Art. 86. Electro-magnetism.--We have now to look at the relation of magnetism to electricity, or, in other words, to prove the identity that exists between magnetism and electricity. In Art. 78 we have proved the identity between electricity and light, so that if we can now prove the identity between electricity and magnetism, then, wherever we get aetherial light waves, we must also get aetherial electro-magnetic waves.

As the light waves due to the vibrations of the Aether are practically universal in extent, then it must follow, if the identity of the light waves with electro-magnetic waves is established, that the universality of electro-magnetic waves is established also, with the natural result, that, wherever we get these electro-magnetic waves, there we shall have the conditions by which all electro-magnetic phenomena are produced.

Now it can be demonstrated by actual experiment that wherever we get a circular current of electricity, there we have magnetic phenomena manifested. The two are inseparably connected, and it is impossible to obtain the one without the other. For example, suppose we have a wire conveying a current of electricity and make it into a coil as in Figure 15, what is the result? The result is, that the coil of wire has actually been converted into a magnet.

It will attract iron filings that are brought near it, and also magnetize an iron bar placed in the centre of the coils, and convert that into a magnet. Indeed, there is nothing which can be done by an ordinary bar magnet which cannot be done by a coiled wire conveying an electric current.

From this and similar experiments it can be demonstrated that wherever we get a circular current of electricity, there, associated with that current, are all the phenomena incidental to and associated with the ordinary bar magnet. This leads us to the truth discovered by AmpÈre, that magnetism is nothing more or less than electricity in rotation, or that it is due to a whirl of electricity circulating round the molecule of any body. From certain experiments which he made in relation to the mutual action of two circuits on each other, with currents flowing through them, he came to the conclusion that the magnetism of the molecule of each magnet is due to electric currents circulating round it.

The question arises as to what effect our new theory of the Aether has upon AmpÈre's theory: does it confirm it, or does it destroy it? We have learned that every atom has its aetherial atmosphere, so to speak, which is bound to the atom by the Law of Gravitation (Art. 45). We have also learned that Aether has an electrical basis, as proved by Maxwell and Hertz, so that we learn that every atom has really an aetherial electric atmosphere in association with it. We have only to conceive of this atmosphere being set in rotation either by the rotation of the atom or molecule itself, or by outside agencies, and we have at once a physical interpretation of AmpÈre's theory of magnetism in the rotation of electric currents around the atom, such currents being due to the circulating or rotating motion of the Aether which surrounds the atom or molecule.

Thus we learn from experiment, and from AmpÈre's theory also, that magnetism is directly associated with circulating currents of electricity, and that wherever we get currents of electricity circulating round any atom or body, there we get all the phenomena associated with magnetism. That is to say, we shall have such phenomena as magnetic fields, magnetic lines of force, magnetic induction, and the production of permanent magnets by electricity.

Further, with reference to the identity of electricity and magnetism, Faraday has conclusively proved their relation to each other; and I would strongly advise any reader who desires further light on the subject to carefully read paragraphs 3265-3269 in his Experimental Researches, where he will find experiments which place the identity of electricity and magnetism beyond the possibility of doubt. In paragraph 3265 he writes: “The well-known relation of the electric and magnetic forces may be thus stated. Let two rings in planes at right angles to each other represent them. If a current of electricity be sent round the ring E in the direction marked, then lines of magnetic force will be produced. As these rings represent the lines of electro-dynamic force and of magnetic force respectively, they will serve for a standard of comparison.”

“I have elsewhere called the electric current or the line of electro-dynamic force an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions (517). The line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same terms, and these two axes of power considered as right lines are perpendicular to each other,” etc.

Again in 3267 he adds: “Like electric currents or lines of force, or axes of power when placed side by side attract each other. This is well known and well illustrated when wires carrying such currents are placed parallel to each other. But like magnetic axes of power or lines of force repel each other. The parallel case to that of electric currents is given by placing two magnetic needles side by side with like poles in the same direction.”

Then in 3268 he shows that these effects are not merely contrasts, but they are contrasts which coincide when the two axes of power at right angles to each other are considered. Then in 3269 he adds: “The mutual relation of the magnetic lines of force and the electric axis of power has been known since the time of Oersted and AmpÈre,” and further states he is of the opinion that “the magnetic lines have a physical existence the same as the electric lines,” and having that opinion, asks whether “the lines have a dynamic condition analogous to the electric axis to which they are so closely and inevitably associated, or whether they consist in a state of tension of the Aether round the electric axis, and may therefore be considered as static in their nature.” Thus Faraday proved the intimate and close relationship that existed between the electric current and the circles which represent the magnetic force in association with that current; and, what is more noticeable, he asks whether such magnetic results are due to a state of tension in the Aether around the axis of the electric current, evidently being of the opinion that the Aether played an important part in the phenomena of magnetism, as well as in electricity, as other parts of his writings abundantly show.

If, therefore, there is this close identity between electricity and magnetism, then in view of the fact that all electricity is due to the motions of the universal Aether, it must follow that all magnetism is also due to motions of the same aetherial medium, which is as universal as it is invisible.

What these motions are has already been indicated by previous statements in this article, being comprised of circular or rotatory motions of the aetherial electric medium about any body, whether that body be an atom, planet, or sun or star. Such a conclusion as this is perfectly in harmony with Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light, as the conclusion that he arrived at in that theory was, that the light waves were identical in nature and character with electro-magnetic waves produced by an electro-magnetic source.

Up to the present we have only dealt with the electric character of those waves, and have therefore now to deal with the magnetic character of the same. So that throughout the whole realm of space, and indeed wherever there is Aether, there we have the conditions which give rise to magnetic phenomena, such as those already indicated.

It matters not whether it be in the atomic systems whose combinations comprise all material forms of life with which we are familiar, or whether it is in the systems of planets that revolve around their central sun, or whether it be in the constellations that fill the universe, wherever we find the Aether, there we find the conditions in that Aether which will produce all the results ordinarily produced by magnetism, or with which magnetism is associated, and it is to the application of these phenomena to our solar system that we will now turn our attention.Art. 87. The Earth a Magnet.--If there is any fact in relation to a planet that holds good, it is that the earth, with which planet we are more intimately associated than any other, is a magnet.

This truth was clearly explained by Dr. Gilbert about the year 1600 in his work on “De Magnete.” Not only has the earth geographical North and South poles, but it has also magnetic North and South poles, and indeed has all the phenomena incidental to a magnet, such as magnetic dip and magnetic lines of force, as we shall see later on.

We know, however, that the earth is simply one of a system of planets, which revolves with all the others of that system round its central body the sun; and the question arises, whether the earth is the only one out of all the planets that is actually a magnet. Suppose it is affirmed that the earth is the only planet which is a magnet. On what basis would such a statement be made? The only ground for making such a statement that I can see is, that we have never lived on Mars or Jupiter or Saturn, or any of the other planets, and therefore been unable to experiment on them, which reason is totally insufficient and inadequate for such a conclusion.

If philosophy simply dealt with the results attained by such limited reasoning, then the progress of science would be retarded, and would be limited and confined to actual experience obtained on our own planet and in relation only to that planet. But philosophy is not satisfied with such a narrow and limited outlook, but drawing its conclusions from actual experience on our own planet, in accordance with the rules of philosophy, it seeks to apply such experience gained to the explanation of phenomena of other planets which also revolve round the sun.

By such reasoning we learn that all the other planets have North and South geographical poles like our earth, although we have never actually trodden on those planets, or discovered the poles. We also learn that Mars possesses climatic conditions probably similar to our own earth, as there are certain changes on the surface around the poles, which by analogy we assume to be caused by increase and decrease of snow during the Arctic winter and summer of Mars respectively.

The analogy between our earth and the other planets is very full and complete, as the following results show. Our earth has an atmosphere, so have all the rest of the planets. The earth revolves on its axis from West to East, so do all the rest. The earth possesses two geographical poles, so do all the other planets. The earth revolves round the sun in an orbit of elliptic form, so do the other planets. The earth fulfils all the laws of motion as given by Newton, and all the other planets do the same. The earth fulfils all Kepler's laws, and this is also true of all the others. Indeed, the only difference apparently that exists at present between the earth and all the other planets is, that our earth is a magnet, while at present it is not conceded that all the others are magnets.

Now such a conclusion I venture to say is altogether opposed to every rule of philosophy. For if experience be any guide in philosophy, then according to experience and observations made in respect to the only planet that we can actually experiment on, it most conclusively follows, that not only the earth, but every planet, and indeed every satellite that revolves round its primary planet, is a magnet; otherwise the rule of philosophy which permits us to formulate hypotheses based on experience is entirely violated, and ceases at once to be an universal rule.

So that either the earth is not a magnet, or else, being a magnet by our second Rule of Philosophy, all the other planets are magnets also. This conclusion has already been arrived at by Lord Kelvin, who in writing in his Popular Lectures[32] on the subject says: “If it is true that terrestrial magnetism is a necessary consequence of the magnetism and the rotation of the earth, other bodies comparable in these qualities with the earth, and comparable also with the earth in respect to materials and temperature, such as Venus and Mars, must be magnets, comparable in strength with the earth; and they must have poles similar to the earth, North and South poles on the North and South sides of the equator. It seems probable also that the sun, because of its great mass and its rotation in the same direction as the earth's rotation, is a magnet, with polarities on the North and South sides of the equator, similar to terrestrial North and South magnetic poles.” Further, such a conclusion is entirely in harmony with the view of the solar system revealed in Art. 81, where we saw that each planet was an electrified body having its own electric field, with its lines of force, being capable of giving rise to all the phenomena associated with electricity. So that if we combine that view of the subject with the view that we are now coming to, we arrive at the conclusion that each planet and satellite, and indeed all bodies that move or revolve in space, are electro-magnets giving rise to magnetic waves in the Aether, which assumption is fully consistent with the electro-magnetic theory of light.

We must now go one step further and apply a similar line of reasoning to the sun, when we shall arrive at exactly the same result that Lord Kelvin arrived at, according to the previous extract. All planets possess an atmosphere, the sun also possesses an atmosphere. All planets revolve on their axes from West to East, so does the sun. All planets possess a North and South pole the same as the sun.

The equatorial diameter of every planet is greater than its polar diameter, and the same truth applies to the sun. It is hotter at the equatorial regions of every planet, and this truth also applies to the sun. Now, if the sun agrees with all the planets in these respects, then we may philosophically conclude that it agrees with them in another respect, viz. that the sun is also a magnet possessing its own magnetic field, which is co-equal and co-extensive with its aetherial electrical field. We have already seen that the sun is an electrified body, possessing its electric field, with its electric lines of force. Therefore the sun is also a magnet, or, to speak more correctly, it is an electro-magnet, and as such gives rise to electro-magnetic waves.

The conclusion to which we have come, that the sun is an electro-magnet, can be arrived at from an altogether different method of reasoning, and as that different method of reasoning will tend to confirm the statement made, I will just indicate it, and then leave it for fuller development in another article.

It is a matter of common knowledge to all students, that the magnetism of the earth varies in several important particulars from time to time. The magnetic poles of the earth do not always occupy the same place in relation to the geographical poles, so that the magnetic force varies as regards intensity or magnitude. The reasons of the variations have never been satisfactorily accounted for, though various hypotheses have been suggested as a solution from time to time.

There is, I believe, only one satisfactory solution to the problem, and that is, that the sun is an electro-magnet, and this conclusion may be arrived at by strictly adhering to Newton's rules of Philosophy. For we have learned that any hypothesis put forward to account for any phenomena, must be simple in character, must agree with experience and observation, and, lastly, must satisfactorily account for the phenomena sought to be explained.

Here then are the variations in time of the magnetic force of the earth, the variations in intensity, and in the inclination of the magnetic axis, together with other variations. What solution shall we offer to such a problem? The only philosophical solution that can be suggested lies in the statement that the sun is an electro-magnet. Such statement is simple in conception, does not violate our experience or observation, as we find a similar revolving body, the earth, which is a magnet; and further, such a statement I premise will satisfactorily account for the whole of the variations and changes in relation to the magnetic forces of the earth. We shall see that this is so when we consider more fully the sun as an electro-magnet. Therefore, apart altogether from any previous analogies, we can philosophically arrive at the conclusion that the sun is an electro-magnet, as well as all the planets.

That being so, it will possess its magnetic field, its magnetic lines of force, and be capable of bringing into operation in the solar system all the phenomena or effects associated with any ordinary magnet that we may experiment with on the earth.

Art. 88. The Sun an Electro-magnet.--If the sun is an electro-magnet, as stated in the previous article, then it is necessary for us to apply the phenomena of magnetism to it in order to ascertain what effect such application will have on the solar system as a whole.

The first thing that we will look at is the magnetic field which is always associated with every magnet. The magnetic field may be defined as that region or space around every magnet in which the magnetic force acts or is in operation. An illustration of a magnetic field may easily be obtained by taking a bar magnet and bringing near to it a magnetized needle, when it will be found that the needle will set itself in various positions relative to the magnet, on account of the lines of force which exist in the field. Thus let A B (Fig. 17) be a bar magnet with its North pole at point A and South pole at point B. If a number of freely suspendedneedles be hung above it, as shown in the figure, they assume the positions indicated there. It will be seen that at the North and South poles the needles hang vertical, while midway between the two poles there is no dip of the needle, as it is parallel to the bar magnet; while between the place of no dip and the place of vertical dip, which is directly over each pole, the dip gradually changes, becoming more and more vertical as it gets nearer to the pole. If the bar magnet be a strong one, then its magnetic field will be manifested at a great distance; and any magnetized needle brought into the field will be, affected by the same, and will tend to set itself along the lines of force.

As already stated in Art. 80, it was Faraday who originated the term “Lines of Force,” and gave to the world some idea of the motions of the aetherial medium, which plays so important a part in electro-magnetic phenomena. A visible manifestation of these lines of force which gather round every magnet may be made by strewing iron filings over a piece of glass, underneath which are several bar magnets, when it will be found that the iron filings will set themselves in well-defined lines or curves, which Faraday termed “Lines of Force.”

As the bar magnets are placed in different positions, North pole to North pole, or North to South, and so on, the iron filings will change the figures assumed, indicating in, each case the effect of the lines of force of each magnet upon one another. The iron filings strewed over the magnet are magnetized by induction, with the result that the North pole of one filing attracts the South pole of the next one to it, and this is continued along the whole of one line of force, as revealed by the united iron filings. Faraday believed in the real physical existence of these lines of force, and that belief has been perfected by Clerk Maxwell in two papers which he wrote on “Physical Lines of Force,” which will be considered in another article. We will simply deal with them at present as indications of the existence of the magnetic forces in the medium surrounding any magnet.

Let us apply these facts to the solar system and see what the application yields. We have the sun revolving in the Aether medium represented by the circle S in Fig. 19. Then we have the lines of force extending in curved lines E. and W., but in almost straight lines North and South. We will suppose the axis of the sun to be vertical for the sake of simplicity. It may be asked, how far will these lines of force stretch out into space? The reply is that they stretch and extend throughout the whole solar system, and far away into the depths of space, though with ever-decreasing intensity according to the law of inverse squares. Wherever the aetherial light waves are manifested, there the electro-magnetic waves, with all that they imply, are manifested also. We know that the light waves are existent at least as far as Neptune, a distance of 2800 millions of miles, therefore at least to that extent the electro-magnetic waves are manifested; and wherever the electro-magnetic waves to which the sun has given birth are manifested, there we have the existence of the electro-magnetic field, which is co-existent and co-extensive with the electric field of the sun. Further, wherever we get the magnetic field, there we get the lines of force which are as real as air or ocean currents, and are caused, as Maxwell indicated (Art. 44), by the motions of the atomic Aether. Wherever these lines of force are closest together, there the intensity of the magnetic force is at its greatest.

By actual experiment, it can be demonstrated that the lines of force are closest together nearest to the magnet, and therefore applying that fact to the solar magnetic field, the lines of force should be closest together nearest to the surface of the sun, which is exactly what we have already learned. For if Aether be gravitative, then it will be densest nearest to the sun than further away, and the vortex atoms which represent our aetherial atoms will be pressed more closely together near to the surface than further away.

We have learned that Aether has an electro-magnetic basis, and it is that very fact which gives rise to the existence of these lines of force. So that the magnetic phenomena as indicated in the lines of force conceived by Faraday harmonize with the fact that the sun is an electro-magnet; and that Aether, which has an electro-magnetic basis, is also gravitative, with the result that the lines of force are closest together nearest the surface of the sun, where the magnetic force is greatest in its intensity and power.

Now let us apply the principle of the experiment to the solar system by bringing a magnet into a magnetic field, and let us see what the result is. We have learned from the experiment, that if a magnet is moved along any one of the lines of force the dip of the magnet changes, gradually changing from a horizontal to a perpendicular position in accordance with its relation to the two poles of the magnet. From the previous article we have come to the conclusion that not only is the earth a magnet, but that all the other planets are magnets also, so that if any of these are brought into the magnetic field of the sun, then the magnetic axis of the planet, which corresponds to the needle in our experiment, must assume a certain dip in relation to the sun, setting itself along those lines of force which are in the immediate neighbourhood of the planet.

Let us place the earth, for example, at a distance of 90 millions of miles from the sun in the magnetic equator, or that line which exactly divides the magnetic field into two equal halves. According to our experiment, the magnetic axis will now be exactly parallel with the axis of the sun, that is, exactly vertical, pointing North and South, as seen in position 1 in Fig. 19. But suppose that the earth is to the North of the magnetic equator of the field, what happens then? The result will be that the magnetic axis of the earth will dip towards the magnetic North pole of the sun (position 2, Fig. 19), while if the earth be to the South of the magnetic equator, its axis will dip in the opposite direction (position 3), the magnetic axis setting itself in each case along the lines of force which exist in the Aether in that region or space. Thus it can be seen at a glance, that if the earth changes its position at any time in its orbit in relation to the magnetic equator, such a change will effect the total dip of the magnetic axis. In other words, the magnetic poles which indicate the position of the magnetic axis will not occupy the same position in relation to the geographical North and South poles, sometimes appearing to the East and sometimes to the West, and at other times being coincident with the same as it moves to the North or South of the magnetic equator of the sun's electro-magnetic field.

We have to remember, also, that the earth is constantly varying its distance in relation to the sun, being at a distance of ninety and a half millions of miles at its perihelion, or that part of its orbit nearest to the sun; while it is ninety-four and a half millions of miles at its aphelion, or that part of its orbit furthest away from the sun. This implies that as it proceeds from that point in space furthest away from the sun, and approaches a point nearer to the sun, it will pass into places of greater magnetic intensity, with the result that the intensity of the electro-magnetic waves is increased; and the magnetism of the earth is accordingly affected by that fact.

When we come to deal with the earth as a magnet more directly, we shall see that all the variations of terrestrial magnetism may be satisfactorily explained by the fact that the sun is, as we have indicated in this article, an electro-magnet, possessing its magnetic field with its lines of force, and therefore able to give rise to all the phenomena incidental to and associated with any ordinary magnet.Art. 89. Aether and Faraday's Lines of Force.--We have now to face the question of the physical character of the Lines of Force conceived by Faraday. We have seen in Fig. 18 illustration of these lines of force, which are manifested by the iron filings in the neighbourhood of a magnet, and the question suggests itself to the mind, as to what is the relation of the Aether to those lines of force? Does the Aether play any part in their existence, and if so what?

Faraday was of the opinion that the Aether did play some part in the existence of the lines, and that they were no mere hypothetical lines, but were caused by the actual physical state or condition of the aetherial medium, which existed around every magnet and every electrified body. On this point he says, Art. 3263:[33] “To acknowledge the action in curved lines seems to me to imply at once that the lines have a physical existence. It may be the vibration of the hypothetical Aether, or a state of tension of that Aether equivalent to either a dynamic or static condition.”

Par. 3277: “I conceive that when a magnet is in free space, there is such a medium, magnetically speaking, around it. That a vacuum has its own magnetic relations of attractions and repulsions is manifest from former experimental results (2787). What that surrounding magnetic medium deprived of all material substance may be, I cannot tell, perhaps the Aether.”

It was, however, left for Clerk Maxwell to develop the idea as to their physical character, and this he did in his paper on “Physical Lines of Force,” Phil. Mag., 1861. He had previously written a paper on “Faraday's Lines of Force,” delivered to the Cambridge Phil. Society in 1855 and 1856, but his more matured conception of Faraday's Lines of Force was given in the later article.

What Maxwell did was to conceive a physical theory of electricity and magnetism, by which electrified and magnetized bodies could act upon each other by means of the stress or strain of some medium, which existed in the space surrounding these bodies. Now Faraday looked upon electro-static and magnetic induction as always taking place along curved lines. These lines may be conceived as atoms or molecules starting from the poles of a magnet, and acting on all bodies in the electro-magnetic field. These atoms or molecules, joined together in a definite manner, tend to shorten in the direction of their length, that is to say, there is a tension along the lines of force while at the same time they swell out laterally or sideways. Thus there is a tension along the lines of force, and a pressure at right angles to them owing to their bulging out sideways. Maxwell used as an illustration of the tension and pressure, the contraction and thickening of a muscle. As the fibres of the muscle contract, and the arm or leg is drawn up, the muscle swells in its centre outwardly, and so thickens. Thus there would be a tension along the muscle, and a pressure at right angles to it, which would cause any body placed on it to move away from it, owing to the pressure of the contracted muscle.

In the conception of an aetherial atom (Art. 44) drawn purely from observation of the shape of the earth, we came to the conclusion that the aetherial atom was a spherical vortex atom, or, to be more correct, that it was an oblate spheroid with its polar diameter, so to speak, shorter than its equatorial diameter, and further, that the aetherial atom possessed polarity.

Now if we can conceive of these aetherial vortex atoms being joined together, North pole to South pole, and revolving round their axes, we shall then have an exact image of Maxwell's physical conception of Faraday's Lines of Force.

We know that when any liquid body is caused to rotate rapidly about its axis, it will expand laterally and contract longitudinally in the direction of the axis; and it was on this analogy that Maxwell worked out his physical conception of the lines of force. Maxwell's fundamental idea was, that in a magnetic field there is a rotation of the molecule ever going on about the lines of force. For example, let A B be a magnet, and A C B be a line of force composed of spherical vortex atoms joined end to end, that is, each North pole (assuming the vortex atoms to be magnets) being directly associated with the South pole of the one next to it, and vice-vers (Fig. 20).

Thus it can be readily seen that there will be a tension along the line of force, while there will be a pressure at right angles to it owing to the lateral expansion, partly due to the rotation of the vortex atom, and partly due to the attraction of the vortices for each other in the direction of the line of force.

Maxwell in his paper says: “It appears therefore that the stress in the axis of the line of magnetic force is a tension like that of a rope.” Further, he adds: “Let us now suppose that the phenomena of magnetism depend upon the existence of the tension in the direction of the lines of force, combined with a hydrostatic pressure, or in other words, a pressure greater in the equatorial than in the axial direction. The next question is, What mechanical explanation can we give of these inequalities of pressure in a fluid or mobile medium? The explanation which most readily occurs to the mind is, that the excess of pressure in the equatorial direction arises from the centrifugal force of the vortices or eddies in the medium, having their axes in the direction parallel to the lines of force.” He adds: “A medium of this kind filled with molecular vortices, having their axes parallel, differs from an ordinary medium in having different pressures in different directions.”

He then goes on to develop the idea in relation to different intensities of the magnetic field. I must, however, refer the reader to the paper itself for fuller details. In his greatest work,[34] writing on this subject, he says: “I think we have good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of rotation is going on in the magnetic field, that this rotation is performed by a great number of very small portions of matter, each rotating on its own axis, being parallel to the direction of the magnetic force, and that the rotations of these different vortices are made to depend on one another by means of some kind of mechanism.”

From the foregoing extracts taken from Maxwell's writings, we learn that the constitution of the Aether, as given in Art. 44, exactly coincides with, and satisfactorily fulfils the conditions that he lays down with reference to his physical conception of the lines of force around a magnet or electrified body.

So that the theory of Maxwell is not merely hypothetical, as is suggested by scientists, but exactly describes the conditions and state of the atomic Aether medium which surrounds all magnets. We have, however, seen that the sun is a magnet, and therefore it possesses around it on every side, the same as any other magnet, these aetherial lines of force composed of infinitesimal vortices, or mere whirling points which correspond to an aetherial atom.

These aetherial lines of force stretch out into space on every side of the sun, and in fact form concentric magnetic shells around the sun; which magnetic shells coincide with the equipotential surfaces of the Aether viewed merely from the point of elasticity and density of the medium. We learn by experiment, that these lines are closest together nearest to the magnet, which fact agrees with the statement that Aether is gravitative, and therefore the Aether would be densest nearest the sun. That is, the atoms would be pressed closer together, so that the lines of force of which these atoms are composed ought also to be closer together at the surface of the magnet, which we find by experiment is the case. As the sun is an electro-magnet, therefore, it possesses these magnetic lines of force on all sides, forming a series of magnetic shells. We have now arrived by the aid of Maxwell's theory to a physical conception of the Aether from a magnetic standpoint, which fully agrees with our physical conception of the Aether which was arrived at by purely philosophical reasoning, based on Newton's Rules of Philosophy.

Thus we are able to combine into one whole by our conception that Aether is matter, and therefore atomic and gravitative, not only Faraday's Lines of Force, but also Maxwell's physical conception of the same, apart from the solutions given to the other problems of science by the self-same conception, which solutions will be dealt with in their proper order.

As further evidence of Maxwell's belief in the physical existence of Faraday's Lines of Force, let me again quote from his paper on “Action at a Distance,“[35] already referred to in Art. 43. He writes: “Its minute parts may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions, and the axes of rotation form those lines of Magnetic Force which extend in unbroken continuity into regions which no eye has seen.... These lines must not be regarded as mere mathematical abstractions. They are the directions in which the medium is exerting tension like that of a rope, or rather like that of our own muscles.“

Art. 90. Terrestrial Magnetism.--We have already seen that the earth is a magnet, and like any other magnet will therefore possess its magnetic field with its magnetic lines of force. The earth's magnetic field is co-existent and co-equal with its electric field (Art. 80), and that is co-existent with the earth's aetherial atmosphere which is held bound to the planet by the force of gravity.

How far the earth's magnetic field reaches, is impossible to say, but we know that it extends at least as far as 260,000 miles, the distance of the moon; as we find that this satellite of the earth is affected very considerably by the electro-magnetic attractive power of the earth. Any body which is placed in the earth's magnetic field is affected by the lines of force which exist in the magnetic field; for wherever the field exists, there the lines of force exist also.

These lines of force, which are associated with the earth, extend therefore into space, and any body such as the moon would become a magnet, if not already one by the process known as magnetic induction, which physical process is well illustrated in the action of a magnet upon iron filings strewed over it as in the illustration (Art. 88).

An experiment which well illustrates the inductive power of the earth's magnetism, may be made by placing a poker in one of these lines of force, whose direction can be found at any part of the earth's surface by means of proper instruments. When the poker is so placed, it will be seen that it has actually become magnetized by the magnetism of the earth, and it is itself able to attract iron filings or small needles. These lines of force of the earth are closer together nearest to the earth's surface than further away in space, and congregate around the North and South magnetic poles, where they are greatest in number in a given area, and there the magnetic intensity is the greatest.

Faraday, writing on the terrestrial lines of force, says: “The lines of force issue from the earth in the northern and southern parts with different but corresponding degrees of inclination, and incline to, and coalesce with each other over the equatorial parts. There seems reason to believe that the lines of magnetic force which proceed from the earth return to it, but in their circuitous course they may extend through space to a distance of many diameters of the earth, to tens of thousands of miles.“[36]

From this extract it will be seen that Faraday was of the opinion that the lines of force extended beyond the atmosphere of the earth into the Aether, which statement is confirmed by other parts of his writings; though he was not able to give any physical explanation of how these lines extended beyond the atmosphere on account of the doubtful constitution and character of the Aether, although in another part of his work he definitively refers to the magnetic character of space.

In writing on the magnetic character of space he says:[37] “From such experiments, and also from general observations and knowledge, it seems manifest that the lines of magnetic force can traverse pure space, just as gravitating force does, and as static electric forces do (1616), and therefore space has a magnetic character of its own, and one that we shall probably find hereafter to be of the utmost importance in natural phenomena.“ With the view of the Aether presented in this work, viz. that Aether is matter, though in an infinitely more rarefied and elastic form, we can now see the physical cause of the lines of force with which by his imagination he filled all space.

Again, from the conception of the Aether presented to the reader in Art. 45, we learn that around any body in space there are existing aetherial concentric spheres or shells which are equipotential surfaces, or surfaces of equal pressure, and that these surfaces coincide with the electric equipotential surfaces, as shown in Art. 80.

Not only so, but they coincide with the magnetic shells which the lines of force actually form around a circular and globular magnet, as the earth. For it must not be forgotten that these lines of force exist equally on all sides of the earth, and therefore really form a spherical shell, or to speak more correctly an aetherial electro-magnetic shell, which is an oblate spheroid in shape, partaking of the shape of the earth or other planet which the lines of force surround.

If these shells were divided into two equal halves, the line so dividing them would be called the magnetic equator, and on that line any magnet would set itself in a horizontal position, so that all round the earth on the magnetic equator would correspond to a line of no dip. At the magnetic poles, a magnet would set itself vertically, or at an angle of 90°, and between these two parts, the place of no dip, and that of 90°, the dip gradually changes as illustrated in the figure. Again, in relation to the magnetism of the earth we find that there are certain variations in the magnetic force, which not only influence the dip at any place, but also the intensity at that place. The variations in Magnetic Force are chiefly three--

1st. Diurnal Variations.

2nd. Annual Variations.

3rd. Secular Variations.

Let us look at these three variations from the standpoint of the magnetic lines of force which exist around the earth, and around every planet. In relation to the variations of the magnetic forces upon the surface of the earth, Faraday points out that these variations are caused by the action of the sun's rays upon the terrestrial lines of force. He uses the following figure to illustrate his meaning. Let H be the sun, E the earth--

He writes as follows: “If the magnetic and astronomical poles of our earth be supposed to be coincident, then North and South poles will also represent the North and South magnetic poles, and the different curves cutting the earth will sufficiently represent a course of magnetic lines as they occur at, or about, the surface of the earth. H represents the sun, and a the place immediately underneath it, which is also coincident with the magnetic equator. Point a will be a line of no dip, while at point b there will be dip. This dip will be increased by the action of the sun's rays, because the atmosphere under the influence of the sun's rays has expanded the air, and has thus acquired a power to affect the lines of magnetic force.“

“All the lines passing through the heated and expanded air will, because of its being a worse magnetic conductor, tend to open out, and the mass of heated air will as a whole assume the condition of diamagnetic polarity (2923). The case may be more simply stated for the facility of recollection by saying, that the effect of the sun is to raise the magnetic circles over the equatorial and neighbouring parts from their normal position, in doing which the North and South dip are simultaneously affected and increased.“

Thus it can readily be seen that every day as the earth turns round on its axis, and presents each side of the globe successively to the rays of the sun, there should be a gradual change in the intensity of the terrestrial magnetism. In Art. 2925, Faraday points out that the maximum of dip would be when the sun was at its zenith or directly overhead. With reference to the Annual Variation, Faraday points out (2882) that if the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, the intensity and direction of the magnetic forces might be considered constant, but (2883) as the axis of the earth's rotation is inclined 23° to the plane of the ecliptic, the two hemispheres will become alternately warmer and colder than each other, and then a variation in the magnetic condition may arise. The consideration of this annual variation is further considered by Faraday in the subsequent paragraphs to those already quoted, and I must refer the reader to them for fuller details; I wish simply to indicate the possible explanation of the terrestrial magnetism, in so far as that explanation is in conformity with the aspect of the Aether submitted in Chapter IV.

With regard to secular variations Faraday points out (2880) that the temperature of the air at the equatorial parts of the earth is greater than in latitudes north and south, and as an elevation of temperature diminishes the conducting power of magnetism, so the proportion of force passing through those parts ought to be less, and that passing through the cooler parts, greater, than if the temperature were at the same degree over the whole surface of the globe.

Now with our definite conception of the aetherial lines of force traversing space, and existing on all sides of the earth, these suggestions of Faraday's obtain an increased value in relation to the varying intensity of terrestrial magnetism, and will account for the variations in a satisfactory manner from the aetherial standpoint, if taken in conjunction with the electro-magnetic character of the Aether. Of course, what applies to the earth equally applies to all the other planets, as they also are magnets according to Art. 87, so that they will also possess their magnetic fields, with their own lines of force, and their variations in intensity and magnetic dip.

Hitherto we have only considered the problem of the earth and all the other planets, as magnets, from the stationary standpoint, and the problem faces us as to what effect the movement of the earth and all other planets through the Aether will have upon their magnetic fields, and their lines of force. Now from Clerk Maxwell's mathematical calculations, we learn that the movement of any magnetic body through space will practically have no effect upon the relation of the field, and the lines of force to the moving magnet; that is to say, the magnetic field and the lines of force move with the earth and the planets through space, as they journey round the sun with their varying velocity. Maxwell has conclusively proved that the mathematical equations for moving bodies in relation to their magnetic lines of force, and induction, are exactly the same as the equations for stationary bodies, and if this be true, then it follows that the physical conditions for both stationary and moving bodies are the same.

On this point Maxwell writes: “By its motions this (moving) matter carries with it its lines of force, and electricity and magnetism may be regarded as free ends of these lines. Hence when both causes act together there can be no relative motion of true magnetism with reference to surrounding matter,“ etc.

“Under these circumstances electricity and magnetism move with the matter in which they are present as if they were indestructible and adhered firmly to the parts thereof.“ So that from Maxwell's equations and statements we learn that the magnetic lines of force around every planet, and every satellite in space, move with the planets in their orbits round the sun. But as these magnetic lines of force are composed of aetherial atoms, as already indicated, it follows that the Aether which is associated with each planet and held bound to it by the so-called force of gravity moves with the planet also.

This result is entirely consistent with our experience and observation, as we shall see later on. We find that the atmosphere, which is also gravitative, moves with the earth, and therefore from experience we are compelled to arrive at the conclusion that the Aether which is also gravitative moves with each planet, and this result is confirmed by mathematical calculations given by Clerk Maxwell, and is in perfect harmony with the same.

Here then is the key to one of the problems that has been the subject of investigation and research for many years past, and one which is at the present time occupying the attention of some of our most advanced scientists, viz. the relation of the Aether to moving matter.

That problem was solved by Maxwell from an electric and magnetic standpoint, and his result was that the Aether, which we now know to be the source of all electricity and magnetism, moves with the moving matter. What is more, this result has been confirmed by actual experiment made by Michelson and Morley in America, which experiment conclusively proves that Maxwell's result is physically correct, and that the Aether does move through space with its associated planet, and therefore its magnetic field and its lines of force move with it because of the electro-magnetic character of the Aether.

Art. 91. Solar Magnets.--We have now to attack the problem as to the cause of all the satellites and planets, together with the sun, being electro-magnets. What is the continuing and ever-acting cause which makes all planetary bodies, including the sun, their centre, to be permanent magnets? According to the Rules of Philosophy there are two causes which would be simple in conception, which are suggested by experiment and observation, and both causes would satisfactorily account for all the planets being magnets.

The first cause suggested to our minds is, that in view of the fact that the sun is an electro-magnet, and therefore possesses a magnetic field with its aetherial line of force, all the planets may become magnets by the process of magnetic induction, which process has already been illustrated by the action of the iron filings placed over the magnet. Such a hypothesis would fulfil all the Rules of Philosophy, as it would be simple in conception, would not violate experience, and would satisfactorily account for the fact sought to be explained.

But such a hypothesis would be based upon the assumption that the sun was an electro-magnet, and then we should have to find out the cause of that fact also. Hence the hypothesis that the planets are magnets, because they are situated in the magnetic field of the sun, is not a satisfactory solution of the whole problem, as it fails to account for the fact that the sun is also an electro-magnet. We must therefore seek for another solution of the problem, which, while fulfilling all the Rules of Philosophy as laid down in Art. 3, will also account for the sun being an electro-magnet, as well as every planet, satellite, meteor, or any other body that exists in space. If we can ascertain such a cause by philosophical reasoning, then we may say we have satisfactorily solved the problem as to the cause of all planetary and stellar bodies being electro-magnets.

If, at the same time, we can solve other outstanding problems by the solution thus offered, then such solution is more likely to be correct than if it simply solved the problem of solar magnetism. The only other solution that can possibly present itself to our minds, as to the cause of all magnetism in any planet, sun, or star, is the explanation which has already been given in Art. 86 on electro-magnetism.

In that article we learned that magnetism was really due to the circular motion of an electric current; and that, whenever and wherever we had an electric current moving or revolving with a circular motion, there we should always have those conditions which would give rise to an electro-magnet. As long as the current continued to flow in its circular course, so long would there be those conditions which would give rise to permanent magnetism.

Now in the solar system we find that there are these magnets, which have been in existence for millions of years. We also learn from the electro-magnetic theory of light that Aether has an electro-magnetic basis, which gives rise to electro-magnetic waves when disturbed, or set in motion by any heated or luminous body. It can readily be seen, therefore, that we have only to set this electro-magnetic Aether in circular motion around any planet or sun, and we have at once a circular current of electricity flowing round that planet or sun, which would give rise to those conditions by which any body within its influence may be formed into a magnet.

Our hypothesis, therefore, to explain the reason why all the planets and the sun are magnets, is that the electro-magnetic Aether moves round the sun or planet or satellite as the case may be, thus giving rise to currents of electricity around the planet or sun, and so forming those conditions in the Aether by which the permanency of any planetary or stellar magnetism may be maintained and perpetuated.

In other words, to put it plainly and tersely, each aetherial atmosphere revolves round the planet, subject to certain limitations, in the same way that the aerial atmosphere turns round with the earth, as that planet revolves on its axis. At first sight, such an assumption may seem impossible, but a little careful consideration will show not only the possibility of such a cause, but will establish it, as the only reasonable and philosophical explanation for the phenomena we are seeking to explain, viz. the electro-magnetism of all celestial bodies.

There is nothing extravagant in this assumption, as we already have a similar illustration in the case of the atmosphere which goes round with the earth as it revolves on its axis. We have only to extend the same principle a little further, viz. to the aetherial atmosphere, and we at once get the true physical conception of the hypothesis suggested to explain the magnetism of all celestial bodies. We have already learned that Maxwell has proved that the equations for moving magnetic bodies are the same as those for stationary bodies, from which we came to the conclusion that the electric and magnetic field of any planet goes with that planet as it revolves on its axis in its journey round the sun.

I would like to ask the reader to try to conceive of any electric or magnetic field traversing space in association with any planet or sun which is revolving on its axis, while that electric or magnetic field does not revolve either partially or wholly with the revolving body. The field can only be stationary relatively to the planet or sun, as it revolves with the planet or sun on its axis.

There may be, as there doubtless are, conditions governing that revolution, as is the case with the atmosphere moving and revolving with the planet, but it is an absolute impossibility for Maxwell's equations relating to moving magnetic bodies to be carried to their logical conclusion, without affirming some such hypothesis as we have affirmed in relation to the cause of all solar magnetism.

Let me at once point out, this solution has already been offered by one whose name has been referred to several times. I refer to Professor Challis. Let us see what he has to say as to the cause of the earth's magnetism. In dealing with this subject, and writing in the Phil. Mag., 1872, par. 42, he states: “With respect to all magnetism which has a cosmical origin, the view I now take is that it is due to gyrations of the Aether, produced by the impulses which it receives from the motions of the constituent atoms of the bodies of the solar system. The gyrations may either be immediately generated by the rotations of the bodies about their axes, or directly result from disturbances of the Aether caused by their motions of translation. This impressed motion will be converted into circulatory or gyratory motion. Such circulatory motion will necessarily partake of the motion of translation of the bodies which generate them, so as to have always the same geometrical relation to these bodies provided their motion be uniform.“

In paragraph 46 he continues: “From what has been already argued (42), the motions impressed on the Aether by the earth in consequence of its rotatory or orbital motions result in circulating motions which would be steady motions, having always the same geometrical relation to the position of the earth's centre.“

Again, AmpÈre and Faraday were also of the opinion that the magnetism of the earth was due to the circulation of electric currents round it, for in par. 446, Exp. Res., Faraday states: “Assuming with AmpÈre that the magnetism of the earth is due to electric currents circulating round it, parallel to the equator.“

I think it will be seen from these extracts that the hypothesis suggested for all planetary and stellar magnetic bodies is thus confirmed by Professor Challis, and by Faraday and AmpÈre. Professor Challis in these passages clearly and definitely points out that there are circulatory motions in the Aether, which motions are produced by the rotation of the earth or other body on its axis, and that these circular motions of the aetherial medium always maintain the same geometrical shape relative to the earth's centre. So that we have only to combine with his hypothesis the electro-magnetic basis of the Aether, and we at once get the circulating currents of electricity constantly flowing round the heavenly bodies, which produce and give rise to the permanent magnetism of those bodies.

If we desired still further confirmation as to the circulating motions of the Aether caused by a rotating body, we find it in the writings of Herschel, who in relation to this matter asks:[38] “What is the law of density of the resisting medium which surrounds the sun? Is it at rest or in motion? If the latter, in what direction does it move? Circularly round the sun, or traversing space? If circularly, in what plane? Supposing the neighbourhood of the sun to be filled with material fluid, it is not conceivable that the circulation of the planets in it for ages should not have impressed upon it some degree of rotation in their own direction, and this may preserve them from the extreme effects of accumulated resistance!“ Words like these from one of the most searching intellects of the last century are well worthy of our consideration, and the suggested effect on the Aether caused by the continued rotation of the earth gives us the key not only to the problem of celestial magnetism, but also to the other outstanding scientific problems.

For example, there is the problem of the relation of moving matter to the Aether around it which still remains unsolved. The physical cause of the rotation of the earth, and all other celestial bodies upon their axes, with unceasing regularity, still remains to be discovered. The physical explanation as to the reason why the earth moves round the sun in its orbit according to Kepler's Laws, has yet to be determined, and, lastly, there is the relation of the magnetic vibration to the electric vibration in connection with the electro-magnetic theory of light still to be solved.

Now, presuming that all these can be solved by the philosophical hypothesis, that the electro-magnetic Aether circulates round each planet and sun and star, that revolves in space, then we are justified in our conclusion that such is the true cause of all electro-magnetism that exists in connection with planetary and stellar bodies. I venture to premise that all these problems can be solved by the simple solution here given, and will prove that this solution adequately accounts for all the other phenomena referred to.

Before proceeding to do this, we will endeavour to prove this hypothesis by an altogether different method of reasoning, in order to confirm the statements made in this article. Let us therefore endeavour to form a complete view of the physical state of the solar system, and for the sake of simplicity we will suppose it to be at rest in space. We shall deal with the effect of its motion upon its own planetary system, when we explain Kepler's Laws.

We have, therefore, the Sun in the centre (see Fig. 14) of the system, with Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune revolving round the sun at their respective distances, which are subject to variations owing to certain causes which can be satisfactorily explained. But circulating round the sun, in the same direction as the rotation of the sun on its axis, we have the electro-magnetic Aether, with its wide-spreading flow and extensive electro-magnetic field. In like manner, we have each planet with its aetherial electro-magnetic field, which also circulates round each planet in the same direction as the planet revolves, that is, from west to east, and in the same direction as the sun's electro-magnetic field revolves.

Thus we have to picture the whole of the solar system in a state of regular and harmonious rotation, while each planet adds to the harmony of the rotation by itself rotating in its own aetherial electro-magnetic field, while all rotate in the same direction, viz. from west to east.

Of course there are several objections that can be raised to such a hypothesis, and those objections will be briefly dealt with in a subsequent article, but I venture to think that this hypothesis is the true philosophical explanation of a problem which has formed one of the greatest outstanding difficulties in regard to the Aether medium for many years, that problem being the relative motion of the Aether and Matter. Lord Kelvin, in an article in the Phil. Mag. for July 1901, entitled “Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Light,“ refers to this very difficulty, and states there are two clouds over the present undulatory theory of light, one of which has reference to the difficulty of conceiving a body like the earth or any planet rushing through the Aether without subjecting the Aether to enormous laceration, and concludes by saying that “we must still regard this cloud as very dense.“ Here, then, is the key to the solution of the problem.

The earth does not rush through the Aether, but the Aether being gravitative, it is associated with and bound to each planet, and accompanies that planet in its journey though space, rotating with it in the same way that the atmosphere does, as we shall prove later on.

This conception is fully in accord with our hypothesis as to the physical explanation of the cause of the electro-magnetic character of all the heavenly bodies, and indeed is the only physical solution that can adequately account for all the varied phenomena hitherto unexplained in connection with the celestial mechanism.

From the foregoing statements, we are now in a position to consider the term Electro-Kinetic Energy, as used by Clerk Maxwell. What does he mean by Electro-Kinetic Energy? Let us see what he has to say about the term himself.

In par. 636 of his Magnetism and Electricity he writes: “According to our hypothesis we assume kinetic energy to exist wherever there is magnetic force, that is, in general, in every part of the field. This energy exists, therefore, in some kind of motion of the matter in every portion of space;“ while again, in par. 569, he states: “The electric current cannot be conceived except as a kinetic phenomenon.“ Even Faraday speaks of the electric current as “something progressive, and not a mere arrangement“ (Exp. Res. 283).

Then again in par. 552 he writes: “It appears, therefore, that a system containing an electric current is a seat of energy of some kind, and, since we can form no conception of an electric current except as a kinetic phenomenon, its energy must be kinetic energy, that is to say, the energy which a moving body has in virtue of its motion.“

Here, therefore, according to Clerk Maxwell, the kinetic energy of an electro-magnetic field is nothing more or less than the energy which a moving body possesses in virtue of its motion. Any other explanation of kinetic energy would be opposed to all the Rules of Philosophy; for experience in its widest form incontrovertibly proves that all kinetic energy is associated, and alone associated, with a moving body; therefore in all electro-magnetic fields there is this kinetic energy ever being manifested. We have, however, learned that the solar system forms a huge electro-magnetic field, traversed by lines of force, as Maxwell and Faraday suggested. Therefore, in the solar system, there must be this kinetic energy due to the motion of a moving body, which is the electro-magnetic Aether.

We have, however, just arrived at the conclusion that in the solar system there is ever going on a circulatory or rotatory movement of the electro-magnetic Aether forming currents around each electro-magnet. On the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitating Aether we have, therefore, a medium or body continually circulating, which medium possesses inertia and momentum, and it is philosophically possible for such a rotating medium to possess kinetic energy. So that our explanation of this term, as used by Clerk Maxwell, is, that this kinetic energy is indeed due to the momentum of the moving Aether. Such a hypothesis is strictly philosophical, and literally fulfils the statements made by Clerk Maxwell himself in the paragraphs already referred to.

A remarkable feature about this hypothesis lies in the fact, that it is the very hypothesis that Von Helmholtz suggested as the explanation of the term. He came to the conclusion that the kinetic energy was due to the momentum of the moving Aether. But with a frictionless Aether such a hypothesis, although correct, was philosophically untenable. In view of the theory of the Aether presented in this work, however, both Clerk Maxwell's and Von Helmholtz's statements find their literal and perfect fulfilment. So that in an atomic Aether, which is gravitative because atomic, and rotatory because it is gravitative, combined with its electro-magnetic basis as proved by Hertz, we find for the first time a correct philosophical explanation of one of the most puzzling terms used by Maxwell in his greatest work on Magnetism and Electricity. This solution alone ought to stamp the theory of an atomic and gravitating electro-magnetic Aether with that authority that is always associated with the names of two such great thinkers and experimentalists as those just mentioned.

The fact that the Aether is held bound to a planet has already been suggested by Sir G. Stokes to account for the aberration of light already referred to. In the Phil. Mag., July 1845, he writes: “I shall suppose that the earth and the planets carry a portion of Aether along with them, so that the Aether close to the surface is at rest relatively to the earth, while its velocity alters as we recede from its surface, till at no great distance it is at rest in space.“ Sir G. Stokes does not, however, say how the Aether is held bound to the earth, and apart from an Aether which is gravitative, no satisfactory explanation can be given. Further, it is noticeable, that he suggests that the other planets also carry part of the Aether associated with them along with each planet as it pursues its journey. It would be distinctly unphilosophical to assume that the earth was the only planet that carried its aetherial field with it. So that by following Sir G. Stokes' suggestion, we practically arrive at the same conclusion in relation to the motions of the Aether that we have already arrived at from magnetic phenomena.

With this view of the case we are now in a position to answer a question asked by Professor Schuster at the British Association in 1892. He asked, “Is not every large rotating mass a magnet?“ and added, “If it is, the sun must be a powerful magnet. The comets' tails, which eclipse observations show stretching out from the sun in all directions, probably consist of electric discharges.“ Now, in relation to this question, the answer is that every rotating body in the Aether is undoubtedly an electro-magnet. Thus, not only is the sun an electro-magnet, but every planet and satellite, and every meteor that rotates in the electro-magnetic Aether, is converted into a magnet, partly by that rotation, and partly by the currents induced in the Aether by that rotation. We shall also find when we come to deal with the phenomena of comets' tails, that Professor Schuster is also right as to their cause, and that they are due to electro-magnetic repulsions originated in the Aether by the sun, which is an electro-magnet.

Art. 92. Cause of Rotation of the Earth on its Axis.--If there is one fact true in relation to the earth as a planet, it is that the earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours. Day in and day out, for centuries past, this revolution has taken place as the earth journeys in its annual path round the sun.

Not only does the earth rotate on its axis, but every other planet rotates on its axis in varying times, as the following table shows--

Further, the sun also rotates on its axis in a period of 26 days. Here, then, are certain phenomena in connection with the solar system, for which up to the present no explanation as to the physical cause of rotation has ever been offered. Surely there is some physical cause, to account for such a rotation, and if there be a physical cause, then the problem to be solved is--find the physical cause to account for the continuous and ever-recurring rotation of all the planets and the sun on their axes, which shall be so effective and continual that, year in and year out, the rotation of all the planets may be continued as observed. In solving this problem we have to revert to our reason why the earth is a magnet. In Art. 91 we learned that the earth and all the other planets, and indeed all stellar bodies, were electro-magnets, because the electro-magnetic Aether was constantly circulating round them.

If, by accepting this explanation, we can at the same time solve the problem of the rotation of the planets, and the sun, on their axes, then we shall have further evidence that our hypothesis is the correct one. Now let me ask, What is the effect of an electric current continually circulating round any magnet in the same way that the electro-magnetic Aether continually circulates round the earth, which is a magnet?

To find out what the effect is, we must resort to experiment. Professor Lodge, in his Modern Views of Electricity, shows us the effect of any circulating current of electricity revolving round a magnet. In his chapter on Electro-Magnetism he writes as follows: “How does a current act on a magnetic pole? Two currents attract or repel each other, two poles attract or repel each other, but a current and a pole exert a mutual force which is neither attraction nor repulsion. It is a rotatory force. They tend neither to approach nor to recede, they tend to revolve round each other.“ “A singular action this and at first sight unique“ (p. 135). “The two things will revolve round each other for ever. This affords and has afforded a fine field for the perpetual motionist, and if only the current would maintain itself without a sustaining power, perpetual motion in fact would be attained.“

Faraday has shown by experiment the action of a current on the magnet, and vice versÂ. Faraday, in his description of an electro-magnetic apparatus for the exhibition of rotatory motion, shows how the rotation of a current round a magnet, and a magnet round a current, may be experimentally proved. With the apparatus used he shows that the current of electricity may be made to revolve round the pole of the magnet in the direction dependent on the pole used, and further, illustrates how the magnet may be made to revolve round the current. (Plate 4, Fig. 5, Exp. Res.)

Thus we learn that wherever we have a current constantly circulating round a magnet, there we have the conditions by which, according to Professor Lodge, perpetual motion may be obtained, that is to say, the two will revolve round each other as long as the current is maintained. Here then we find in space those very conditions by which perpetual motion may be obtained.

We find the electro-magnetic Aether constantly circulating round the planetary magnets, with the result that not only will the current continue to revolve around the planet, but the planet will continue to revolve upon its axis as it revolves round the current. In fact we get in space an example of perpetual motion. We know that the rotation of the earth on its axis has been in existence for several thousand years, and therefore we have a right to assume that it revolved on its axis through the untold ages of past geological times as revealed by the strata, and rocks of pre-historic ages. Thus the motion must have continued, so far as the earth is concerned, at least 100,000,000 years, accepting that period as the age of the earth, but no physical reason so far as I know has ever been assigned for such continued rotation.

If, therefore, it be true that the joint action of a current and a magnet is a rotatory one, then, seeing that in all planetary and stellar space we have both these conditions of matter, that is, the electro-magnetic aetherial current, constantly circulating round an electro-magnet, we have, in space, the conditions by which perpetual rotation may be maintained. We have therefore presented to us in that joint action, the true cause of the continued rotation of the earth on its axis, and therefore of all the planets on their axes, together with the sun on its axis; and, if we carry the principle into the stellar world, we can philosophically come to the conclusion that the same conditions prevail there that prevail in the solar system, with the result that we have now a physical cause which fully satisfies all Rules of Philosophy to account for certain phenomena which up to the present have never yet been accounted for from the physical standpoint. Thus in solving the problem of the earth's rotation on its axis, we find greater confirmation in the view presented in a previous article as to the circulating motion of the electro-magnetic Aether around any and every body in space. We shall deal again with the relation of a current and a magnet, when we come to the physical explanation of Kepler's Laws.Art. 93. Vortex Motion.--From Art. 91 we have seen that the electro-magnetic Aether possesses a circulating or rotatory motion around each central body, and because of this rotatory motion, the body is at once converted into a magnet. We have also seen that Professor Challis believed in the circulatory or rotatory motion of the Aether, as also did AmpÈre.

Thus we are led back by scientific experiment and philosophical reasoning to the conception of vortex motion with which the world was familiar in the days of Kepler, Descartes, Huyghens and Bernoulli. There is this difference, however, that whereas the vortex motion of those philosophers was to displace and do away with Gravitation, the circulatory or rotatory Aether suggested by electro-magnetic phenomena is to supplement, confirm and establish more firmly than ever the true powers and laws of Gravitation Attraction.

Before passing, it will be as well to briefly glance at the conception of vortex motion as suggested by Kepler and Descartes and others. Whewell on this matter in his Inductive Sciences states that “Kepler assumed that a certain force or virtue resided in the sun by which all bodies within his influence were carried round him. He illustrated the nature of the force in various ways, comparing it to light, and to the magnetic power which it resembles in the circumstances of operating at a distance, and also of exercising a feebler influence as the distance increases.“ “Another image to which he referred suggested a much more conceivable kind of mechanical action by which the celestial motions might be produced, viz. a current of fluid matter circulating round the sun, and carrying the planets with it like a boat in a stream.“ Whewell adds: “A Vortex fluid constantly whirling round the sun, kept in this whirling motion by the sun itself, and carrying the planets round the sun by its revolution, as a whirlpool carries straws, could be readily understood, and though it appears to have been held by Kepler that this current and Vortex were immaterial, he ascribes to it the power of overcoming the inertia of bodies, and of putting them and keeping them in motion.“

Now, as we have seen, the electro-magnetic Aether is not immaterial but material, as it is matter possessing mass and inertia, the same as any other matter, as Tyndall and Lord Kelvin stated (Chap. IV.). Thus the objection to Kepler's immaterial vortices is met and overcome by our conception of the Aether (Chap. IV.). Descartes, as Whewell points out, asserted, “that a vacuum in any part of the universe is impossible. The whole universe must be filled with matter, which must be divided into equal angular parts. This matter being in motion, the parts are necessarily grounded into a spherical form, and the corners thus rubbed off, forming a second or subtle matter. There is besides a third kind of matter, of parts more coarse and less fitted for motion. The first part makes the luminous bodies as sun and stars, the second part is the transparent substance of the skies, and the third part is the material of opaque bodies as the earth, planets and comets. We may suppose that the motion of these parts takes the form of revolving circular currents or vortices. By this means the first matter will be collected to the centre of each vortex, while the second or subtle matter surrounds it, and by its centrifugal effect constitutes light. The planets are carried round the sun by the motion of the vortex, each planet being at such distance from the sun as to be in a part of the vortex suitable to its solidity and mobility. The satellites are in like manner carried round their ordinary planets by subordinate vortices.“

It would almost seem from this quotation that we had adopted purely and simply Descartes' and Kepler's ideas in toto, whereas the truth is that the hypothesis of a rotating electro-magnetic Aether has been arrived at by following Newton's own Rules of Philosophy, and by discarding everything not in harmony with experience and experiment.

Further, Descartes was unable to give, or explain the ellipticity of the orbits of planets, and had to assume that there were elliptic vortices. When we come to deal with Kepler's Laws, and their physical interpretation, the correct solution of this problem will be given from a purely experimental and philosophical standpoint, and in a way and manner never suggested by Descartes or any other believer in the theory of vortices as then known and understood. Indeed there is no objection to the theory of vortices, which cannot be satisfactorily explained by a rotating electro-magnetic Aether, as we shall see when we deal with Newton's Laws of Motion and Kepler's Laws.

Both Liebnitz and Huyghens were believers in the theory of vortices, and the fact that Huyghens' undulatory theory of light stands to-day as an accepted theory, is conclusive evidence that he was a philosopher of the highest order, and his adhesion to the theory of vortices proves that he was convinced that there was some truth in it.

It is a result greatly to be desired, therefore, if it can be demonstrated, that in the Aether there is this rotatory motion continually going on around every planet, satellite, sun or star; because it will then join together, in perfect harmony, two great theories in relation to celestial phenomena, that contended with each other for supremacy for very many years.

It will prove that, after all, men like Kepler, Descartes, Huyghens, and Bernoulli had caught glimpses of the great truth which was partly revealed by celestial phenomena, and that it was only for lack of data that they were unable to successfully compete with Newton's mathematical genius, by which he was able to bring his Law of Gravitation safely through the conflict with the simpler conception of aetherial vortex motion. Of course certain objections will have to be met and answered before this aspect of aetherial dynamics can be expected to supplant the more cumbrous and somewhat intricate mathematical laws of motion, but I shall prove later on, that all these objections can be answered from a satisfactory standpoint.

So that if a modified form of aetherial vortex motion can be successfully demonstrated to exist in the electro-magnetic Aether, then we shall see the conflict that waged about two hundred years ago, brought to a satisfactory issue, in the union of the two greatest philosophic theories for the explanation of celestial phenomena that the world has ever seen.

From that union, therefore, there will then emerge a truer, simpler, and yet grander conception of the motions of the universe, which, when perfected by abler minds, will be as perfect a theory as human intelligence and philosophy can make it. So that, what an atomic and gravitative Aether has done for Newton's corpuscular theory of light, in showing that it can be united and combined with the undulatory theory, and by such combination, for the first time, such phenomena as the transverse action of light can be probably demonstrated and explained, together with other phenomena relating to reflection and refraction of light, the enlarged conception of a rotating electro-magnetic Aether will do for the two great theories that vied with each other for supremacy for so many years. Thus it will be shown that the philosophers like Kepler, Descartes, and Huyghens, the former of whom has stamped his name on the three laws that bear his name to-day, and the latter who gave us the inception of the very theory that overthrew Newton's theory of light, had after all a more or less true philosophic conception of the physical mechanism of the solar system and of the universe at large.Art. 94. Relative Motion of Aether and Matter.--There is hardly any subject of greater importance which is engaging the attention of scientists at the present time, than the question as to what is the relative motion of Matter to the Aether in which it moves.

I venture to premise the successful solution of the problem will be accompanied with the greatest advance to science that has been known for a long time. The problem to be solved may be stated thus: “Does the Aether surrounding a planet or sun or any body in space move with that body, or does it allow the body to pass through it?“

Up to the present, opinions on the subject have been varied and conflicting. Some scientists hold that the planetary and other bodies in space pass through the Aether without disturbing it, while others hold that part of the Aether is carried along by the moving planet. Fresnel assumed that the surrounding Aether was carried along by the earth, so that all relative phenomena would be the same as if the earth were at rest. Fizeau, from experiments which he conducted on running water, also came to the same conclusion.

With the old idea of a frictionless medium, some of the present accepted theories are altogether untenable, because, if Aether is frictionless, how can it be carried along with the moving body, unless it is held bound to that body? and how can it be held bound to that body if it is frictionless?

The whole view of the Aether is, however, changed by the conception of the Aether put forward in Chapter IV. Aether is Matter, and being matter it is also gravitative, and therefore is just as much subject to the Law of Gravitation as any other kind of matter, as Young stated in his Fourth Hypothesis (Art. 45).

We will therefore attack the problem of the relative motion of the earth and the Aether around it from this new standpoint. In order to be strictly philosophical, we must base our hypothesis and conception on experience and observation. Where in the whole of planetary phenomena do we find similar conditions which exist between the Aether and the earth? Such conditions are alone to be found between the atmosphere and the earth. The analogy between the atmosphere and the earth, and the Aether and the earth is very striking, as the following comparisons will prove.

The atmosphere (when pure) is invisible, so is the Aether. The atmosphere is atomic, the Aether is also atomic. Both are subject to the same laws of elasticity and density, and both are gravitative, according to our conception of the Aether. Now what is the effect of any large revolving body on a liquid or gaseous medium surrounding that revolving body?

If experience is any guide, we learn that the motion of the revolving body is either partially or entirely transmitted to the liquid or gaseous medium surrounding such a body. So far as our experience teaches us anything, it teaches us that to that rule there is no exception, and no experiment can be devised of any body revolving in water or a gaseous medium as air, without that body imparting its rotation to the water or the air. The atmosphere in relation to the earth is no exception to this rule. We know that the earth has an equatorial circumference of about 24,000 miles, and that it revolves on its axis once every day, so that at the equator the surface of the earth is whirling round in space at the rate of 1000 miles per hour.

Try to conceive what the result would be if the atmosphere were stationary at the earth's surface in the equatorial regions. It would mean that any body on its surface would be whirled round at that rate, while the atmosphere, being stationary, would exert a power equal to a wind travelling at the rate of 1000 miles per hour.

Under the influence of such a hurricane, nothing could exist on the surface of the earth at the equator, if the earth revolved on its axis and the atmosphere did not participate in that motion. But the atmosphere is gravitative, and being gravitative, it is not only held bound to the earth as it revolves on its axis in its onward rush through space, but accepts the revolving motion of the earth, with the result that as the earth revolves on its axis, the atmosphere revolves also.

Thus a balloon at the equator if allowed to rise several hundred feet above the surface could remain comparatively stationary if held by a rope to overcome its tendency to rise, whereas such an event would be impossible if the atmosphere failed to receive only half of the motion of the earth's surface, as it would still have a power equal to that of a wind blowing at the rate of 500 miles an hour. If, however, we come further north, or go further south, then we find that the surface of the earth does not have the same velocity as at the equator, with the result that the atmosphere has not the same velocity either; consequently it would travel slower in the temperate regions than in the equatorial regions, and slower still at the poles than in the temperate regions.

We know by experiment what the effect of increased velocity has upon any whirling body; it tends to enlarge the body at those parts where the velocity is the greatest, the consequence being that the bulging out of the atmosphere would be greatest at the equator. We find a similar result in the shape of the earth, where the equatorial diameter is greater than the polar diameter, because of the centrifugal force being greatest in the equatorial regions.

We have, therefore, to apply these facts to the aetherial medium which surrounds all planetary and stellar bodies in the same way as the atmosphere does; and which, being also gravitative, is equally subject to the same laws of motion. We have seen, therefore, that not only does the earth revolve on its axis, but that the atmosphere revolves on its axis also, and that the velocity of its revolution is greatest in the equatorial regions, the atmosphere spreading or bulging out in those parts more than in any other part of the earth's surface.

Let us suppose that the atmosphere extends 200 miles above the earth, and that there we come to the pure Aether of universal space. In view of the fact that Aether is Matter, and therefore gravitative, it is reasonable and logical to conclude that exactly the same result follows in relation to the atmosphere and the Aether at that height, as follows in relation to the earth and the atmosphere 200 miles beneath.

Unless this view is accepted, we should then have our second Rule of Philosophy violated, as we should have matter revolving in more rarefied matter, and failing to impress upon that rarefied condition of matter the motion either partially or wholly which it itself possesses; and such a result being contradictory to all experience cannot be admitted from a philosophical standpoint.

Therefore, the only solution is, that the rotating atmosphere imparts some of its motion to the aetherial atmosphere, which in its turn rotates, and that that rotation is governed by exactly the same conditions as govern the relation that exists between the earth and the atmosphere. Therefore the Aether in space associated with each planet or satellite or sun or star, rotates with the rotating body, and that rotation imparts to the Aether a greater bulging out in the equatorial regions of the aetherial atmosphere than in any other part thereof. It is interesting in relation to this point to note Herschel's view of the effect of the rotation of any body upon the Aether. In his Outlines of Astronomy, in a note, p. 358, he states: “Supposing the neighbourhood of the sun to be filled with a material fluid; it is not conceivable that the circulation of planets in it for ages should not have impressed upon it some degree of rotation in their own direction, and this may preserve them from the effects of accumulated resistance.“

In this way we arrive at the conception of the motions of the Aether suggested by Prof. Challis from the magnetic character of the earth, which he thought were due to aetherial currents circulating around it, and we learn that such physical conception of the Aether fully agrees with the explanation of celestial bodies being electro-magnets; because, we have only to add to our rotating Aether that which it has been proved to possess, viz. an electro-magnetic basis, and we have at once the currents of electricity circulating round the earth and other planetary or solar bodies, by which is obtained the true explanation of the permanent magnetism of all celestial bodies.

Now to some minds unconversant with scientific research and knowledge, such a supposition may seem to be incredible, but that incredibility may disappear, when I say that the fact that the Aether is bound to the earth, and goes along through space with it, has actually been proved by some of the most delicate and successful experiments that have been made in recent times: experiments of which Lord Kelvin has stated that he can find no error or flaw in them. I refer to the scientific experiments of Michelson and Morley of America. For full particulars of these experiments I must refer the reader to the American Journal of Science, 1886, vol. 31, or to the Phil. Mag., vol. 44.

The conclusion which is arrived at from their experiments is, that the Aether is carried along with the earth as it rushes on its journey through space. Of course such a result is altogether opposed to the ordinary conception of a frictionless medium, and indeed to any conception of the Aether except to that submitted in this work, which is also in harmony with Young's Fourth Hypothesis (Art. 45).

So that Michelson's and Morley's experiment is a direct experimental demonstration of the fact that Aether is gravitative, and because it is gravitative, it is carried along with the earth, as that planet journeys through space. It further conclusively proves that not only is the Aether carried along with the earth, but that the Aether circulates round the earth in the same way that the atmosphere circulates round the earth.

This result naturally follows from the experiment, because, if it were carried along by the earth and yet did not rotate with the atmosphere, then we should have a result opposed to all experience and experiment, as these teach us that when a body revolves in a medium which is held bound to that body by Gravitation, the medium so held bound participates in the rotation of the revolving body.

So that in Michelson's and Morley's experiment we have experimental evidence of the fact, already stated, that the Aether circulates round the earth, and therefore, in view of the electro-magnetic character of the Aether, this circulation results in the production of magnetism in all the planets, and other bodies around which it circulates.

Thus not only does the Aether circulate round the earth, but it also circulates around every other planet, and not only round every other planet, but equally so around every sun and star, as stated in Art. 91.

These results are perfectly consistent with philosophical reasoning, and any other result would be inconsistent with the analogies presented to us by the phenomena of the Aether in relation to our earth as ascertained by experiments made by the scientists referred to. Thus for the first time the experiment is brought into harmony with our Philosophy, which up to the present has not been the case, a result which at once stamps the experiment with that validity of truth and fact which will ultimately win for it universal acceptance and favour.

We are now in a position to answer some queries regarding the motions of the Aether asked by Herschel in his work on Astronomy, p. 345. These I give with the answers opposite.

Art. 95. Physical Explanation of the Vibration in the Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light.--In Art. 78 we learned that light was an electro-magnetic disturbance in the Aether which was propagated through the Aether, with a finite velocity; and from this we gathered that light waves were nothing more or less than electro-magnetic waves, which were radiated from the sun, out into the Aether on every side.

We were unable, however, at that time to give a definite physical conception of the aetherial vibrations, or of the relation of the various types of vibration to each other. Since, however, the development of the Aether from the electric and magnetic standpoint, which has led us up to the fact that the Aether possesses a circulating motion round the sun (Art. 91), the solution of the problem appears probable. I am of the opinion that the physical conception of the various vibrations to each other is now within the region of possibility, and in this article I wish to endeavour to give what seems to me to be a correct and philosophical explanation of this part of the electro-magnetic theory of light, the physical conception of which up to the present has not been generally understood.

The explanation may, or may not, be fully complete, but even if it be not perfectly correct, I am convinced that it will ultimately lead to a satisfactory physical explanation of this part of Maxwell's Theory of Light. In forming a conception as to the physical character of the vibrations in the electro-magnetic theory, we have to remember that there are three distinct vibrations, or motions, concerned in this theory.

1st. There is the direction of propagation.

2nd. There is the direction of the electric vibration which is at right angles to the direction of propagation.

3rd. There is the direction of the magnetic vibration or motion which is at right angles to both of the other two.

Now we have seen that the direction of propagation of any aetherial light ray, is that of a straight line from the sun corresponding to the radius vector (Art. 76). We have also seen that the front of a light wave is really that of a spherical shell (Art. 71).

We have also learned that the electric and the magnetic vibrations are in the wave front, so that these two vibrations, which are at right angles to each other, are to be found on the surface, so to speak, of each aetherial spherical shell, that surrounds the sun with ever-decreasing density, and ever-decreasing elasticity.

Let us try to picture the actual fact by an illustration. Let S be the sun, with concentric spherical aetherial shells surrounding it (Fig. 22). Then S A and S C will be rays of light being radiated out from the sun, and the magnetic and electric vibrations have to be both at right angles to the line of propagation and in the wave front; the wave front being represented by the circular lines showing the section of the concentric shells running north and south.

Now how can we picture these two motions at right angles to each other, and yet both at right angles to the line of propagation? First, let us take three straight lines and see how this may be done (Fig. 23).

Let A B, A S be two straight lines at right angles to each other, and A C another straight line at right angles to both. This can only be done by making A C perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and can be illustrated by supposing that it represents a pencil or pen placed upright on the paper, the point of the pencil being at point A. If this be done, then not only will A B and A C be at right angles to each other, but both will be at right angles to A S, which corresponds to the line of propagation.

Now refer to Fig. 22, and we shall see that the line A B and the boundary of the shell will practically correspond. So that

any section of a spherical wave front will always be at right angles to the ray of light. But we have learned from Art. 89 that these sections of the aetherial spherical shell are really identical with Faraday's Lines of Force, with the result that along any line which stretches from the North pole of the sun to the South pole, there will ever be an electric vibration, which is put into motion by the elasticity of the aetherial vortex atoms. So that on every side of the sun there is ever going on this electric vibration, along the lines of force which correspond to a section of the aetherial shell, the surface of which really constitutes the wave front.

Therefore it can readily be seen, that, as these lines are at right angles to the propagation of the ray of light, the electric vibration is at right angles to the lines of propagation, and is thus in accordance with the result demanded by Maxwell's theory.

We have now to give a physical conception of the magnetic vibration or motion of the Aether, and this has to be at right angles to both the electric vibration and the line of propagation.

In Art. 91 we have learned that the Aether possesses a rotatory motion, by which it rotates round the central body of the solar system, the sun. So that if we take any point, for example, in the path of the ray as S₁, S₂, S₃, and S₄, situated upon some definite equipotential surface or lines of force, and if we will imagine those lines to rotate round the sun, as the sun rotates on its axis, then in time the points will have described half the circle, and will come to the position on the right of the sun indicated by the same Nos. S₁, S₂, S₃, S₄. Thus there has been an aetherial motion at right angles to the electric motion, as the Aether circulates round the sun, because this motion may be represented as taking place from west to east of the sun, while the electric vibration takes place from north to south, or transverse to the line of propagation.

We have, however, learned that the Aether has an electro-magnetic basis, and therefore the rotation of the Aether gives rise to electro-magnetic currents; hence the motion west to east is really the motion of electro-magnetic currents which circulate round the sun. As these are at right angles to the line of propagation, and we have seen that they are at right angles to the electric vibration, it follows that all three are at right angles to each other, which is in accordance with the requirements as laid down by Maxwell.

We have considered these vibrations, first, from the view of the solar system as a whole in its relation to the universal Aether; but the same principle holds good if considered from the aetherial atomic standpoint. For if we take a line of force, composed as it is of aetherial vortex atoms, and suppose them to be rotating, we know that by that rotation there will be a tension due to that rotation, and Maxwell has shown this tension is due to magnetism, as in his standard work he says: “This magnetic force is the effect of the Centrifugal Force of the Vortices.“

So that by postulating a rotatory movement for the Aether around the sun, as we have done in Art. 92, we have not only solved the problem of all planetary and solar magnetism, but we have also solved the problem of the relative motion of the Aether and the earth, and also given for the first time (though it may be in an incomplete form) a physical explanation of that part of the electro-magnetic theory of light, which has hitherto been unexplained from the purely physical standpoint.

Such results, therefore, supported as they are by the direct experiment of Michelson and Morley of America, justify us in concluding that the conception of a rotating Aether is not only philosophically correct, but is in actual accord with experimental investigation and research, as indeed it ought to be.