CHAPTER V ENERGY

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Art. 51. Energy.--In the days of Newton, and for a long time afterwards, all energy went by the name of “Force.” Thus Newton in his Laws of Motion refers to the action of forces on stationary or moving bodies, and shows how the motion of any body is effected by the impressed force. (Art. 13.)

As science advanced, and scientific research was carried into the fields of heat, light, and electricity, we find that the various forces began to be particularized, with the result that such terms as electrical force, magnetic force, chemical force, etc., became common and familiar terms. As gradually it became known that one particular kind of force was the outcome of another kind, there was given to the world such terms as the Correlation of Forces (Grove), in which he proved that whenever one kind of force appeared as heat or light, it was at the expense of another kind of force, as electricity.

Of later years, however, another term has crept into Philosophy, and instead of the term Force, which is very indistinct and indefinite in character, there appeared the term Energy, although Force and Energy are not exactly synonymous terms. Thus electricity, heat, and light are forms of energy, and are convertible into one another, in the same way that the forces were convertible. Thus we get transformations of energy in the same way that we had transformations of force, and conservation of energy in the same way that we had conservation of force.

Even the term Energy, however, is being replaced in the present times by something more definite and simple, and instead of the term Energy, we shall find, in the development of this phase of natural phenomena, that that term is being replaced by the simple idea of motion, or modes of motion, and that all forms of energy, as light, heat, magnetism, and electricity, and even Gravitation itself, are due to motion of some kind or other. We will, however, lead up to this truth by looking briefly at the term Energy, and see what it implies and embodies.

Energy, therefore, is that property which a body possesses, by which it is capable of doing work. Thus our ideas of work give us our conception of energy. For example, when a weight is lifted, work is done, and a certain amount of energy is expended in the process. Further, the amount of work done is proportionate to the weight lifted, and the height to which the body is raised. Work is done against resistance, so that whenever resistance is overcome, then work is the result. For example, suppose one pound is lifted one foot high, in opposition to the force of gravity, then work is done, and this amount of work is known as a foot-pound.

If a body weighs ten pounds, and is lifted ten feet, the work done is equal to ten pounds multiplied by ten feet (10 × 10 equals 100), so that one hundred times the amount of work has been done in comparison with the lifting of the one pound one foot high.

As all weight is essentially a gravitational measure, depending upon the intensity of gravity at the place, then, whenever a body is raised or lifted, the work so done is done against the gravity of the earth.

Work is also done, as Newton points out in the first and second laws, whenever we apply force to any body, either stationary or already in motion. The results of all observation and experiments prove, that whenever we have two bodies upon which work is being done, the amount of work is determined by the amount of energy transferred from one body to the other, and that the actual amount of energy gained by one is equal to the amount of energy lost by the other.

Energy is always found in association with matter, so that matter has sometimes been termed the Vehicle of Energy. Wherever, therefore, we find energy of any kind or sort, there we find matter also, as the two are inseparably connected together. Thus, wherever we have heat, we have matter in a particular state of motion, generally understood as vibratory motion Wherever we have light, which is also a form of energy, we also have matter in motion, that is the Aether, in a state of periodic wave-motion; and wherever we have electricity, we have again matter possibly in a state of rotatory motion, as we shall see later on. Energy, therefore, is the power which a body possesses to do work.Art. 52. Conservation of Energy.--The principle of the Conservation of Energy was first enunciated by Mayer in 1842. The principle may be defined as follows: The total amount of all the energy, as light, heat, electricity and magnetism, Gravitation, etc., in Nature is unchangeable; so that, according to this law, the universe possesses a store of energy which is unchangeable in quantity throughout all time. The energy may pass from one form to another, yet the total amount ever remains the same. It is almost unnecessary to say, that this is a principle which, like the conservation of matter, is incapable of absolute proof, but its assumption has greatly helped scientific thought and speculation from time to time. Clerk Maxwell says (Theory of Heat) on this point: “The total energy of any body is a quantity which can neither be increased nor decreased by any mutual action of the bodies, though it may be transformed into those forms of which energy is susceptible.”

The conservation of energy is inseparably connected with the conservation of matter (Art. 30). They cannot be divided, because, if energy is only to be found in association with matter, then if the law of the conservation of matter falls to the ground, the principle of the conservation of energy falls with it. Energy, therefore, like matter, cannot be destroyed or created by any process known to man. As there is no process known, either in the chemical or in the physical world, by which new matter may be created by man, so, in relation to energy of any kind or sort, there is no process known by which man can create or even destroy the smallest form of energy that exists. If energy appears in any body or in any particular form, it is solely because of the loss of energy in some other body, or in some other form.

All changes of energy, therefore, are simply changes due to the difference in form in which the energy is manifested. At one time it will be manifested in the form of light, then of heat, then in mechanical motion, and so on. Joule gave us some good illustrations of this principle of the conservation of energy. He showed us how electricity could be changed into heat, and the heat into work. When light, which is a form of energy, is absorbed by any opaque body, it is found that the body which has absorbed it has become hotter. The energy of light has not been destroyed, but as its energy cannot pass through the opaque body, it has been employed in agitating the particles and atoms of that body, which becomes hotter in consequence.

Thus from the principle of the conservation of energy, which is in operation not only in our planetary world, but throughout the whole of the solar and stellar space, and indeed throughout the whole universe, we arrive at the conclusion that the total quantity of energy throughout the universe is unchangeable. In the evolution and development of worlds, and in the destruction of those worlds after long periods of time, throughout all the varied manifestations of heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, associated with the development and destruction of each globe, the sum-total of the energy of the universe remains the same. Meteors may rush into the atmosphere of planets, and be dissolved into Aether through the friction, comets may be dissolved into their component gases as they near the sun, water may be changed into vapour by the heat of the summer sun, vegetation may be produced from apparently dead matter, and then that vegetation may itself decay and return to the dust by which it had been built up, but throughout all these processes of birth and death, of evolution and devolution, the sum-total of active living energy which is associated with all the phenomena, remains unalterable and unchangeable. Such is the teaching of the great principle of the Conservation of Energy as enunciated by Mayer and Helmholtz.Art. 53. Transformation of Energy.--One of the chief characteristics of energy is, that we can transform it, and it is chiefly of use to us because of its capability to be transformed, but in all its transformations, the total quantity of energy remains the same. The transformation of energy renders it necessary to the existence of all life, and to all physical change in the universe. Mayer showed us that all energy in the solar system primarily derives its existence from the sun, and that all plant life and physical life owe their continued existence to the energy which is poured out from the sun upon the planetary worlds. So that energy is always flowing from the sun into the surrounding space in the form of light, heat, and electricity, the medium of its passage being the universal Aether.

This principle of transformation teaches us, that heat may be converted into electricity; that light may be converted into heat, or electricity may be converted into either heat or light or both. This principle of transformation naturally follows from the principle of the conservation of energy; because, if energy cannot be destroyed in any way, but is made to disappear by any process, it must reappear in some other form, and therefore has been transformed from its original state. So that, whenever one kind of energy disappears, then it is absolutely necessary, according to the principle of conservation of energy, that some other kind shall be produced. There cannot be any real loss or destruction.

That leads us to the next point regarding this principle of transformation, which is that all transformations of energy take place in fixed proportions. When a certain quantity of coal is burned, a certain quantity of heat, or thermal energy as it is sometimes called, is produced, and the quantity of heat so produced is definitely proportionate to the quantity of coal consumed.

If a certain quantity of coal were burned in a perfect steam-engine, that is one in which there would be no loss of heat, then also a definite amount of mechanical work would be done, which would be strictly proportionate to the heat generated by the consumption of the coal. So that when coal is put into an engine, the potential energy of the coal is transformed into kinetic energy of the steam, and that is again transformed into actual mechanical energy of the engine itself, by which work is done in driving or pushing or pulling the train along, and the amount of work done is proportionate to the coal consumed. Illustrations of transformation are common, and may be seen by any person living in a large town. Thus at any electrical station or electric tram terminus, these transformations of various forms of energy are very familiar sights. We have first the transformation of the coal in the furnace into heat. This heat converts water into steam, whose motion is communicated by proper machinery into a dynamo, the product of which is electricity. That electricity is then conveyed along wires, and work is done by it, by moving trams along the connected tram system, or it may be converted into heat in the carbon filament in the car itself, which, if heated enough, will then produce the electric light. So that starting from the coal, we have several transformations therefrom into the forms of heat, light, motion, and finally mechanical energy, which results in Work. The question arises as to what is the law of equivalence in regard to the transformation of energy. That is, if we have a certain amount of energy of a given sort, how much of any other sort can be produced by it? The answer is partly to be found in a statement made by Joule in 1843, which practically embodies what is known as the first law of Thermo-dynamics, and is as follows: “When equal quantities of mechanical effects are produced by any means whatever, from purely thermal sources, or lost in purely thermal effects, then equal quantities of heat are put out of existence or are generated, and for every unit of heat measured by raising a pound of water one degree F. in temperature, you have to expend 772 foot-pounds of work.” From this law we learn that heat may be used to do work, but that a certain amount of heat is always used up in the process. It can also be demonstrated that electric currents can do work, but to generate the currents a certain amount of work must be done.

This equivalence and transformation prevail in all forms of energy, whether it be mechanical energy, thermal or heat energy, or electrical energy.Art. 54. Potential Energy.--Energy has been divided into two classes, which are termed respectively Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy. We will look at the former first.

Potential Energy may be briefly defined as energy of position.

Thus if we lift a body from the ground, the energy which has been imparted to it is energy of position, or potential energy. A glacier high up the mountain possesses potential energy, because of its position. By the mere fact that it is situated high up the mountain, it has a capacity for doing work by its descent, and if that descent be very sudden, the work done will be destructive work, as it may sweep away all houses and villages in its sudden descent. Thus, by the mere fact of its elevation, it possesses a power of doing work, which it has lost when it has descended. Again, work done in winding up the spring of a clock is stored up in the form of potential energy, and gradually runs out in the form of motion or kinetic energy.

Potential energy is really the complementary principle of kinetic energy. That is to say, the amount of potential energy lost by any body, is equal to the amount of kinetic energy gained by the other body, to which the energy has been transferred. In the case of a body falling, as the potential energy diminishes, the kinetic energy increases, but the total amount of the two combined always remains the same. This is well illustrated in the case of a swinging pendulum. When a pendulum is at the highest point of its swing, its velocity or kinetic energy is zero, but at that point its potential energy is greatest. As it descends, the potential energy decreases, but the kinetic energy increases. When the pendulum is at the lowest point its energy is wholly kinetic, the potential energy being zero at that point, while it has sufficient kinetic energy to raise it to the highest level again. Throughout the cycle of these operations, the sum-total of the two energies always remains the same.

Professor Tait points out, in his Recent Advances in Physical Science, that the available sources of all potential energy may be divided into four classes--

1st. Fuel.

2nd. Food of Animals.

3rd. Water-power.

4th. Tidal Water-power.

All these are different forms of potential energy. Under the head of fuel he includes not only wood, coal, but also all forms of matter that may be used or burnt up by heat, or dissolved by chemical agencies. Thus zinc and lead, which are used in batteries, are merely forms of fuel. That potential energy resides in such things as wood and coal is a matter of common experience. All our coal-fields are stores of energy, which received their energy when in plant form, ages ago, from the sun, and this energy is now being used to drive our machinery, to warm our houses, and to give light to our homes and our cities. It has been calculated that a pound of coal would give out 14,000 heat units, which is equal to 11,000,000 foot-pounds of work, which is also equal to the amount of work a horse can do in five hours. Again, all food, whether it be the food of animals, as vegetables and plants, or of man, as bread, meat, etc., are all forms of potential energy, or energy which is stored up in matter. All forms of food have a certain amount of energy in them, which is used up in the body in building up waste tissue and imparting energy to the physical frame.

Again, all forms of water-power, whether it be in the form of the flowing river or the tidal motion of the sea, possess a large amount of potential energy which may be used up to do mechanical work. They also possess kinetic energy, or energy of motion. We find illustrations of the possession of potential energy by rivers and tides, in the fact that by their fall from a higher to a lower level they may be made to do mechanical work, as in the case of the turning of the water-wheel by the fall of the water, which motion is communicated to machinery, and various forms of work are the result. In Switzerland and America advantage is being taken of the energy of falling water to generate electricity, by means of which villages and towns are being supplied with electric light at a very small cost.Art. 55. Kinetic Energy.--Kinetic energy may be defined as energy of motion, and is the energy which a body possesses in consequence of its motion. A body in motion thus possesses kinetic energy, which it must impart to some other body before it can be brought to a state of rest. The body may be simply an atom, as a vortex atom, but if it be in motion, as all atoms are, then it must possess kinetic energy, which may be transferred to another atom by collision, or by some other method. As has already been pointed out in previous articles, kinetic and potential energy are complementary to one another, the sum-total of the two combined always remaining the same in any cycle of work, according to the principle of the conservation of energy. We get a good example of this oscillation from kinetic to potential, and vice versÂ, in the planetary system. When the earth is farthest from the sun, its velocity, and consequently its kinetic energy, is at its lowest point; but there the potential energy is at its greatest. As the earth turns round in its orbit, however, and begins to approach the sun again, its potential energy decreases, while its kinetic energy increases with its increased velocity. So that by the time it has reached the nearest part of its orbit to the sun, its velocity, and consequently its kinetic energy, is at a maximum, while the potential energy is at a minimum. Then as the earth passes round its perihelion, the kinetic energy is used up in assisting the earth to overcome the attraction of the sun. Thus there is this oscillation from kinetic to potential, and from potential to kinetic, year in and year out, as the earth performs its cycle round its central body the sun.

Professor Tait, in the work referred to in the previous Article, gives examples of kinetic forms of energy under the following heads--

1st. Winds.

2nd. Currents of Water.

3rd. Hot Springs and Volcanoes.

It can be readily seen that winds are a form of energy, as we have innumerable instances of the power and energy which they exert. Advantage is taken of that kinetic energy by means of windmills, in which the energy of the wind is imparted to the revolving sails, and thence to the machinery, various forms of mechanical work being the result, as, for example, the grinding of corn, or the pumping of water. The pressure or energy of winds has even been calculated, the following figures being examples--

velocity in miles per hour. force in lbs. per sq. foot
1 mile.
5 "
10 "
15 "
20 "
30 "
40 "
50 "
.005 lb. per sq. foot.
.123 " " " "
.496 " " " "
1.11 " " " "
1.98 " " " "
4.5 " " " "
7.9 " " " "
12.5 " " " "

In the case of currents of water, whether they are in the form of river currents or ocean currents, as has already been pointed out in the previous article, the question of potential energy, or energy of position, is associated with their kinetic energy. Water is taken at a certain elevation, and then allowed to fall to a lower level, and in its fall from the high level to the lower level, its kinetic energy is used to drive mill-wheels, and thus work is done, the kinetic energy of the water being transformed into the motion of the machinery. This machinery may be used to work a dynamo, and thus electric light may be generated, or it may drive an electric motor which may perform all sorts of mechanical work. The great underlying principle of either kinetic or potential energy rests in the fact, that wherever we have energy of any kind or sort, whether it be associated with water, wind, or Aether, there we have the capacity to do work, the amount of work depending upon the amount of energy that exists in the matter which is the vehicle of energy.

In Art. 50 it has been indicated that the Aether possesses several kinds of motions. From the sphere of light and heat, we learn that the Aether possesses certain motions which are always exerted in a direction from the central body, which gives rise to the light- and heat-waves. That being so, it conclusively follows that the Aether possesses kinetic energy, and therefore, possessing this energy, it also possesses the power to do work. It must be remembered we are no longer dealing with a frictionless medium, but with a gravitating medium, possessing mass and inertia, and, that being so, wherever we have the Aether in motion, there we have kinetic energy or the power to do work; and that work will correspond to the particular kind of motion which is exerted on any body by the aetherial motions, and will be equally subject to Newton's Laws of Motion.Art. 56. Energy and Motion.--An advance, however, as to the meaning of the term Energy has been made within recent years, which brings it more into harmony with that simplicity of conception, and accordance with experience which are the very foundation of all philosophy. Instead of the term Energy, there is now being used another term to denote the forces which form the life of the universe, and that term is the word “Motion.”

Professor Poynting says: “All energy is energy of motion” (British Association Report, 1899).

Thus motion is the fundamental principle of all phenomena. If we analyze all forms of energy with which we are familiar, we shall soon find that they are only changes of one form of motion into another. Thus we shall see that heat is a mode of motion, as has been proved by Tyndall, that light is another mode of motion, and that electricity is also a mode of motion. I need hardly point out that this advance in our conception of energy is strictly in accord with the Rules of Philosophy. First, it is simple in conception. When we say that a body possesses energy, whether that energy be potential energy or kinetic energy, it does not convey to the mind some definite concrete fact, as does the statement that a body possesses motion. Every one, whether familiar with scientific teaching or not, understands and is familiar with the word Motion, as it is a common phenomenon of everyday life and experience. As Energy was simpler in conception than Newton's term Force, so Motion is simpler in conception than the rather vague and indefinite term Energy; therefore when we say that all energy is energy of motion of some kind or sort, we state that which is philosophically correct.

It is also in accord with the second Rule of Philosophy, in that it is strictly in harmony with experience and observation. Look where we will, or at what we will, there we find motion of some kind or other, whether it be among the innumerable stars, or in our own solar system, or any phenomena on the earth, or even among the world of atoms in their minute and atomic systems. Such a thing as absolute rest, or stagnation, is unknown in the universe. Wherever there is matter, there we find motion of some kind or other. It may be vibratory motion as heat, or wave motion as light, or rotatory motion as electricity, but motion of some sort is inseparably connected with all matter. So that when we say that all energy of the universe is the energy of motion, and motion only, we state that which according to the second Rule of Philosophy is absolutely correct.

Further, I wish to premise that by the use of the term modes of motion, in lieu of energy, the third Rule of Philosophy will be fulfilled. For if all phenomena of the universe, whether it be heat, light, electricity, be due to different modes of motion, then Gravitation should be explained from the physical standpoint by some kind of aetherial motion also. This I can safely premise will be done, and in the later chapters of this work, Gravitation will be shown to be due to the motions of the aetherial medium which floods all space. By so doing, all the Rules of Philosophy will be fully satisfied, and Gravitation will then be brought into line with all the other forms of motion, as heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, which are in themselves modes of motion, as will be shown in subsequent articles.Art. 57. Conservation of Motion.--If it be true that all energy is the energy of motion, then the principle of the conservation of energy ought also to apply to all the modes of motion, and in its place we should then have the principle of the conservation of the various forms of motion. This defined would be, that the total amount of all motion in the universe, as heat and light, electricity, magnetism, and Gravitation also, if that be due to the motion of the Aether, is unalterable and unchangeable.

There may be changes from one form of motion to another, from heat to light, and light back to heat; heat into electricity, and electricity into light or heat; from Gravitation into heat or into light, or even into electricity; but the sum-total of the whole remains the same.

Again, as the principle of the conservation of energy is inseparably connected with the conservation of matter, so the principle of the conservation of all the modes of motion is also inseparably connected with the conservation of matter. They cannot be divided, so that wherever we get matter of any kind or sort, there we get motion of some kind, either in the form of heat, light, or electricity, or those aetherial motions which produce those phenomena associated with Gravitation.

As matter cannot be destroyed by any known process to man, so motion cannot be destroyed either. On the vortex atom theory of matter, this principle of the conservation of any mode of motion is perfectly intelligible, especially if added to that theory we have Dr. Larmor's electron theory as the basis of the vortex atom. An atom in its ultimate state is nothing more or less than Aether in rotation, and as Aether is matter, we see that on the assumption of this atomic basis, we have even in the atomic world an illustration of this conservation of matter and motion, as in such an atom we have nothing but matter (i. e. Aether) and motion. Carrying the idea upwards in the atomic scale, if atoms of hydrogen or oxygen are multiples of these vortex atoms, then again we have nothing in all the elements, or combination of the elements, but matter and motion. Again, as all planets and satellites, suns and stars, are but agglomerations of elements, we have still the same two classes of things, matter and motion, and so from the most infinitesimal atom in existence, up to the most ponderous star that exists in the universe, we have running through them all the principle of the conservation of motion, which is to matter the source of all its activities, energies, and powers. Motion, therefore, might almost be said to be eternal. We have heard from time to time of the term perpetual motion. Philosophers have from time to time endeavoured to discover some application of this perpetual motion, but all efforts in this direction up to the present have proved futile. In one sense there is no such thing as perpetual motion. In another sense, that is from the standpoint of the conservation of all modes of motion, as motion cannot be destroyed, it must therefore be perpetual.

It is an absolute impossibility to obtain motion except from some antecedent energy, which is itself a form of motion. It would require the distinctive fiat of an Almighty Creator to produce motion from nothing, and I question whether such a result is obtainable, as I hold that if the Creator, at any time in the history of the universe, set any substance in motion, the source from which that motion was derived, was His own Divine Energy, and in that sense the physical motion was not produced from nothing. Such an assumption is altogether opposed to all philosophical reasoning and experience. I hope to deal with the question either in the last chapter of this book, or in another work.Art. 58. Transformation of Motion.--Again, if energy be the energy of motion, and the principle of the transformations of energy holds good, then it is equally true that all modes of motion are also transformable. Thus heat is a mode of motion, being due to the vibration of the atoms which go to make up any body. Light is also a mode of motion, being due, as far as solar light is concerned, to the periodic wave motion of the Aether. While electricity, as we shall see later on, is also due to some form of rotatory motion. It has already been shown (Art. 54) that light can be converted into heat, so that the periodic wave motion of light can be transformed into the vibratory motion of heat.

Heat can also be converted into electricity, and if electricity be rotatory motion, then the vibratory motion of heat can be transformed into the rotatory motion of electricity. Again, as electricity can be converted into light, the rotatory motion of electricity can thus be transformed into the periodic wave motion of light. Thus through all the forms of motion with which we are familiar, we find this principle of transformation holds good, so that each form of motion may be directly or indirectly transformed into any one of the other kinds. Whenever, therefore, one kind of motion disappears, it is absolutely necessary, according to the principle of the conservation of motion, that some other kind shall be produced. There cannot be any real loss or destruction of the motion. It may be transformed, but not lost. By the use of proper apparatus, therefore, any form of motion with which we are familiar may be converted into another form, and in the process not the least quantity of any form of motion is lost. Heat may be changed into light, and light into heat; electricity into light, and light into electricity; heat into electricity, and electricity into heat. Indeed, starting from any one form, any of the other modes of motion may be produced, either directly or indirectly, and mechanical effects or work may be produced by each and all. Then, again, the order can be reversed, as by doing work which is simply applied motion, any of the other modes of motion can be produced. Thus heat can be produced by friction, and if the friction which is the outcome of muscular energy be continued long enough, a light will be the result, in the form of fire. When certain forms of work are done, as the turning of the handle of an electrical machine, frictional electricity will be produced. So that not only are all the modes of motion convertible into work, but work itself can be transformed into the modes of motion known as heat, light, electricity, and magnetism.

Now, if Gravitation be due to motion of the Aether, and if it is true that all modes of motion are convertible, then the application of this principle should also hold good in relation to Gravitation. It has been demonstrated by Joule and others that Gravitation can be converted into heat, light, and electricity. It can be converted first into heat. Joule made a number of experiments to ascertain what quantity of heat is produced by falling bodies, that is bodies under the influence of Gravitation. From experiments he has calculated that if one lb. of water falls through a space of 772 feet, it would raise the temperature of the water one degree Fahrenheit--that is, the water after its fall will be one degree hotter than when it started to fall. Here, then, we have the exact equivalence of a certain amount of gravitational motion expressed in terms of heat. So that, whenever motion of a falling body produced by gravity is arrested, heat is generated, and as heat is a mode of motion, it follows that the motion of Gravitation has been converted into the motion of heat. Again, the motion of gravity may be converted into that of light. This may be demonstrated as follows: Lord Kelvin has suggested that the light and heat of the sun are maintained by the falling into the sun of meteorites. Now the cause of the falling of these meteorites into the sun is the Attraction of Gravitation, and therefore if the falling of these meteorites produces light and heat, it necessarily follows that the motion of Gravitation, whatever that may be due to, is converted into the motion known as light and heat. Thus it can be seen that Gravitation, looked at from the standpoint of a mode of motion, is itself conformable to the principle of the transformation of motion, and this is an indirect argument in favour of the fact that Gravitation is itself due to certain motions of the universal Aether.Art. 59. Motion and Work.--In Art. 52 we have seen that energy is the power which a body possesses to do work, the amount of work which a body can perform being regulated by the amount of energy which such a body possesses. In Art. 57 we have further seen that all energy is the energy of motion, and that wherever we have energy of any kind or sort, whether it be in the form of light, heat, or electricity, there we have motion of some kind or other. That being so, we arrive at the conclusion, that wherever in the universe we have motion of any kind or sort, whether it be the motion of Aether, or wind, or water, there we have the power of doing work, and the work so done will be proportionate to the motion which the medium possesses. The amount of work that air in motion can do has been measured, as we have already seen (Art. 55) that air which moves at the rate of 30 miles per hour exerts a force of 4-1/2 lb. per square foot.

The amount of work that water in motion can do has also been measured. The carrying and erosive powers of a river depend on the rapidity of its currents. It has been calculated that a velocity of three inches per second will transport fine clay; eight inches per second coarse sand; while three feet per second will transport stones as large as eggs.

If, therefore, air moving at the rate of 30 miles an hour can exert a force of 4-1/2 lb. per square foot, what must be the force or pressure of aetherial motion, as light-waves for example, which move with a velocity of 186,000 miles per second? The amount of work which such an aetherial motion can perform has actually been measured by Professor Lebedew of Moscow, and will be dealt with in the chapter on “Light, a Mode of Motion,” when the application of the work done on a body, as a planet for example, will also be considered. Work, therefore, can always be done by motion against resistance. This is a fundamental principle in the sphere of dynamics, which is incontrovertible, as all experience, observation, and experiment teach us, that wherever we get motion of any kind or sort, there we have the capacity or power to do work. The work done may be either in the form of pushing a body along, or pulling a body towards a centre. All experience and observation teach us that no body moves (whether it be an atom, or moon, or planet, or sun, or star), unless some other body or medium, which is in direct contact with the moving body, exercises some pressure or pull upon the moving body. The action is purely and simply a mechanical one. So that if this be true, then the earth and the planets, the sun and stars, comets and meteors, are moved through space solely because they are being pushed by some medium, or pulled to the centre by the motions of the same medium. If this can be proved to be true, then, as can be readily seen, our philosophy will then be made to agree with our experience, and the second Rule of Philosophy fully satisfied. As has already been pointed out, there is no such thing as action at a distance, therefore the Law of Gravitation demands a medium for its operation, production, and continuity. Newton distinctly points this out in his Letters to Bentley, where he says: “That one body should act upon another through empty space without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and pressure may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters a faculty for thinking can ever fall into it.” It has already been pointed out (Art. 42), that the only medium which is universal is the Aether medium, and we have therefore to look to the motions and properties of that medium for the solution of the problem as to the physical cause of Gravitation. That such a medium has motions which are as regular as the tides of the sea, or the trade winds of the atmosphere, will be proved later on, when it will be found that Gravitation, with all that that law implies, is due, as Newton and Challis suggested, to the pressure, properties, and motions of the aetherial medium, which is as universal as Gravitation itself. This being so, it is essential that we should set ourselves to find out from the analogies of Nature, what are those properties and motions of the Aether which give rise to the universal Law of Gravitation. This I propose doing by a consideration of three different modes of motion--viz. Heat, a mode of motion; Light, a mode of motion; and Electricity, a mode of motion. I venture to premise, from a careful consideration of these three truths, that we shall be able logically and philosophically to arrive at the simple, yet grand truth which reveals the physical source of all motion of the universe.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

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