A general history of geography (mainly, however, concerned with exploration and mapping) is Vivien de Saint-Martin’s Histoire de la GÉographie (Paris, 1873); a short historical review dealing more especially with geographical theory will be found in H. Wagner’s Lehrbuch der Geographie (Leipzig, 1900). No English parallels to these works are to be cited, but reference may be made to H.R. Mill’s International Geography (1897) and his article on “Geography” and E.G. Ravenstein’s on “Map” in the EncyclopÆdia Britannica (eleventh edition). On the earliest period see E.H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., London, 1879), and H.F. Tozer, History of Ancient Geography (1897), in the Cambridge Geographical Series; on the “dark age” and down to 1460, C.R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (3 vols., London, 1897–1906); the sixteenth century is principally covered by the voluminous literature on Columbus, such as Sir C.R. Markham’s Life of Christopher Columbus (London, 1892), E.J. Payne’s History of the New World called America (Vol. I., Oxford, 1892); on the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, E. Heawood, Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Cambridge Geographical Series, 1912). Some of the earlier theoretical works have been cited in the text; a few modern works representative of the various departments of geography may be mentioned here. Those of which the prime purpose is description are represented by E. Reclus’s La Nouvelle GÉographie Universelle (19 vols., Paris, 1876–95; there is an English translation) and by Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel (various authors.) F. Ratzel, Anthropogeographie (2 vols., Stuttgart, c. 1891); Ellen C. Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (London, 1911); E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (translated as The Face of the Earth, Oxford, 1904); G.G. Chisholm, Manual of Commercial Geography (1890 and later editions); and volumes of the Cambridge Geographical Series already referred to may be taken as representative of various departments of geography of which an outline has been attempted in the last chapter of this book. A.R. Clarke’s Geodesy, the section of the article on “Map” in the EncyclopÆdia Britannica by the same writer, and Col. C.F. Close, for projections, and H.M. Wilson’s Topographic Surveying (New York and London, 1901) are to be referred to in the department of mathematical geography, but this subject has to be pursued mainly in official publications and scientific journals. For illustrations of cartographical method it is unnecessary in order to study the highest development of large-scale mapping to go beyond the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and (particularly as illustrating the layer system of showing relief) the reduction therefrom by Bartholomew (Edinburgh), whose cartographical methods in such special scientific applications as meteorology, the distribution of population, etc., also render it unnecessary to consider sources other than English. But for best examples of the map-making art combined with the most careful use of existing data in the compilation of topographical atlases, such a work as Stieler’s Hand Atlas (Justus Perthes, Gotha) must be studied. There are examples of cartographical work from all periods in E.A. Reeves’s Maps and Map-making (London, Royal Geographical Society, 1910), a series of three lectures on the history and methods of surveying and cartography. Ancient methods may be studied in several facsimile atlases, such as A.E. NordenskiÖld’s (Stockholm, 1889). The student of oceanography must consult the “Narrative” of the Challenger expedition by Sir John Murray, forming two of the fifty volumes of the Report of that great undertaking. Special treatises on the subject are those by Otto KrÜmmel, Handbuch der Oceanographie; Murray and HjÖrt, The Depths of the Ocean; Fowler, Science of the Sea (elementary); Richard, L’OcÉanographie; Thoulet, L’OcÉan, ses Lois et ses ProblÈmes. On limnology (the study of lakes) see Forel’s Handbuch der Seenkunde.