half of the upper limbs. The males once more show this disproportion more as compared to other males than the females compared with others of their sex. (See comp. data in Old Americans.) This may be connected in some way with the male Eskimo work and habits; or it may be an expression of a correlative subdevelopment with that of the lower limbs. It is a good point for further study. The head.—The head, especially when taken in relation to the stature, is of good size, particularly on the Nunivak Island and on the Yukon. This agrees with what is known of the Eskimo head, skull, and brain elsewhere. The size of the Eskimo head—which is not caused by a thick skull—will best be appreciated by contrasting it with that of civilized whites. In whites in general the mean head diameter or cephalic module ranges in males from approximately 15.70 to 16.40; in the male western Eskimo groups the range is 15.87 to 16.08, and 16.11 in the group at Marshall on the Yukon. The percentage relation of the module to stature in 12 groups of male whites, including the old Americans, averages 9.31 to 10.11; in the male Eskimo groups it is from 9.57 to 9.94. In females, the cephalic module is 15.57 in the old Americans, 15.36 to 15.68 in the Eskimo; the relation of the module to stature in the former being 9.59, in the latter 10.15 to 10.25. In the western Eskimo woman the head dimensions are particularly favorable. In the old American whites the mean head diameter in the female is to that of the male on the average as 95 to 100; in the two main groups of the western Eskimo it is as 96.1 and 96.7 to 100. Nothing is known as to the cause of this apparently favorable status of the Eskimo woman; it is another interesting point for further inquiry. In shape, the head of the western Eskimo is highly mesocephalic to moderately brachycephalic and of only fair height, and it seldom approaches the scaphoid or dome-shaped. It is not the narrow, high, keeled skull of the northeastern and often the northern Eskimo. The physiognomy, the characteristics of the body, and the mentality and behavior, are in general typical Eskimo; but the form of the vault is substantially different. It is a form which approaches on one side that of the northwesternmost Indian, and on the other that of the northeastern and Mongoloid Asiatics. More must be said about this when we come to consider the skull. The forehead.—Anthropometric studies have shown repeatedly Something of a similar nature is found in the Eskimo. As seen in the following table, in the males the western Eskimo forehead is absolutely, and especially relatively to stature, higher than it is in the whites. In the females the absolute height in the two races is identical, but relatively to stature the Eskimo again shows a clear though somewhat lesser advantage. The condition is apparently not due to the size of the head, for this is not greater than in the whites, in the males; while in the females, where the Eskimo shows a slightly larger head than the white in relation to stature, the forehead fails to correspond.
With the lower breadth of the forehead, conditions are also interesting. The absolute figures for the two races show a reversal. The percental relation of the breadth of the forehead to that of the face reflects the excess of the latter in the Eskimo, particularly the male. There is evidently not a full direct correlation between the two dimensions. Yet relatively to its height the face is broader in the females than in the males (see below), which is doubtless not without influence on the lower breadth of the forehead in the former. To summarize, the western Eskimo forehead exceeds in area that of the American whites, in both sexes, and that particularly in relation to stature. As to the individual measurements, the male Eskimo forehead as contrasted with that of the white is especially high, the female especially broad. To which should be added that in the Eskimo the spheno-temporal region is often remarkably full, almost bulging, so that, contrary to what may be observed in the Negro, the frontal maximum diameter is also probably larger than in the whites, all of which doubtless has significance, even though this is not yet fully understood. The face.—The principal measurements and relations are given below. They show a face large and especially broad. Moreover, relatively to its height the face is especially broad in the Eskimo female, in connection doubtless with the well-known excess of the work (in softening leather, etc.) of her jaws, with consequent development of the muscles of mastication, which in turn broaden the zygoma.
The great size of the Eskimo face is especially apparent in the relations of the mean diameter of the face to stature; it is in this respect no less than 12 per cent in excess of that of the whites in the males and 12.5 per cent in the females. Lower facial breadth.—Due to the great development of the masseter muscles and the consequent frequent lesser or greater eversion of the angles of the lower jaw, the bigonial diameter in the Eskimo is very large, particularly when taken in relation to stature, and in such relation it looms especially large in the females. Compared with the old American whites, the bigonial breadth in its relation to stature is higher in the Eskimo males by 15.5 per cent, in the Eskimo females by 17.7 per cent. And measurements of Eskimo lower jaws in general show that this breadth in the western contingents is not exceptional.
The nose.—The nose of the western Eskimo promises to be of much importance in the study of Eskimo origins in general. Nowhere in this region is it like the nose of the northern or northeastern groups. It is decidedly broader. Its breadth is intermediary between that of the Alaska and other Indians and that of the northern and northeastern Eskimo, connecting with both, and these characteristics are so generalized throughout western Alaska and the Bering Sea islands that they can not possibly be attributed to Indian or other admixture. Nor can this relatively broad nose of the western Eskimo be well attributed to environmental effects, i. e., to a broadening of a formerly narrow nose through climatic conditions. There do not appear to be any such conditions. The only rational explanation seems to be that this is the more original condition of the Eskimo nose, and that the northern and northeastern narrowness is a later derivation. More may be said on this point when we come to consider the skeletal remains. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 39 The Wales People (Photo by Lomen Bros.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 40 The Long and Broad-faced Types, Wales (Photo by Lomen Bros.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 41 a, Broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.) b, Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S.N.M.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 42 a, A young man from Seward Peninsula. b, A boy from St. Lawrence Island. The Long-faced Type BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 43 A "Hypereskimo," King Island. Excessively Developed Face BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 44 Eskimo "Madonna" and Child, Northern Bering Sea Region (Photo by Lomen Bros.) The Eskimo nose is also high, which goes with the height of the whole face; that in turn evidently is attributable to more work and demand—in brief, more mastication. The nose, face, lower jaw, and other parts of the Eskimo anatomy offer rare opportunities for studies in the heredity of acquired characters.
The mouth.—The western Eskimo mouth is large. It is considerably larger (wider) than in the old American whites, though these are of much higher stature. In relation to stature the width of the western Eskimo mouth exceeds that in the white old Americans by 13 per cent in the males and by nearly 14 per cent in the females, but there is a close relation with that of a large group of Indians. The details follow:
The ears.—The ears of the western Eskimo are large. They are especially long. They exceed in both size and relative length those of whites, but are in both respects much more like those of the American Indian. The excess in length, both in the Eskimo and the Indian, is especially marked when this measurement is taken in relation to stature. Relatively to its length, the ear of the female Eskimo in all our groups is somewhat narrow, giving a lower index. This is not observed in the available whites and Indians. None of the series below are affected seriously by the age factor; though with an organ so much influenced by age as the ear the ideal way would be to compare only groups of the same age.
The chest.—The best measurements of the chest, experience has shown, are the antero-posterior and lateral diameters at the nipple height in the males and at the corresponding level of the upper border of the fourth costal cartilages in the females. They give not merely the individual dimensions but also their relation, which is of much ontogenic as well as other interest, and their mean gives the chest module which in relation to the stature is anthropologically as well as individually (medically) important. The table following gives the chest measurements in the western Eskimo, in a large group of Indians (my older data), and in the old American whites as well as others. The Eskimo chest is large. In the males, in addition, it is very deep. Compared to that of the white old Americans it is markedly deeper in the males and broader in the females, notwithstanding the fact that the Americans are much taller. It is even larger, besides being relatively deeper in the males and somewhat broader in the females, than it is in many tribes of the Indian. Only tall and bulky Indians such as the Sioux show a chest that is absolutely somewhat larger, but in relation to stature, with which the dimensions of the chest stand in close correlation, The hand.—The hand of the Eskimo is small, both absolutely and relatively to stature. But it is rather broad relative to its length, giving a high index. The index is higher than that of any of the groups available for comparison, white or Indian, excepting a few groups of immigrant whites, laborers.
The foot.—The foot of the western Eskimo, like his hand, is both absolutely and relatively to stature rather short, but it is broad, giving a high breadth-length index. Its actual breadth perceptibly exceeds that of the much taller old American whites, though not reaching that of any of the immigrant laborers. Contrary to what was seen in the case of the hand, the relative proportions of the Eskimo foot, as expressed by the index, are almost identical with those of the southwestern and Mexican Indians. The Sioux foot is relatively longer, and so is that of whites except southern Italians, who, though their foot as a whole is larger, give the same index as the Eskimo.
Girth of the calf.—The western Eskimo, like the American Indians, are characterized by a rather slender calf. The size of the calf correlates in a large measure with stature. Reducing our measurements to calf girth-stature ratios, these are seen to be much alike in the three racial groups used for comparison, namely the Eskimo, the Indian, and the old American white. But this is deceptive. The correlation of size of calf with stature is not uniform (see "Old Americans," p. 348) for all stature groups; as the scale in stature descends the calf is relatively stouter. If we take white Americans of approximately the same stature with the Eskimo here considered, there appears a higher ratio, showing that stature for stature the girth of the calf of the Eskimo is smaller, notwithstanding his generally more ample supply of adipose tissue. Once more his relation
FOOTNOTES:Physiological ObservationsDue to various difficulties which do not exist to that extent elsewhere, the physiological observations on the Eskimo are neither as numerous or extended as would be desirable; yet there are some data of value. They extend to the pulse, respiration, temperature, and dynamometric tests of hand pressure. They were made mainly on St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands, by Moore, Collins, and Stewart. They quite agree, especially after elimination of some records that are clearly erroneous or abnormal. The tests should be extended with even more rigid precautions in future work among the Eskimo. The results are given below. They were all made in the summer season and on healthy subjects, yet there were numerous indications of temporary disorders, pathological or functional. Even after a careful elimination of the obvious cases of such disorders not a few minor irregularities have doubtless remained, so that the data can not be taken for more than fairly close approximations to the normal. The data show remarkably low pulse, respiration rate and temperature close to those of whites, with a submedium hand pressure. (For comparative data see "Old Americans.") The low pulse is also characteristic in the Indian, as I have repeatedly pointed out before (see especially my "Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians," etc., Bull. 34, Bur. Amer. Ethn., Washington, 1908). The dynamometric tests agree also better with those on the Indians than with those on whites; they are valid only as to the hands, and they embody not only the strength of the muscles but also that of the conscious impulse behind them. The age factor, of importance, does not here enter materially into the case.
The details of these six records were:
In connection with the pressure tests in the two hands, some interesting comparisons are possible between the Eskimo here dealt with and the old white Americans. As all the tests were made with the same instrument and method the results inspire confidence. It is in details of this nature that the anthropologist finds again and again the most striking proofs of the basal unity of the living races and their necessarily common origin somewhere in the past.
FOOTNOTES:Summary of Observations on the Living Western Eskimo | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Males—Locality | Females—Locality | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kulukak | Togiak | Tanunuk (Nelson Island) | Nunivak Island | Hooper Bay | Marshall, Lower Yukon | St. Lawrence Island | Kanakanak, Bristol Bay | Nunivak Island | Hooper Bay | St. Lawrence Island | |
| Date of record | (1927) | (1927) | (1927) | (1927) | (1927) | (1927) | (1912) | (1927) | (1927) | (1927) | (1912) |
| Subjects measured | (8) | (4) | (4) | (19) | (20) | (24) | (2) | [138](48) | |||
| Age | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Near adult. | Adult. | Adult. | Adult. |
| Stature | 160.6 | 166 | 162.7 | 161.8 | 162.5 | 163.8 | 163.3 | 147.8 | 153.1 | 153 | 151.35 |
| Height sitting | 86 | 89.75 | 90.62 | 88.86 | 89.48 | 90.22 | 88.4 | (83.08) | 84.36 | 83.80 | 84.07 |
| Height-sitting-stature index | 53.55 | 53.95 | 55.69 | 55.70 | 55.06 | 55.08 | 54.13 | (56.21) | 55.10 | 54.77 | 55.55 |
| Arm span vs. stature | +2.8 | +6.7 | +5.5 | +2.7 | +.7 | +5.1 | +.6 | +1.5 | -.7 | (?) | -.7 |
| Head: | |||||||||||
| Length | 19.06 | 18.95 | 19.37 | 19.70 | 19.13 | 19.05 | 19.33 | 18.10 | 18.85 | 18.85 | 18.56 |
| Breadth | 15.56 | 15.70 | 15.37 | 15.48 | 15.57 | 15.85 | 15.40 | 15.26 | 15 | 15.30 | 14.77 |
| Height | 12.98 | 13.02 | 12.90 | 13.07 | 13.11 | 13.43 | 13.23 | 13.01 | 12.81 | 12.90 | 12.76 |
| Cephalic module | 15.87 | 15.89 | 15.88 | 16.08 | 15.94 | 16.11 | 15.99 | 15.46 | 15.55 | 15.68 | 15.36 |
| Cephalic index | 81.7 | 82.9 | 79.4 | 78.6 | 81.3 | 83.3 | 79.7 | 84.3 | 79.6 | 81.2 | 79.6 |
| Mean height index | 75 | 75.2 | 74.3 | 74.3 | 75.6 | 77 | 76.2 | 79 | 79 | 75.5 | 76.6 |
| Face: | |||||||||||
| Menton-crinion | 19.70 | 20.05 | 19.70 | 19.23 | 19.41 | 19.85 | 20.01 | 18.73 | 18.45 | 18 | 18.03 |
| Menton-nasion | 12.89 | 12.87 | 12.58 | 12.74 | 12.47 | 12.78 | 12.68 | (11.79) | 12.11 | 11.50 | 11.31 |
| Diameter bizygomatic maximum | 14.74 | 15.27 | 14.95 | 14.99 | 14.97 | 14.85 | 14.73 | (13.95) | 14.31 | 14.55 | 14.03 |
| Physiognomic facial index | 72.3 | 76.2 | 75.9 | 78.2 | 77.1 | 74.8 | 73.6 | (62.9) | 77.6 | 80.8 | 77.8 |
| Anatomical facial index | 87.4 | 84.2 | 85.7 | 85 | 83.3 | 86.1 | 86.7 | 84.6 | 84.6 | 79 | 80.6 |
| Height of forehead (nasion-hair line) | 6.81 | 7.18 | 7.12 | 6.49 | 6.94 | 7.07 | 7.33 | 6.94 | 6.34 | 6.50 | 6.72 |
| Breadth of forehead (diameter front—minimum) | 10.26 | 10.75 | 10.65 | 10.54 | 10.35 | 10.38 | 10.94 | 10.62 | 10.38 | 10.65 | 10.58 |
| Diameter bigonial | 11.78 | 11.18 | |||||||||
| Nose: | |||||||||||
| Height | 5.65 | 6.03 | 5.57 | 5.58 | 5.48 | 5.42 | 5.47 | (5.02) | 5.17 | 4.89 | |
| Breadth | 3.88 | 3.82 | 3.85 | 3.89 | 3.89 | 3.60 | 3.93 | (3.35) | 3.59 | 3.63 | |
| Nasal index | 68.7 | 63.7 | 69.1 | 69.8 | 71 | 66.4 | 71.9 | 66.7 | 69.4 | 74.4 | |
| Mouth: Breadth | 5.64 | 5.82 | 5.70 | 5.87 | 5.74 | 5.70 | 5.60 | (4.81) | 5.56 | 5.32 | |
| Ear (left): | |||||||||||
| Height | 6.71 | 7.17 | 7.18 | 7.05 | 6.79 | 6.52 | 7.40 | (5.99) | 6.49 | 6.60 | 6.73 |
| Breadth | 3.76 | 3.82 | 3.72 | 3.91 | 3.69 | 3.38 | 4.04 | (3.49) | 3.45 | 3.45 | 3.57 |
| Ear index | 56.4 | 53.3 | 58.9 | 55.5 | 54.3 | 51.9 | 54.6 | (58.3) | 53.1 | 52.3 | 53 |
| Chest: | |||||||||||
| Breadth | 29.58 | 29.65 | 29.70 | 29.97 | 29.96 | (27.43) | 28.63 | ||||
| Depth | 24.10 | 24.35 | 24.75 | 24.63 | 23 | (19.39) | 22 | ||||
| Chest index | 81.5 | 82.1 | 83.3 | 82.2 | 76.7 | 76.8 | |||||
| Hand (left): | |||||||||||
| Length | 17.35 | 17.87 | 17.55 | 18.42 | 17.61 | 18.12 | 17.94 | (15.90) | 16.62 | 16.85 | 16.60 |
| Breadth | 8.68 | 8.60 | 8.90 | 8.81 | 8.76 | 8.70 | 8.63 | (7.53) | 7.82 | 8.20 | 7.78 |
| Hand index | 52.9 | 48.1 | 50.7 | 47.8 | 49.7 | 48 | 48 | 47.4 | 47.1 | 48.7 | 46.7 |
| Foot (left): | |||||||||||
| Length | 24.82 | 24.05 | 24.31 | 23.88 | 24.07 | (22.08) | 22.27 | 22.15 | 21.98 | ||
| Breadth | 9.88 | 9.90 | 9.81 | 9.40 | 9.61 | (8.55) | 8.85 | 8.65 | 8.59 | ||
| Foot index | 37.8 | 41.2 | 40.4 | 39.4 | 39.9 | (38.7) | 40.6 | 39.1 | 39.1 | ||
| Leg: Circumference, maximum | 32.62 | 34.42 | 33.56 | 33.64 | (32.39) | 32.12 | 29.70 | 32.33 | |||
FOOTNOTES:
Present Data on the Skull and other Skeletal Remains of the Western Eskimo
THE SKULL
Until recently collections of skeletal remains of the western Eskimo were confined largely to skulls. The material in our own institutions comprised a small collection of Mahlemut (St. Michael Island) and "Chukchee" (Asiatic Eskimo) crania made in the early sixties by W. H. Dall; a larger series of crania gathered in 1881 on St. Michael and St. Lawrence Islands by E. W. Nelson; 28 skulls with 3 skeletons brought in 1898 by E. A. McIlheny from Point Barrow; a valuable lot of skulls from Indian Point, Siberia, with a few from St. Lawrence Island, collected by W. Bogoras; and some scattered specimens by other explorers. To this were added in 1912 an important collection of skulls, with a few skeletons, made by Riley D. Moore, at that time my aide, on St. Lawrence Island; an important lot of crania gathered a few years later by V. StefÁnsson at Point Barrow; and a third large and highly interesting lot, this time of both skulls and skeletons, collected near Barrow for the University Museum at Philadelphia in 1917-1919 by W. B. Van Valin. But none of the later material was described excepting the McIlheny collection which, in 1916, was reported upon by E. W. Hawkes.
During the survey which is the subject of this report a special effort was made to collect all the older skeletal material along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts that could be reached, and the result was the bringing back of some 450 crania, nearly 50 with skeletons, and many separate parts of the skeleton; nearly all of the specimens proceeding from localities thus far not represented in the collections. To which were added in 1927 nearly 200 skulls with a good number of skeletons gathered by H. B. Collins, jr., assistant curator in the Department of Anthropology, United States National Museum, and my aide, T. D. Stewart, on Nunivak Island and along the west coast of Alaska from Bristol Bay to near the Yukon delta.
We thus have now a relatively vast amount of skeletal material on the western Eskimo; it is essentially a virginal material; it is well identified as to locality; and the specimens are mostly in very good condition.
Aside from Hawkes's thesis, nothing of note had been published on these collections until 1924, when the first number of my Catalogue of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Collections appeared, which includes the principal measurements on
To save repetitions and possible confusion and to show more clearly the status of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo, the entire cranial material will be dealt with in this section, and previous records on the northeastern and a few other groups of the Eskimo will not be drawn upon to preserve the advantage of dealing with data obtained by the same methods, instruments, and observer.
In presenting the records it is found expedient, both on geographical and anthropological grounds, to make but three groupings. The first of these comprises the Eskimo from their southernmost limit to Norton Sound and the Bering Sea islands; the second group takes in Seward Peninsula (or the larger part of it) and the Arctic coast to Point Barrow; while the third embraces all the Eskimo east of Point Barrow. The first of these three groups is remarkably homogeneous, the second and third show each some exceptional units. It may be said at once that the dialectic subdivisions of Dall, Nelson, and others, in a large majority of cases are not found to be accompanied by corresponding physical differences, so that in a somatological classification they become submerged.
SKULL SIZE
The external size of the skull is best expressed by the cranial module or mean of the three principal diameters; the internal size, respectively the volume of the brain, by the "cranial capacity."
The module among the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo averages 15.44 centimeters in the males and 14.77 centimeters in the females. For people of submedium stature these are good dimensions. Fifty-two male and 40 female skulls of the much taller Sioux (writer's unpublished data) give the modules of only 15.25 and 14.27 centimeters; while 6 male and 9 female Munsee Indians, also tall,
Not all the western groups, however, give equally favorable proportions. In general, the coast people below Norton Sound, and especially below the Yukon, give, so far as the males are concerned, the lowest values. It is interesting to note that it is precisely these people who among the western Eskimo are reputed to be about the lowest also in culture. The Togiak and near-by Kulukak males showed, as seen before, also about the smallest head in the living. The St. Lawrence Island males stand just about the middle, but the females of this island, as, interestingly, also in the living, show markedly less favorably. The Nunivak skulls, as with the living, are somewhat above the average, while in the small Pilot Station (Yukon) group, just as in the near-by contingent of Marshall among the living, the males have the largest heads in this western territory. The lower Yukon Eskimo were also shown, it may be recalled, to be of a higher stature than the majority of the coast people. It is a group that deserves further attention.
The module of the female skull does not evidently stand always in harmony with that of the male. The most striking example of this is shown, as already mentioned, by the St. Lawrence Island females, both skulls and the living. The females of this isolated island are also unduly short, but their small head is not entirely due to the defective stature. There must exist on this island, it would seem, some conditions that are disadvantageous to the female. In the small groups, such as that from the Little Diomede, the disharmonies are doubtless partly due to small numbers of specimens, but there may also be other factors, such as the bringing in of women from other places.
Taking the mean of all the groups equalizes conditions, and it is seen that the module in both sexes is almost identical with that of the more northern groups, to Point Barrow. But the north Arctic and northeastern groups give a cranial module that in both sexes is somewhat higher, though their stature, according to the available data (Deniker, Boas, Duckworth, Steensby, Thalbitzer), is not superior.
A very remarkable showing is that of the percentage relation of the female to male skull size in the three large groupings. In the first two it is identical, in the third it differs less than could confidently be expected among the closest relatives. Another remarkable fact is that this important relation is found to be much like that in the Eskimo in various groups of Indians; thus it was 96 in the Indians o
| Southwestern and midwestern | ||
|---|---|---|
| Males | Females | |
| (5) | (7) | |
| Togiak | 15.21 | 14.73 |
| (4) | (6) | |
| Mumtrak | 15.22 | 14.68 |
| (3) | (2) | |
| Southwestern Alaska | 15.25 | 14.90 |
| (9) | (4) | |
| Hooper Bay | 15.30 | 14.68 |
| (8) | (6) | |
| St. Michael Island | 15.30 | 14.72 |
| (5) | (7) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 15.33 | 15.09 |
| (14) | (20) | |
| Pastolik and Yukon Delta | 15.34 | 14.83 |
| (145) | (128) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 15.42 | 14.27 |
| (4) | (2) | |
| Golovnin Bay to Cape Nome | 15.52 | 14.65 |
| (46) | (70) | |
| Nunivak Island | 15.53 | 14.90 |
| (13) | (16) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 15.54 | 14.88 |
| (3) | (2) | |
| Chukchee | 15.56 | 15.05 |
| (4) | (1) | |
| Port Clarence | 15.57 | (14.57) |
| (9) | (16) | |
| Nelson Island | 15.59 | 14.64 |
| (3) | (3) | |
| Pilot Station, Yukon | 15.91 | 15 |
| (275) | (290) | |
| General averages, approximately | 15.44 | 14.77 |
| Females vs. males (M=100) | 95.7 | |
| Northwestern | ||
| (2) | (1) | |
| Kotzebue Sound | 15.05 | (14.67) |
| (12) | (8) | |
| Shishmaref | 15.19 | 14.71 |
| (132) | (84) | |
| Point Hope | 15.37 | 14.72 |
| (47) | (52) | |
| Point Barrow | 15.45 | 14.75 |
| (35) | (34) | |
| Barrow and vicinity | 15.46 | 14.66 |
| (27) | (24) | |
| Old Igloos near Barrow | 15.52 | 14.72 |
| (19) | (14) | |
| Wales | 15.66 | 14.86 |
| (274) | (217) | |
| General averages, approximately | 15.39 | 14.73 |
| Females vs. males (M=100) | 95.7 | |
| Northern and northeastern | ||
| (49) | (52) | |
| Greenland | 15.51 | 14.72 |
| (5) | (2) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 15.55 | 14.57 |
| (16) | (17) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 15.55 | 15.04 |
| (6) | (10) | |
| Northern Arctic | 15.63 | 14.85 |
| (9) | (6) | |
| Southampton Island | 15.65 | 15.18 |
| (7) | (2) | |
| Smith Sound | 15.81 | 15.15 |
| (92) | (89) | |
| General averages, approximately | 15.62 | 14.92 |
| Females vs. males (M=100) | 95.5 | |
FOOTNOTES:
MODULE AND CAPACITY
A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This comparison reveals an important sex factor.
FOOTNOTES:
ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE
Before we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two noteworthy facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and northeastern groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes from Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the Point Hope group is in close relation. The second fact is the curious identity of the old Igloo group, 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with the Greenlanders. The import of this will be seen later.
SKULL SHAPE
Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues and with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in several of our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verh. Berl. anthrop. Ges., 398), as already mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 "western Eskimo" skulls of both sexes (without giving localities or details) as 77. He also reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic index of 61 probably male living "Alaska Eskimo," again without locality, as 79.2. These rather high indices and the relatively elevated stature (61 subjects, 165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376)
The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a new light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data on the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness and broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering Sea region (excepting parts of the Seward Peninsula). Important groups in this region, particularly those on some of the islands, had little or no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of the groups of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or even exceeds that of the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a relatively elevated cranial index are met with even in the far north, as at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound.
The records now available show the highest cranial indices to occur on the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower Yukon itself, while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though still mesocranic, occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the mouths of the Yukon. Another geographical as well as somatological aggregate is that of the people of the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands and of Indian Point, Siberia, the cranial index in these three localities being identical.
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (11) | |
| Togiak | 80.1 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 79.7 |
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 79.6 |
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 79.3 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee (Siberia) | 78.6 |
| (26) | |
| Nelson Island | 78 |
| (6) | |
| Southwestern Alaska | 77.7 |
| (32) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 77.4 |
| (12) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 77.4 |
| (299) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 77.2 |
| (5) | |
| Port Clarence | 76.6 |
| (34) | |
| Pastolik and Yukon Delta | 76.1 |
| (14) | |
| St. Michael Island | 75.7 |
| (116) | |
| Nunivak Island | 75.6 |
| Northwestern | |
| (222) | |
| Point Hope | 76.0 |
| (3) | |
| Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River | 75.4 |
| (22) | |
| Shishmaref | 74.5 |
| (101) | |
| Point Barrow | 74.1 |
| (73) | |
| Barrow | 73.5 |
| (33) | |
| Wales | 73.5 |
| (7) | |
| Golovnin Bay | |
| (52) | |
| Igloos, southwest of Barrow | 69.7 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 76.3 |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 76.2 |
| (15) | |
| Southampton Island | 74.8 |
| (15) | |
| Northern Arctic | 73.6 |
| (33) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 73.2 |
| (101) | |
| Greenland | 71.9 |
The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a few localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which is not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according to the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also at Sledge Island, there is a sudden appearance of marked dolichocrany, which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the peninsula, approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement on its northern shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material seen at the eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The cause of this distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the present elusive. The little known territory urgently needs a thorough exploration.
The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the western coast shows several points of interest. The first is the exceptional position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most populous settlements in these regions, which by its cranial index seems to connect with the Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness, once more, of Barrow and Point Barrow. The third and greatest is the presence, in a small cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast from Barrow, of a group of people that finds no counterpart in its cranial index and, as will be seen later, also in some other characteristics, in the entire western region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo territory outside of Greenland. As noted before, the size of the head in this group is also closest to that of Greenland. These peculiar facts indicate a problem that will call for separate consideration.
The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of the mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as that of Barrow and Point Barrow.
FOOTNOTES:
HEIGHT OF THE SKULL
This is a measurement of much value, both alone and as a supplement to the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be high or low and thus really of a radically distinct type.
The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and breadth, with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is also of interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull alone. The former relation is known as the mean height index and the latter as the height-breadth index. Both mean the percentage value of the basion-bregma height as compared to the other dimensions.
The mean height index H
(Mean of L+B) advocated independently by the writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116), is proving of much value in differentiation of types and has already become a permanent feature in all writers' work on the skull. There is a corresponding index also on the living.
In the American Indian the averages of the index range from approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., Nos. I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large the index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below 80 may be regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium, and those above 84 as high.
The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean height indices that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above medium. In general the broader and shorter skulls show lower indices, approaching thus in all the characters of the vault the Mongolian skulls of Asia. (Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, St. Lawrence Island, and Little Diomede Island skulls are again, as with the cranial index, very close together, strengthening the evidence that the three constitute the same group of people. (Pls. 59, 60.)
The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast have relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more almost the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault, though also rather broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (11) | |
| Togiak | 81.8 |
| (25) | |
| Nelson Island | 82.1 |
| (6) | |
| Southwest Alaska | 82.3 |
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Yukon | 82.3 |
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 82.5 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 82.7 |
| (116) | |
| Nunivak Island | 83.3 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee | 83.3 |
| (34) | |
| Pastolik and Yukon Delta | 83.4 |
| (4) | |
| Port Clarence | 83.4 |
| (29) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 83.8 |
| (279) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 84.1 |
| (12) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 84.5 |
| (14) | |
| St. Michael Island | 85.1 |
| Northwestern | |
| (69) | |
| Barrow | 83.8 |
| (99) | |
| Point Barrow | 84.1 |
| (2) | |
| Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River | 84.4 |
| (20) | |
| Shishmaref | 84.5 |
| (33) | |
| Wales | 85.0 |
| (216) | |
| Point Hope | 85.7 |
| (4) | |
| Golovnin Bay—Cape Nome | 85.9 |
| (51) | |
| Igloos, southwest of Barrow | 86.3 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 82.2 |
| (15) | |
| Northern Arctic | 82.7 |
| (33) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 84.4 |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 85.1 |
| (101) | |
| Greenland | 85.1 |
| (15) | |
| Southampton Island | 85.5 |
The height-breadth index (H×100)
(B) of the Eskimo skull shows in substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but while less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it accentuates the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the groups.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 59
Skulls From Old Burials, Point Hope; Right Skull Shows Low Vault. (U.S.N.M.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 60
Skulls From Old Burials, Point Hope; Right Skull Shows Low Vault. (U.S.N.M.)
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (12) | |
| Togiak | 91.9 |
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 92.8 |
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 93.1 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee | 93.1 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 93.2 |
| (25) | |
| Nelson Island | 93.7 |
| (5) | |
| Yukon Delta | 94.7 |
| (5) | |
| Southwest Alaska | 95.2 |
| (12) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 96.3 |
| (279) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 96.5 |
| (116) | |
| Nunivak Island | 96.7 |
| (31) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 96.7 |
| (29) | |
| Pastolik | 96.8 |
| (6) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 97.0 |
| (14) | |
| St. Michael Island | 98.2 |
| Northwestern | |
| (99) | |
| Point Barrow | 98.7 |
| (69) | |
| Barrow | 98.8 |
| (20) | |
| Shishmaref | 98.9 |
| (216) | |
| Point Hope | 99.2 |
| (3) | |
| Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk River | 99.6 |
| (33) | |
| Wales | 100.3 |
| (51) | |
| Igloos, southwest of Barrow | 105.0 |
| Northern and eastern | |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 95.3 |
| (16) | |
| North Arctic | 97.8 |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 98.3 |
| (15) | |
| Southampton Island | 99.8 |
| (33) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 99.9 |
| (101) | |
| Greenland | 101.8 |
FOOTNOTES:
THE FACE
The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points of unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively to stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high between the upper alveolar point and nasion.
The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from a few figures.
| Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo | Eskimo in general | Siouan tribes | Algonquian tribes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean of 14 groups (male) | 10 groups (female) | 27 groups (male) | 22 groups (female) | 12 groups (male) | 15 groups (female) | |
| Total height (ment.-nas.) | 12.60 | (11.63) | 12.52 | (11.59) | 12.26 | 12.11 |
| Upper height (alv. pt.-nas.) | 7.87 | (7.29) | 7.79 | (7.21) | 7.52 | 7.35 |
| Diameter bizyg. max. | 14.25 | (13.27) | 14.26 | (13.22) | 14.16 | 13.89 |
| Module of upper face (U. H.+B) 2 | 11.06 | (10.28) | 11.03 | (10.22) | 10.84 | 10.62 |
So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptibly, in all three measurements, behind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In whites the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin's Lehrbuch Anthrop., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters. The above showing assumes especial weight when it is recalled that both the Siouan and the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there are on the American Continent. The cause of the large size of the Eskimo face can only be the excessive use of the jaws; no other reason even suggests itself. But the character may already be more or less hereditary. It furnishes another attractive subject for further investigation.
With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, large dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole a characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits and the nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features of the Eskimo face are explainable as strengthenings resulting from the increased function of mastication.
The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large groupings of the Eskimo are given in the next table.
| Males | Females | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mentonnasion | Alveolar point-nasion | Diameter bizygomatic maximum | Cranial facial index | Mentonnasion | Alveolar point-nasion | Diameter bizygomatic maximum | Cranial facial index | |||
| Total | Upper | Total | Upper | |||||||
| Groups | (9) | (14) | (14) | (8) | (14) | (8) | (10) | (10) | (8) | (10) |
| Southwestern and midwestern | 12.60 | 7.87 | 14.25 | 88.2 | 55.3 | 11.63 | 7.29 | 13.27 | 87.7 | 54.9 |
| Groups | (5) | (7) | (7) | (5) | (7) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (2) | (7) |
| Northwestern | 12.58 | 7.73 | 14.23 | 88.3 | 54.4 | 11.55 | 7.19 | 13.18 | 88.2 | 54.6 |
| Groups | (5) | (6) | (6) | (5) | (5) | (3) | (5) | (5) | (3) | (5) |
| North Arctic and northeastern | 12.22 | 7.69 | 14.32 | 85.9 | 53.7 | 11.61 | 7.13 | 13.15 | 85.7 | 54.2 |
These data show a number of interesting conditions. The height of the upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the southwestern and midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwesterners, and still further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the northeast. On the other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher in the north and east, and that although the vault has become mostly decidedly narrower.
These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females there is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height from the south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth diminishes very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of which the upper facial index shows only minor differences; yet these differences are in the same direction as those in the males.
These matters are involved with a number of factors—the stature, the breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence of the temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper study will necessitate even more—in fact, much more—material than is now at our disposal.
The following table gives the distribution of the upper cranial facial index in the various groups. Of the two indices that of the whole face, including the lower jaw, is the less valuable; first, because the jaw is often absent; second, because it is influenced by the height of the lower jaw, which does not correlate perfectly with the upper; and third, on account of the wear of the teeth, which in such people as the Eskimo is very common and diminishes more or less the total height of the face. Its averages in the three main groupings have already been given. Its figures are not very exceptional.
| Southwestern and Midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 53.6 |
| (5) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 54.0 |
| (10) | |
| Hooper Bay | 54.4 |
| (9) | |
| Mumtrak | 54.5 |
| (93) | |
| Nunivak Island | 54.6 |
| (262) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 54.9 |
| (8) | |
| Togiak and vicinity | 55.0 |
| (24) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 55.1 |
| (23) | |
| Nelson Island | 55.2 |
| (4) | |
| Southwestern Alaska | 55.4 |
| (10) | |
| St. Michael Island | 55.5 |
| (25) | |
| Pastolik | 55.7 |
| (4) | |
| Chukchee | 55.8 |
| (11) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 56.0 |
| Northwestern | |
| (190) | |
| Point Hope | 52.8 |
| (2) | |
| Kotzebue | 53.7 |
| (17) | |
| Shishmaref | 54.1 |
| (42) | |
| Igloos north of Barrow | 54.1 |
| (41) | |
| Barrow | 54.8 |
| (75) | |
| Point Barrow | 55.2 |
| (31) | |
| Wales | 55.4 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (9) | |
| Smith South | 51.7 |
| (14) | |
| Southampton Island | 52.3 |
| (23) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 53.8 |
| (90) | |
| Greenland | 54.1 |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 54.3 |
| (11) | |
| Northern Arctic | 56.6 |
The upper facial index of the Eskimo skull is high, though there is considerable group variation. The reason is the height of the upper face, for which the accompanying considerable expansion of the zygomatic arches does not fully compensate. In the white groups this index ranges from approximately 50 to 54; it averages 52.9 in 15 Algonquian and 53.1 in 12 Siouan tribes. The means in the large Eskimo groupings are from a little below 54 to a little over 55. Its regional differences have already been mentioned. Sex differences in the index are very small. There are a number of points of significant agreement, the foremost of which is once more that in the case of Barrow and Point Barrow, and especially that of the Old Igloos near Barrow and Greenland.
THE NOSE
Equally as engaging as the whole face of the Eskimo skull is the cranial nose. Our data throw much light on this feature also.
Where the dimensions of the whole face are altered by some cause the nose can not remain unaffected. This is especially true of its height, which correlates directly and closely with that of the face proper; the correlation of the breadth of the nose with that of the face is weaker and more irregular, but not absent where not counteracted by other factors. Accordingly with the high Eskimo upper face there is found also a high nose, both being the highest known to anthropometry. But the nasal breadth, instead of responding to the considerable facial breadth, has become smaller, until in some of the Eskimo groups it is the smallest of all known human groups. There is plainly another potent factor in action here. This factor could conceivably be connected simply with the above-average growth of the facial bones; but if this were so then individuals with smaller development of these bones ought to have broader noses, and vice versa. This point can readily be tested. Taking the largest and best cranial series, that of St. Lawrence Island, and selecting the skulls with the smallest and the largest faces, the facts come out as follows:
The above data show that while the narrow nose in the Eskimo is to some extent affected by the large development in these people of the facial bones, yet there must be also other factors.
But if not wholly connected with the development of the facial bones, then some of the causes of the narrow nose in the Eskimo must either be inherited from far back or must be due to influences outside the face itself.
Pushing the character far back would be no explanation of its original cause, but it may be shown that such a procedure would not be justified. In the following important table are given the now available data on the breadth of the nasal aperture of the Eskimo,
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (5) | |
| Southwestern Alaska | 2.50 |
| (31) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 2.48 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee | 2.47 |
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 2.45 |
| (280) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 2.42 |
| (29) | |
| Pastolik | 2.41 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 2.39 |
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 2.38 |
| (6) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 2.38 |
| (23) | |
| Nelson Island | 2.37 |
| (9) | |
| Togiak and vicinity | 2.36 |
| (4) | |
| Yukon Delta | 2.34 |
| (107) | |
| Nunivak Island | 2.33 |
| (11) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 2.32 |
| (13) | |
| St. Michael Island | 2.21 |
| Northwestern | |
| (3) | |
| Kotzebue | 2.41 |
| (34) | |
| Wales | 2.37 |
| (20) | |
| Shishmaref | 2.36 |
| (56) | |
| Barrow | 2.35 |
| (211) | |
| Point Hope | 2.33 |
| (92) | |
| Point Barrow | 2.30 |
| (48) | |
| Igloos, north of Barrow | 2.30 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 2.29 |
| (15) | |
| Northern Arctic | 2.26 |
| (14) | |
| Southampton Island | 2.25 |
| (29) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 2.25 |
| (98) | |
| Greenland | 2.23 |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 2.19 |
It is hardly possible, therefore, to assume that a narrow nose is an ancient inheritance of the Eskimo. From the facts now at hand it seems much more probable that the Eskimo nose or respiratory nasal aperture was not originally very narrow, but that it gradually acquired this character as the people extended farther north and northeastward; and there appears to be but one potent factor that could influence this development and that increases from south to north, namely, cold. A narrowing of the aperture can readily be understood as a protective development for the throat and the organs of respiration.
It is not easy to see how the bony structures respond to the effects of cold or heat, but that they do, particularly where these are aggravated by moisture, has long been appreciated, and shown fairly conclusively through studies on the nasal index by Thomson and later by Thomson and Buxton.
The next two tables show other interesting conditions. The first of these, seen best from the more general data, are the relations of the nasal dimensions and index in the two sexes. The females in all the three large groupings have a higher nasal index than the males. This is a general condition among the Indians as well as in other races. It is usually due to a relative shortness of the female nose. This condition is very plain in the Eskimo. The female nose is actually narrower than the male, due to correlation with shorter stature and lesser facial breadth, yet the index is higher. The reason can most simply be shown by comparing the general mean nasal breadth and height in the two sexes. The breadth in the female is approximately 96.2 per cent of that in the male; the height is only 92.7 per cent.
| Area | Males | Females | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Height | Breadth | Index | Height | Breadth | Index | |
| Groups | (14) | (14) | (14) | (10) | (10) | (10) |
| Southwestern and Midwestern | 5.46 | 2.42 | 44.3 | 5.06 | 2.32 | 45.8 |
| Groups | (7) | (7) | (7) | (6) | (6) | (6) |
| Northwestern | 5.42 | 2.37 | 43.7 | 5.06 | 2.30 | 45.4 |
| Groups | (6) | (6) | (6) | (5) | (5) | (5) |
| Northern Arctic and northeastern | 5.38 | 2.28 | 42.4 | 4.95 | 2.18 | 44.0 |
Detailed group data on the nasal index show that this ranges from 47.7 on the Yukon to 41.8 in the northernmost contingent of the Eskimo at Smith Sound. The Kotzebue group that shows even a higher index than on the Yukon is too small to have much weight. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more nearly the same, as are the Old Igloos and Greenland; and there are some other interesting relations.
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 47.7 |
| (5) | |
| Southwestern Alaska | 47.5 |
| (31) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 46.5 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 46.2 |
| (6) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 46.0 |
| (280) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 45.8 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee | 45.6 |
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 45.2 |
| (107) | |
| Nunivak Island | 45.1 |
| (9) | |
| Togiak and vicinity | 45.0 |
| (29) | |
| Pastolik | 44.9 |
| (23) | |
| Nelson Island | 44.6 |
| (11) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 44.5 |
| (13) | |
| St. Michael Island | 42.9 |
| (4) | |
| Yukon Delta | 42.7 |
| Northwestern | |
| (3) | |
| Kotzebue | 49.0 |
| (20) | |
| Shishmaref | 46.0 |
| (34) | |
| Wales | 45.3 |
| (211) | |
| Point Hope | 44.9 |
| (56) | |
| Barrow and vicinity | 44.0 |
| (48) | |
| Igloos north of Barrow | 44.0 |
| (92) | |
| Point Barrow | 43.5 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 44.6 |
| (15) | |
| North Arctic | 44.1 |
| (29) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 43.8 |
| (98) | |
| Greenland | 43.6 |
| (14) | |
| Southampton Island | 43.0 |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 41.8 |
FOOTNOTES:
THE ORBITS
In many American groups the orbits are notoriously variable, yet their mean dimensions and index are of value.
The Eskimo orbits have long been known for their ample proportions. Their mean height and breadth are larger than those of any other known people and the excess is especially apparent when proportioned to stature. Taking the family as a whole, the mean height of the two orbits in males averages approximately 3.64 centimeters, the mean breadth 4.03 centimeters; while the males of 23 Algonquian tribes give for the same items 3.42 and 3.93, and those of 12 Siouan tribes 3.58 and 3.96 centimeters.
The general averages for the female Eskimo approach for orbital height 3.52 centimeters, for breadth 3.89 centimeters, dimensions which also surpass those in the females of any other known human group.
These large dimensions of the Eskimo orbit are, however, on closer examination into the matter, found not to be racial characters except in a secondary way. They are the direct consequence of the high and broad face. The correlation of the orbital height and breadth with the height and breadth of the face are shown by the following figures. These figures indicate also some additional details of interest.
| MALES | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Height | Breadth | Index | ||||
| Right | Left | Right | Left | Right | Left | |
| (145) | (145) | (145) | ||||
| St. Lawrence Island | 3.67 | 3.68 | 4.05 | 4.01 | 90.7 | 91.8 |
| (41) | (41) | (41) | ||||
| Nunivak Island | 3.59 | 3.59 | 4.05 | 4.— | 88.7 | 89.7 |
| (120) | (120) | (120) | ||||
| Point Hope | 3.63 | 3.63 | 4.05 | 4.01 | 89.6 | 90.5 |
| (46) | (46) | (46) | ||||
| Greenland | 3.64 | 3.65 | 4.02 | 3.96 | 90.6 | 92.1 |
| FEMALES | ||||||
| (128) | (128) | (128) | ||||
| St. Lawrence Island | 3.62 | 3.60 | 3.92 | 3.89 | 91.7 | 92.6 |
| (58) | (58) | (58) | ||||
| Nunivak Island | 3.50 | 3.52 | 3.88 | 3.84 | 90.2 | 91.6 |
| (70) | (70) | (70) | ||||
| Point Hope | 3.54 | 3.54 | 3.91 | 3.88 | 90.5 | 91.4 |
| (45) | (45) | (45) | ||||
| Greenland | 3.55 | 3.56 | 3.86 | 3.83 | 91.9 | 92.9 |
The general orbital index of the Eskimo is close to 90 in the males, 90.5 in the females. Such orbits are classed as also relatively high or megaseme, a character in which they resemble many of the American Indians. Thus the male crania of the Siouan tribes give the practically identical general index of 90.5.
The slightly higher index in the females is the rule to which there are but few exceptions, and those in individual groups where the numbers of specimens may not be sufficient. The same tendency is observable in the Indians, and appears in fact to be panhuman. It is due to slightly lesser relative height as compared to the breadth of the orbit in the males, which condition is due in all probability to the greater development in the males of the frontal sinuses and supraorbital arches.
| Males | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (10) Lowest faces (7.2-7.4) | (10) Average faces (7.8) | (10) Highest faces (8.4-9) | |||
| Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits |
| 7.37 | 3.62 | 7.80 | 3.65 | 8.55 | 3.78 |
| Females | |||||
| (10) Lowest faces (6.4-6.8) | (10) Average faces (7.3) | (14) Highest faces (7.8-8.4) | |||
| Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits |
| 6.69 | 3.54 | 7.30 | 3.56 | 7.89 | 3.67 |
| PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE | |||||
| 49.1 | 46.8 | 44.2 | |||
| 53 | 48.7 | 46.6 | |||
| ORBITAL BREADTH VERSUS FACIAL BREADTH | |||||
| Males | |||||
| (10) Narrowest faces (13.4 and below) | (17) Average faces (14.2) | (10) Broadest faces (14.9 and above) | |||
| Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits |
| 13.30 | 3.96 | 14.20 | 4.01 | 15.11 | 4.17 |
| Females | |||||
| (10) Narrowest faces (12.7 and below) | (14) Average faces (13.3) | (10) Broadest faces (13.9 and above) | |||
| Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits | Face | Orbits |
| 12.57 | 3.74 | 13.30 | 3.88 | 14.09 | 3.98 |
| PERCENTAGE RELATIONS OF ORBITS TO FACE | |||||
| 29.8 | 28.4 | 28.2 | |||
| 29.8 | 29.2 | 27.6 | |||
Individual variation in the orbital index of the Eskimo is extensive, reaching from slightly below 80 to well over 100. It extends more or less over the whole Eskimo area, without conveying definite indication anywhere of either a mixture or of a special evolutionary tendency. Yet it occasions group differences that eventually might prove evolutionary, though they may merely represent the next or higher order of variability, namely, that of groups within a family.
| Area | Males | Females | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean height | Mean breadth | Mean index | Mean height | Mean breadth | Mean index | |
| (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | |
| South and Midwestern | 3.63 | 4.01 | 90.6 | 3.56 | 3.87 | 92.1 |
| (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | |
| Northwestern | 3.62 | 4.02 | 90.1 | 3.51 | 3.92 | 89.7 |
| (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | |
| Northern Arctic and northeastern | 3.65 | 4.07 | 89.5 | 3.54 | 3.91 | 90.6 |
The group differences in the orbital index of the Eskimo skull are shown in the next table. They elude a satisfactory explanation, unless recourse is had to the above suggested theory of normal group variability within a family. They have about the same range in the three large areas, which would seem to support this theory.
Group relations are indicated in the cases of Pastolik-Yukon Delta-St. Michael Island; Point Barrow-Barrow; and Old Igloos-Greenland.
| Southwestern and midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (10) | |
| Mumtrak | 88.4 |
| (11) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 89.4 |
| (6) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 89.7 |
| (101) | |
| Nunivak Island | 90.1 |
| (31) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 90.3 |
| (5) | |
| Chukchee | 90.6 |
| (6) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 91.0 |
| (5) | |
| Southwest Alaska | 91.4 |
| (271) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 91.7 |
| (24) | |
| Nelson Island | 91.9 |
| (13) | |
| Hooper Bay | 92.5 |
| (29) | |
| Pastolik | 93.2 |
| (7) | |
| Togiak | 93.3 |
| (4) | |
| Yukon Delta | 93.8 |
| (13) | |
| St. Michael Island | 94.4 |
| Northwestern | |
| (3) | |
| Kotzebue | 86.1 |
| (20) | |
| Shishmaref | 88.9 |
| (34) | |
| Wales | 89.4 |
| (85) | |
| Point Barrow | 90.3 |
| (200) | |
| Point Hope | 90.4 |
| (53) | |
| Barrow | 91.1 |
| (43) | |
| Igloos north of Barrow | 91.1 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 87.6 |
| (13) | |
| Southampton Island | 88.4 |
| (28) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 90.0 |
| (16) | |
| Northern Arctic | 91.0 |
| (94) | |
| Greenland | 91.6 |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 92.3 |
THE UPPER ALVEOLAR ARCH
The dental arches correlate with function (use), with stature, with the dimensions of the face, and with those of the teeth. The western as well as other Eskimo show arches that are about equal in absolute dimensions to those of our taller Indians, such as the Munsee, Arkansas, and Louisiana;
The upper dental arch index L×100
B, now being used in preference to the unwieldy "uranic index" B×100
L of Turner, is rather high, showing that the arch is relatively, as well as absolutely, broad. The same index in the Munsee averaged in the males 82.8, in the females 82.7; in the Arkansas and Louisiana mound skulls 84.4 in the males and 85.1 in the females. Data are needed here for more extensive comparisons.
| Males | Females | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| External length | External breadth | Module (mean diameter) | Index L×100 B | External length | External breadth | Module (mean diameter) | Index L×100 B | |
| 11 groups: | ||||||||
| Southwestern and Midwestern | 5.56 | 6.66 | 6.11 | 83.5 | 5.34 | 6.38 | 5.86 | 83.8 |
| 6 groups: | ||||||||
| Northwestern | 5.63 | 6.61 | 6.12 | 85.1 | 5.38 | 6.31 | 5.85 | 85.2 |
| 5 groups: | ||||||||
| Northern Arctic and northeastern | 5.68 | 6.75 | 6.21 | 84.2 | 5.37 | 6.28 | 5.83 | 85.6 |
| Southwestern and Midwestern | |
|---|---|
| (5) | |
| Pilot Station, Lower Yukon | 79.4 |
| (8) | |
| Togiak and vicinity | 80.5 |
| (4) | |
| Chukchee | 81.1 |
| (12) | |
| Hooper Bay | 81.7 |
| (9) | |
| Mumtrak | 81.7 |
| (9) | |
| Little Diomede Island | 82.2 |
| (234) | |
| St. Lawrence Island | 83.0 |
| (10) | |
| St. Michael Island | 84.3 |
| (22) | |
| Pastolik | 84.4 |
| (90) | |
| Nunivak Island | 84.4 |
| (4) | |
| Southwest Alaska | 84.7 |
| (5) | |
| Cape Nome and Port Clarence | 84.9 |
| (22) | |
| Indian Point (Siberia) | 85.0 |
| (22) | |
| Nelson Island | 85.5 |
| Northwestern | |
| (39) | |
| Igloos north of Barrow | 84.1 |
| (14) | |
| Shishmaref | 84.4 |
| (171) | |
| Point Hope | 84.6 |
| (31) | |
| Wales | 84.9 |
| (38) | |
| Barrow | 85.8 |
| (66) | |
| Point Barrow | 87.1 |
| Northern and northeastern | |
| (9) | |
| Smith Sound | 82.7 |
| (13) | |
| Southampton Island | 83.7 |
| (7) | |
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 84.4 |
| (23) | |
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 85.7 |
| (89) | |
| Greenland | 85.9 |
| (10) | |
| Northern Arctic | 86.5 |
Sex differences in the index are small, nevertheless the females tend to show a slightly higher index, due to relatively slightly smaller breadth of the arch.
The size of the arch and its index differ but little over the three main areas of the Eskimo territory, yet there are slight differences. They appear plainly in the following table. Notwithstanding the fact that on the whole the southwestern and midwestern groups are somewhat taller than those of the far north and northeast, the largest palate, in the males at least, is found in the latter area.
In the southwest and midwest the upper alveolar arch is relatively (as well as absolutely, barring one group) somewhat broad and short. This may be in correlation with the broader head in this area, just as the absolutely slightly longer palates over the rest of the Eskimo territory and particularly (in males) in the northeast may correlate with the longer heads in those regions. This point may be
| Males | Females | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Narrowest skulls (C. I. 70.7-73.5) | Broadest skulls (80.6-83.1) | Narrowest skulls (70.3-74.2) | Broadest skulls (80.9-83.8) | |
| Length | 5.68 | 5.58 | 5.52 | 5.20 |
| Breadth | 6.83 | 6.77 | 6.66 | 6.36 |
| Index | 83.2 | 82.4 | 82.9 | 82.7 |
| Mean diameter | 6.26 | 6.18 | 6.09 | 5.78 |
| Mean cranial diameter (cranial module) of same skulls | 15.61 | 15.49 | 14.97 | 14.73 |
| Percentage relation of mean dental arch diameter to the mean diameter of the skull | 40.1 | 39.8 | 40.7 | 39.2 |
| Length of same skulls | 19.21 | 18.10 | 18.35 | 17.25 |
| Percentage relation of length of dental arch to that of skull | 29.5 | 30.8 | 30.1 | 30.1 |
The above figures show several conditions. The first is that the arch is quite distinctly larger in the narrow than in the broad skulls in both sexes. The second fact is that the skull (vault) itself is slightly larger in the narrow-headed. The third is that the length of the arch is somewhat greater in the narrow and long skulls than it is in the broad and shorter, relatively to the skull size. The fourth is that there appears a close correlation, more particularly in the females, between the length of the arch and that of the skull.
FOOTNOTES:
THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER
The anterior basal length (basion-nasion) is a measurement of importance, though its full meaning in anthropology is not yet entirely clear. From data quoted by Martin (Lehrb., 715-716) it appears to average in whites up to 10.3 centimeters in males and up to 10.1 centimeters in females, and is known to correlate closely with the length of the vault. Secondarily it also correlates with stature.
Data on American Indians are not yet generally available, though in preparation. The Munsee skulls gave the writer for the diameter the means of 10.27 for the males and 10.02 for the females; the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave 10.45 for the males and 9.77 for the females.
An abstract of the data on the Eskimo skulls is given in the next table. The values for the measurement are rather high, especially for such short people. The percentage relation of the measurement to the length of the skull appears also to be high. Manouvrier (1882, quoted in Martin, Lehrb., 716) found this relation in French skulls to be 53.6 in the males and 54.7 in the females.
| Groups of males | Corresponding groups of females | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basion-nasion diameter | Its percentage relation to length of skull | Basion-nasion diameter | Its percentage relation to length of skull | |
| (13) | (13) | (13) | (13) | |
| Southwestern and Midwestern | 10.38 | 56.4 | 9.85 | 55.7 |
| (6) | (6) | (6) | (6) | |
| Northwestern | 10.58 | 56.4 | 10.06 | 56.3 |
| (5) | (5) | (5) | (5) | |
| Northern Arctic and northeastern | 10.65 | 56.2 | 10.06 | 55.4 |
The female measurement to that of the male, in the Eskimo, is as 94.9 to 100. As a similar relation of the cranial modules in the two sexes is close to 95.7, the anterior basal length would seem to be at a little disadvantage in the female Eskimo skull.
The same condition is seen also when the basion-nasion diameter is compared with the length of the skull. In the males, notwithstanding the fact that the length of the vault is increased through the development of the frontal sinuses and not infrequently also through that of the occipital ridges, the percentage relation of the basion-nasion to the maximum total length of the vault is approximately 56.3, in the females but 55.8. It seems therefore safe to say that in the Eskimo, in general, that part of the brain anterior to the foramen magnum is relatively somewhat better developed in the males than in the females.
But to this there are some exceptions. Thus it may be seen in the general table which follows that in the northwestern groups conditions in this respect are equalized; and in the succeeding detailed table it will be noted that while the males exceed the females in this particular in 14 of the groups, in 5 groups conditions are equal (or within one decimal), and in 5 the female percentage exceeds slightly that in the males. In the numerically best represented groups conditions are nearly equal, with the males nevertheless slightly favored.
| Males | Females | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| B-N. BN×100 Skull l | B-N. BN×100 Skull l | |||
| Southwestern and Midwestern | ||||
| (4) | (7) | |||
| Little Diomede Island | 10.18 | 56.2 | 9.91 | 54.9 |
| (3) | (2) | |||
| Chukchee | 10.20 | 54.8 | 10.00 | 54.8 |
| (3) | (3) | |||
| Pilot Station (Yukon) | 10.27 | 54.3 | 9.97 | 56 |
| (9) | (4) | |||
| Hooper Bay | 10.29 | 57.6 | 9.70 | 55.7 |
| (4) | (6) | |||
| Mumtrak | 10.32 | 57 | 9.52 | 55.1 |
| (146) | (133) | |||
| St. Lawrence Island | 10.36 | 56.3 | 9.93 | 56.1 |
| (3) | ||||
| Yukon Delta | 10.37 | 55.8 | ||
| (11) | (18) | |||
| Pastolik | 10.41 | 56.5 | 9.98 | 56.3 |
| (8) | (6) | |||
| St. Michael Island | 10.44 | 57.3 | 9.98 | 56.3 |
| (9) | (15) | |||
| Nelson Island | 10.46 | 55.8 | 9.73 | 55.9 |
| (3) | (7) | |||
| Togiak | 10.47 | 57.2 | 9.56 | 55.7 |
| (3) | (2) | |||
| Southwestern Alaska | 10.47 | 57.6 | 9.80 | 54.8 |
| (15) | (16) | |||
| Indian Point and Puotin | 10.54 | 56.5 | 9.97 | 56.5 |
| (46) | (69) | |||
| Nunivak Island | 10.55 | 56.1 | 10.02 | 56 |
| Northwestern | ||||
| (2) | ||||
| Kotzebue | 10.45 | 57.3 | ||
| (133) | (82) | |||
| Point Hope | 10.48 | 57 | 10.00 | 56.9 |
| (12) | (8) | |||
| Shishmaref | 10.50 | 56.8 | 10.20 | 57.5 |
| (47) | (52) | |||
| Point Barrow | 10.54 | 56.2 | 9.94 | 55.5 |
| (35) | (34) | |||
| Barrow | 10.61 | 55.9 | 10.01 | 56.3 |
| (19) | (15) | |||
| Wales | 10.64 | 56.7 | 10.01 | 55.5 |
| (27) | (24) | |||
| Igloos north of Barrow | 10.70 | 55.6 | 10.18 | 56.2 |
| Northern and northeastern | ||||
| (16) | (17) | |||
| Baffin Land and vicinity | 10.51 | 55.6 | 10.11 | 55.2 |
| (5) | (2) | |||
| Hudson Bay and vicinity | 10.60 | 56.4 | 9.75 | 55.6 |
| (48) | (52) | |||
| Greenland | 10.60 | 55.9 | 10.13 | 56.2 |
| (5) | (10) | |||
| Northern Arctic | 10.68 | 56.1 | 10.07 | 55.3 |
| (7) | ||||
| Smith Sound | 10.70 | 56.4 | ||
| (9) | (5) | |||
| Southampton Island | 10.83 | 57.3 | 10.34 | 56.9 |
An interesting point is that in the north and northeast, where the skulls are longest, there is evidently a slightly greater relative development of the occipital portion of the vault, or slightly lesser development of the frontal portion.
Some additional points of interest appear when the basion-nasion: skull-length index, taken collectively for the two sexes, is compared in the different groups. All these comparisons suffer, naturally, from unevenness and often insufficiency of the numbers of specimens, yet some of the results are very harmonious with those brought out repeatedly by other data. Thus the St. Lawrence material stands once more close to the medium of the southwestern and midwestern groups; Barrow and Point Barrow are almost identical; and so are the Old Igloos from near Barrow and Greenland. The St. Michael islanders show very favorably in the midwest, the Shishmarefs in the northwest and the Southampton islanders in the northeast.
The next table gives the percentage relations of the basion-nasion diameter to the mean diameter of the skull. The correlation of the two is even closer than in the case of the skull length, and the grouping, while in the main alike, seems in general even more in harmony with that in previous comparisons. The St. Lawrence Island females are very exceptional, as was also apparent in other connections. The unusual smallness of their skull (compare section on Cranial module) is evidently due to a poor development of its posterior half.
| Southwestern and Midwestern | |
|---|---|
| Pilot Station, Yukon | 65.6 |
| Chukchee | 66.0 |
| Little Diomede Island | 66.1 |
| Hooper Bay | 66.4 |
| Nelson Island | 66.7 |
| Togiak | 66.9 |
| Southwest Alaska | 67.3 |
| Indian Point, Siberia | 67.4 |
| Mumtrak | 67.4 |
| Nunivak Island | 67.6 |
| Pastolik | 67.6 |
| St. Michael Island | 68.0 |
| St. Lawrence Island: | |
| Male | 67.2 |
| Female | (69.6) |
| Northwestern | |
| Wales | 67.7 |
| Point Barrow | 67.8 |
| Point Hope | 68.1 |
| Barrow | 68.4 |
| Old Igloos | 69.0 |
| Shishmaref | 69.2 |
| Northern Arctic and northeastern | |
| Baffin Land | 67.4 |
| Hudson Bay | 67.6 |
| Smith Sound (male) | 67.6 |
| North Arctic | 68.1 |
| Greenland | 68.5 |
| Southampton Island | 68.7 |
PROGNATHISM
Since better understood, the subject of facial prognathism has lost much of its allure in anthropology; yet the matter is not wholly without interest.
Facial protrusion is as a rule secondary to and largely caused by alveolar protrusion, which in turn is caused by the size and shape of the dental arch; and the dental arch is generally proportional to the size of the teeth. The form of the arch is, however, quite influential. With the teeth identical in size a narrow arch will be more, a broad arch less protruding, and a narrow arch with small teeth may protrude more than a broad one with larger teeth. Another influence is that of the height of the upper face, the same arch protruding more in a low face than in a high one. And still another factor is the incline of the front teeth, though this affects merely the appearance of prognathism and not its measurements.
There are different ways of measuring facial prognathism, and with sufficient care all may be effective; I prefer, for practical reasons, linear measurements from the basion, which, together with the facial and subnasal heights, give triangles that can readily be reconstructed on paper and allow a direct measurement of both the facial and the alveolar angle. The three needed diameters from basion are taken, the first to the "prealveolar point," or the most anterior point on the upper dental arch above the incisors; the second to the "subnasal point," or the point on the left (for convenience) of the nasal aperture, where the outer part of its border passes into that which belongs to the subnasal portion of the maxilla
The important basion-nasion diameter has already been considered. That to the subnasal point needs no comment. That to the prealveolar point shows in the western and other Eskimo as follows:
| Males: | ||
| Mean diameter | centimeters | 10.54 |
| Mean relation to length of skull | per cent | 56.3 |
| Females: | ||
| Diameter | centimeters | 9.99 |
| Relation | per cent | 55.8 |
| MALES | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A = Basion prealveolar point diameter B = Its relation to length of skull | |||||
| Southwestern and midwestern | Northwestern | Northern Arctics and northeastern | |||
| A | B | A | B | A | B |
| 10.38 | 56.4 | 10.58 | 56.4 | 10.65 | 56.2 |
| Mean skull lengths | |||||
| 18.41 | 18.75 | 18.96 | |||
| FEMALES | |||||
| 9.85 | 55.7 | 10.06 | 56.3 | 10.06 | 55.4 |
| Mean skull lengths | |||||
| 17.69 | 17.86 | 18.15 | |||
As in other details, so here there is a remarkable similarity between the skulls from the three large areas, pointing both to the unity of the people and to absence of heterogeneous admixtures. As the skull length increases so does the basi-alveolar line, but the relative proportions of the two remain very nearly the same.
The relative value of the basi-alveolar length in the males, compared to the length of the skull, is in general about 0.5 per cent higher than it is in the females. This is just about the excess of the relative proportion of the length of the male dental arch when compared to the same skull dimension. The general mean skull length in the Eskimo male approximates 18.705, in female 17.899 centimeters; the mean length of the arch is, in the male, close to 5.625, in the female 5.365 centimeters; and the percentage relation of the latter to the former is 30.6 in the males, 30 in the females. The relatively slightly greater basi-alveolar length in the males is evidently, therefore, at least partly due to the relatively longer male
Notwithstanding the just discussed slight sex difference in the Eskimo, the facial angle, i. e., the angle between the basi-alveolar line and the line nasion-alveolar point, is equal in the two sexes. This equalization is due largely, if not wholly, to the effect in the males of the relatively longer basio-nasion diameter (v. a.), while the alveolar angle, or that between the basi-alveolar and the subnasal lines, is in general by about 1 per cent lower in the females (males, 56°; females, 55°), indicating a slightly greater slant of the subnasal region in the female, which can only be due to a relatively slightly shorter in this sex of the basion-subnasal point diameter. As a matter of fact, the percentage relation of this diameter to the length of the skull amounts in the males to 56.3, in the females to but 55.6.
Compared to that in the Indians, the facial angle in the Eskimo skulls shows close affinities. Its value (69°) is very nearly the same as in the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana (males 70.7°, females 69°). In other Indians it ranges from close to 68° to 71.5°. In the Munsee it reached 73.5°. In whites, according to Rivet's data,
The alveolar angle is more variable. It shows considerable individual, sex, and group differences. It averages slightly to moderately higher, which means a more open angle or less slant in the males than in the females. In the Eskimo as a whole it was seen to be approximately 56° in the males, 55° in the females; in the Munsee Indians (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.) it was males 59°, females 57°; in the Arkansas and Louisiana skulls (J. Ac. Sci., Phila., 1909, XIV) it averaged males 55°, females 52°. In my catalogue material it shows a group variation of 46.5° to 55.5° in the negro, 47.5° to 52.5° in the Australians, 46.5° to 50.5° in the Melanesians. In the whites it generally exceeds 60°.
Differences in facial and alveolar protrusion among the Eskimo according to area are small, yet they are not wholly absent. The figures below show that in the southwesterners and midwesterners, where the skull is more rounded, the prognathism is smallest; and that toward the north and northeast, where the skull is narrower and the palate (dental arch) tends to become longer, prognathism increases. The "Old Igloo" group shows once more such affinity with the Greenlanders that it is placed with the third subdivision.
| Males | Females | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| South- and midwest | Northwest | North and northeast | South- and midwest | Northwest | North and northeast | |
| Groups | (13) | (5) | (6) | (13) | (5) | (6) |
| Facial angle | 68 | 69 | 70 | 67.5 | 69 | 70 |
| Alveolar angle | 55 | 56 | 55 | 54 | 55 | 54.5 |
Individual group differences in the facial and alveolar angle are moderate, yet evidently not negligible. (See next table.) The most prognathic, especially in the subnasal region, are the skulls from Nelson Island. A marked alveolar slant is also present in the Pilot Station Yukon group, and in Greenland. The least prognathic are the St. Michael Islanders, the Point Hope people, and those from Southampton Island. St. Lawrence stands once more near the middle of the southwesterners and midwesterners, and there are to be seen the principal old relations.
The main points shown by the above conditions are the group variability, particularly in the southwest and midwest; the tendency, on the whole, toward a slightly greater prognathy, both facial and alveolar, in this same area; and the evidence that the alveolar slant has some individuality.
| South and Midwest | Facial angle | Alveolar angle |
|---|---|---|
| (20) | ||
| Nelson Island | 66.3 | 51.5 |
| (4) | ||
| Southwest Alaska | 66.8 | 54.5 |
| (4) | ||
| Chukchee | 66.8 | 57.0 |
| (21) | ||
| Indian Point | 67.0 | 56.5 |
| (8) | ||
| Togiak | 67.0 | 54.0 |
| (242) | ||
| St. Lawrence Island | 67.8 | 55.3 |
| (86) | ||
| Nunivak Island | 67.8 | 56.5 |
| (23) | ||
| Pastolik | 68.3 | 54.8 |
| (10) | ||
| Hooper Bay | 68.3 | 55.3 |
| (10) | ||
| Little Diomede Island | 68.5 | 57.5 |
| (9) | ||
| Mumtrak | 68.8 | 55.3 |
| (5) | ||
| Pilot Station, Yukon | 68.8 | 52.0 |
| (10) | ||
| St. Michael Island | 70.0 | 56.8 |
| Northwest | ||
| (11) | ||
| Sledge Island | 69.5 | 54.9 |
| (31) | ||
| Wales | 67.8 | 56.0 |
| (17) | ||
| Shishmaref | 68.3 | 55.8 |
| (73) | ||
| Point Barrow | 69.5 | 56.0 |
| (43) | ||
| Barrow | 69.8 | 56.8 |
| (181) | ||
| Point Hope | 70.5 | 56.5 |
| North and northeast | ||
| (11) | ||
| North Arctic | 68.5 | 54.5 |
| (24) | ||
| Baffin Land | 70.0 | 55.0 |
| (87) | ||
| Greenland | 69.8 | 53.8 |
| (35) | ||
| Old Igloos near Barrow | 70.3 | 55.8 |
| (7) | ||
| Hudson Bay | 70.3 | 56.8 |
| (12) | ||
| Southampton Island | 71 | 55 |
| Prince William Sound | Kodiak Island | Unalaska Peninsula | Nushagak Bay and Kanakanak | Togiak | Mumtrak | Nunivak Island | Nelson Island Tanunok Village | Hooper Bay | Lower Yukon and delta | Pilot Station, lower Yukon | Kotlik and Pastolik | St. Michael Island | St. Lawrence Island | Little Diomede Island | Northeastern Asia | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Point (E. Cape) | Puotin (NW. of E. Cape) | Chukchi (in or near Bering Strait) | ||||||||||||||||
| Vault: | (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (153) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) |
| Length | 18.1 | 18.6 | 17.8 | 17.4 | 18.30 | 18.10 | 18.81 | 18.73 | 17.86 | 18.57 | 18.90 | 18.44 | 18.23 | 18.40 | 18.12 | 18.59 | 18.95 | 18.63 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (153) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Breadth | 13.8 | 14.4 | 14.1 | 14.4 | 14.20 | 14.20 | 14.09 | 14.44 | 14.43 | 14.13 | 15.07 | 13.90 | 13.84 | 14.19 | 14.28 | 14.32 | 14.45 | 14.67 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Height | 12.8 | 14 | 13.6 | 13.4 | 13.25 | 13.35 | 13.69 | 13.60 | 13.60 | 13.67 | 13.77 | 13.60 | 13.83 | 13.68 | 13.60 | 13.68 | 14.30 | 13.37 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Cranial Module | 14.90 | 15.67 | 15.17 | 15.07 | 15.25 | 15.22 | 15.53 | 15.59 | 15.30 | 15.46 | 15.91 | 15.31 | 15.30 | 15.42 | 15.33 | 15.54 | 15.90 | 15.56 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (142) | (5) | (3) | ||||
| Capacity | 1,380 | 1,485 | 1,440 | 1,447 | 1,465 | 1,504 | 1,556 | 1,519 | 1,490 | 1,660 | 1,486 | 1,461 | 1,462 | 1,470 | 1,490 | |||
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (153) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Cranial Index | 76.2 | 77.4 | 79.2 | 82.3 | 77.6 | 78.5 | 75 | 77.2 | 80.8 | 76.1 | 79.7 | 75.4 | 75.9 | 77.1 | 78.8 | 77 | 76.3 | 78.7 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Mean height Index | 80.3 | 84.8 | 85.3 | 84.3 | 81.6 | 82.7 | 83.2 | 82 | 84.2 | 83.6 | 81.6 | 84.1 | 86.2 | 84 | 83.9 | 83 | 85.6 | 80.3 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Height-breadth index | 90.7 | 97.2 | 96.4 | 93 | 93.3 | 94 | 97.1 | 94.2 | 94.2 | 96.7 | 91.4 | 97.8 | 99.9 | 96.4 | 95.2 | 95.2 | 98.9 | 91.1 |
| Face: | (1) | (1) | (2) | (3) | (24) | (7) | (7) | (3) | (7) | (2) | (24) | |||||||
| Menton-nasion | 11.8 | 12.6 | 12.90 | 12.17 | 12.95 | 13 | 12.44 | 12.40 | 12.67 | 12.20 | 12.70 | |||||||
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (3) | (43) | (9) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (9) | (7) | (139) | (5) | (10) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Nasion-upper alveolar point | 7.5 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 8 | 7.60 | 7.83 | 8.19 | 7.69 | 7.87 | 7.85 | 7.78 | 7.86 | 7.82 | 7.58 | 7.91 | 8.05 | 8.10 | |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (45) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (9) | (8) | (148) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Diameter-bizygomatic maximum | 13.4 | 14.8 | 14.1 | 14.6 | 14.07 | 13.90 | 14.32 | 14.44 | 14.17 | 14.30 | 14.97 | 14.13 | 13.99 | 14.20 | 13.52 | 14.37 | 14.65 | 14.53 |
| (1) | (1) | (2) | (3) | (24) | (7) | (7) | (2) | (7) | (2) | (24) | ||||||||
| Facial Index, total | 79.7 | 86.3 | 95.6 | 88.8 | 90.3 | 90.5 | 87.4 | 82.4 | 90.1 | 87.8 | 88.8 | |||||||
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (3) | (43) | (9) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (9) | (7) | (13) | (5) | (10) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Facial Index, upper | 56 | 49.3 | 52.1 | 56.9 | 55.5 | 54.6 | 56.7 | 54.1 | 55 | 52.2 | 55 | 56.4 | 55.1 | 56.1 | 55.7 | 55 | 55.7 | |
| Basio-facial: | (1) | (1) | (3) | (1) | (3) | (42) | (7) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (131) | (4) | (8) | (2) | (2) | |
| Basion alveolar point | 11 | 10.5 | 10.43 | 10 | 10.43 | 10.65 | 10.61 | 10.25 | 10.20 | 10.35 | 10.40 | 10.21 | 10.43 | 10.25 | 10.40 | 10.95 | 10.50 | |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (44) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (10) | (8) | (143) | (4) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Basion-subnasal point | 9.4 | 9.4 | 9 | 8.6 | 9.37 | 9.12 | 9.51 | 9.28 | 9.12 | 9.20 | 9.07 | 9.17 | 9.04 | 9.26 | 9.12 | 9.35 | 9.80 | 9.10 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (46) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (4) | (13) | (2) | (3) | |
| Basion-nasion | 10.4 | 10.8 | 10.2 | 9.9 | 10.47 | 10.32 | 10.55 | 10.46 | 10.29 | 10.37 | 10.27 | 10.41 | 10.44 | 10.36 | 10.18 | 10.48 | 10.90 | 10.20 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (3) | (41) | (7) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (131) | (4) | (8) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Facial angle | 65.5 | 72 | 67.5 | 68 | 69 | 68 | 66 | 68 | 69 | 70.5 | 69 | 69 | 67.5 | 68 | 67 | 68 | 66 | |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (4) | (3) | (41) | (7) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (131) | (4) | (8) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Alveolar angle | 48.5 | 56.5 | 49 | 56.5 | 55 | 58 | 53 | 55.5 | 59.5 | 53 | 56 | 56.5 | 56.5 | 55.5 | 57 | 58 | 57.5 | |
| Orbits: | (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (42) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) |
| Mean height | 3.47 | 3.55 | 3.62 | 3.67 | 3.64 | 3.45 | 3.59 | 3.75 | 3.66 | 3.76 | 3.57 | 3.67 | 3.74 | 3.68 | 3.45 | 3.80 | 3.60 | 3.66 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (42) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Mean breadth | 3.85 | 4.07 | 4 | 3.9 | 3.95 | 4.09 | 4.02 | 4.08 | 3.92 | 3.94 | 4.07 | 3.98 | 4.04 | 4.03 | 3.88 | 4.10 | 4.25 | 4.01 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (42) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (145) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Mean index | 90.2 | 87.1 | 90.7 | 94.2 | 92.2 | 84.3 | 89.2 | 92 | 93.4 | 95.5 | 87.7 | 92.3 | 93.3 | 91.2 | 89.1 | 92.7 | 84.7 | 91.1 |
| Nose: | (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (44) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (148) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) |
| Height | 4.9 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 5.3 | 5.57 | 5.49 | 5.35 | 5.59 | 5.41 | 5.45 | 5.37 | 5.44 | 5.36 | 5.42 | 5.30 | 5.57 | 5.47 | 5.63 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (44) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (148) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Breadth | 2.4 | 2.45 | 2.45 | 2.45 | 2.35 | 2.54 | 2.35 | 2.41 | 2.43 | 2.23 | 2.57 | 2.51 | 2.26 | 2.45 | 2.36 | 2.55 | 2.50 | 2.30 |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (4) | (44) | (9) | (9) | (3) | (3) | (11) | (8) | (148) | (5) | (14) | (2) | (3) | |
| Index | 49 | 48 | 45.4 | 46.2 | 42.2 | 46.3 | 43.8 | 43 | 44.9 | 41 | 47.8 | 46.2 | 42.1 | 45.2 | 44.6 | 45.7 | 45.7 | 40.8 |
| Upper alveolar arch: | (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (3) | (44) | (8) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (121) | (5) | (8) | (2) | (2) | |
| Length | 5.9 | 5.6 | 5.5 | 5.60 | 5.40 | 5.66 | 5.73 | 5.46 | 5.40 | 5.70 | 5.57 | 5.44 | 5.63 | 5.38 | 5.57 | 5.70 | 5.95 | |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (3) | (44) | (8) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (121) | (5) | (8) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Breadth | 6.9 | 6.8 | 6.6 | 6.43 | 6.63 | 6.79 | 6.68 | 6.65 | 6.63 | 7.40 | 6.70 | 6.63 | 6.79 | 6.46 | 6.66 | 6.60 | 7.15 | |
| (1) | (1) | (1) | (3) | (3) | (44) | (8) | (8) | (3) | (2) | (7) | (7) | (121) | (5) | (8) | (2) | (2) | ||
| Index | 87 | 82.4 | 83.3 | 87 | 81.4 | 83.4 | 85.8 | 82.1 | 81.4 | 77 | 83.4 | 82.1 | 82.9 | 83.3 | 83.6 | 86.4 | 83.2 | |
| (1) | (1) | (2) | (4) | (28) | (8) | (8) | (3) | (11) | (2) | (26) | (2) | |||||||
| Lower jaw: Height at symphysis | 3.3 | 4 | 3.8 | 3.55 | 4 | 3.91 | 3.63 | 3.63 | 3.75 | 3.65 | 3.62 | 3.90 | ||||||
| Unalaska Peninsula | Togiak | Mumtrak | Nunivak Island | Nelson Island | Hooper Bay | Yukon Delta (Kashunok) and lower Yukon | Pilot Station, lower Yukon | Kotlik and Pastolik | St. Michael Island | St. Lawrence Island | Little Diomede Island | Northeastern Asia | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Point | Chukchee | |||||||||||||
| Vault: | (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (17) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (140) | (7) | (16) | (2) |
| Length | 17.90 | 17.17 | 17.27 | 17.89 | 17.42 | 17.42 | 18.7 | 17.8 | 17.72 | 17.72 | 17.69 | 18.04 | 17.64 | 18.25 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (17) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (140) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Breadth | 13.70 | 14.17 | 13.92 | 13.65 | 13.71 | 13.70 | 13.95 | 14 | 13.62 | 13.38 | 13.60 | 13.71 | 13.74 | 14.30 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (16) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (128) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Height | 13.10 | 12.86 | 12.85 | 13.15 | 12.78 | 12.62 | 13 | 13.20 | 13.04 | 13.07 | 13.21 | 13.50 | 13.25 | 13.60 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (16) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (128) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Cranial Module | 14.90 | 14.73 | 14.68 | 14.90 | 14.64 | 14.68 | (15.22) | 15 | 14.81 | 14.72 | 14.87 | 15.09 | 14.88 | 15.38 |
| (2) | (6) | (4) | (66) | (14) | (4) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (120) | (6) | (2) | |||
| Capacity | 1,352 | 1,375 | 1,376 | 1,353 | 1,334 | 1,246 | 1,442 | 1,359 | 1,293 | 1,335 | 1,359 | 1,512 | ||
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (17) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (140) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Cranial Index | 76.5 | 82.7 | 80.6 | 76.3 | 78.7 | 78.6 | 74.6 | 78.7 | 76.8 | 75.5 | 77.4 | 76 | 77.9 | 78.4 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (16) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (128) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Mean height Index | 82.9 | 82 | 82.4 | 83.4 | 82.1 | 81.1 | (79.2) | 83 | 83.2 | 84 | 84.2 | 85 | 84.5 | 83.6 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (70) | (16) | (4) | (2) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (128) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Height-breadth index | 95.6 | 90.7 | 92.3 | 96.4 | 93.2 | 92.2 | (92.8) | 94.3 | 95.8 | 97.6 | 96.5 | 98.4 | 96.4 | 95.1 |
| Face: | (2) | (4) | (27) | (10) | (2) | (2) | (15) | (3) | (23) | (1) | ||||
| Menton-nasion | 12.1 | 11.3 | 11.62 | 11.62 | 11.80 | 11.90 | 11.82 | 11.5 | 11.49 | 11.40 | ||||
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (52) | (14) | (2) | (3) | (16) | (3) | (120) | (6) | (13) | (2) | ||
| Nasion-upper alveolar point | 7.80 | 7.30 | 7.05 | 7.27 | 7.18 | 7.30 | 7.40 | 7.49 | 7.13 | 7.29 | 7.38 | 7.41 | 7.40 | |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (63) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (16) | (5) | (128) | (7) | (14) | (2) | |
| Diameter-bizygomatic maximum | 13.40 | 13.12 | 13.1 | 13.27 | 13.37 | 13.37 | 13.9 | 13.47 | 13.26 | 13.12 | 13.31 | 13.09 | 13.34 | 13.25 |
| (2) | (4) | (26) | (10) | (2) | (2) | (15) | (3) | (23) | (1) | |||||
| Facial Index, total | 93.1 | 84.8 | 88.2 | 87 | 88.4 | 89.1 | 89 | 88.2 | 86.9 | 85.7 | ||||
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (51) | (14) | (2) | (3) | (16) | (3) | (120) | (6) | (12) | (2) | ||
| Facial Index, upper | 58.2 | 55.6 | 53.6 | 54.8 | 53.6 | 54.7 | 55 | 56.5 | 54.7 | 54.8 | 56 | 55 | 55.9 | |
| Basio-facial: | (2) | (4) | (6) | (45) | (14) | (2) | (3) | (16) | (3) | (111) | (6) | (13) | (2) | |
| Basion-alveolar point | 10.05 | 9.78 | 9.53 | 10.17 | 10.06 | 9.60 | 10.17 | 10.09 | 9.77 | 10.04 | 9.73 | 10.14 | 10.10 | |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (60) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (119) | (6) | (15) | (2) | |
| Basion-subnasal point | 8.80 | 8.55 | 8.50 | 8.97 | 8.76 | 8.55 | 8.9 | 8.80 | 8.86 | 8.80 | 8.88 | 8.78 | 8.95 | 9.05 |
| (2) | (7) | (6) | (69) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (6) | (128) | (7) | (16) | (2) | |
| Basion-nasion | 9.80 | 9.56 | 9.52 | 10.02 | 9.73 | 9.70 | 10.2 | 9.97 | 9.98 | 9.98 | 9.93 | 9.91 | 9.97 | 10 |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (45) | (13) | (2) | (3) | (16) | (3) | (111) | (6) | (13) | (2) | ||
| Facial angle | 65.5 | 66 | 68.5 | 67.5 | 66.5 | 68.5 | 67 | 67.5 | 71 | 68 | 69 | 67 | 67.5 | |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (45) | (13) | (2) | (3) | (16) | (3) | (111) | (6) | (13) | (2) | ||
| Alveolar angle | 54.5 | 51.5 | 55.5 | 55 | 50 | 55 | 51 | 53.5 | 57 | 54 | 59.5 | 54 | 56.5 | |
| Orbits: | (2) | (3) | (6) | (59) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (121) | (6) | (15) | (2) |
| Mean height | 3.65 | 3.59 | 3.53 | 3.51 | 3.50 | 3.56 | 3.5 | 3.54 | 3.62 | 3.61 | 3.60 | 3.60 | 3.59 | 3.41 |
| (2) | (3) | (6) | (59) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (121) | (6) | (15) | (2) | |
| Mean breadth | 3.92 | 3.85 | 3.81 | 3.86 | 3.81 | 3.89 | 3.8 | 3.89 | 3.86 | 3.78 | 3.91 | 4.01 | 3.90 | 3.79 |
| (2) | (3) | (6) | (59) | (15) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (121) | (6) | (15) | (2) | |
| Mean index | 93 | 93.5 | 92.6 | 91 | 91.8 | 91.7 | 92.1 | 91 | 94.1 | 95.5 | 92.1 | 89.7 | 91.9 | 90.1 |
| Nose: | (2) | (5) | (6) | (63) | (14) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (127) | (6) | (15) | (2) |
| Height | 5.32 | 5.06 | 5.03 | 4.99 | 5.06 | 4.95 | 5.5 | 5 | 5.19 | 4.95 | 5.13 | 5.15 | 5.16 | 5.20 |
| (2) | (5) | (6) | (63) | (14) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (127) | (6) | (15) | (2) | |
| Breadth | 2.58 | 2.32 | 2.23 | 2.32 | 2.34 | 2.35 | 2.45 | 2.33 | 2.31 | 2.17 | 2.39 | 2.28 | 2.45 | 2.65 |
| (2) | (5) | (6) | (63) | (14) | (4) | (1) | (3) | (18) | (5) | (127) | (6) | (15) | (2) | |
| Index | 47.5 | 45.8 | 44.2 | 46.4 | 46.3 | 47.5 | 44.5 | 46.7 | 44.5 | 43.8 | 46.6 | 44.4 | 47.4 | 50.5 |
| Upper alveolar arch: | (2) | (4) | (6) | (46) | (14) | (2) | (3) | (15) | (3) | (109) | (4) | (12) | (2) | |
| Length | 5.55 | 5.18 | 5.03 | 5.39 | 5.39 | 5.25 | 5.40 | 5.45 | 5.40 | 5.37 | 5.30 | 5.44 | 5.45 | |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (46) | (14) | (2) | (3) | (15) | (3) | (109) | (4) | (12) | (2) | ||
| Breadth | 6.55 | 6.40 | 6.13 | 6.31 | 6.32 | 6.45 | 6.60 | 6.38 | 6.23 | 6.46 | 6.52 | 6.40 | 6.90 | |
| (2) | (4) | (6) | (46) | (14) | (4) | (3) | (15) | (3) | (109) | (4) | (12) | (2) | ||
| Index | 84.7 | 80.9 | 82.1 | 84.4 | 85.3 | 81.4 | 81.8 | 85.4 | 86.6 | 83.0 | 81.2 | 85 | 79 | |
| (2) | (3) | (32) | (11) | (4) | (2) | (17) | (4) | (25) | (1) | |||||
| Lower jaw: Height at symphysis | 3.50 | 3.30 | 3.48 | 3.40 | 3.40 | 3.67 | 3.56 | 3.39 | 3.18 | 3.2 | ||||
