The meteorology of Sikkim, as of every part of the Himalayan range, is a subject of growing interest and importance; as it becomes yearly more necessary for the Government to afford increased facilities for a residence in the mountains to Europeans in search of health, or of a salubrious climate for their families, or for themselves on retirement from the exhausting service of the plains. I was therefore surprised to find no further register of the weather at Dorjiling, than an insufficient one of the rain-fall, kept by the medical officer in charge of the station; who, in this, as in all similar cases,* [The government of India has gone to an immense expense, and entailed a heavy duty upon its stationary medical officers, in supplying them with sometimes admirable, but more often very inaccurate, meteorological instruments, and requiring that daily registers be made, and transmitted to Calcutta. In no case have I found it to be in the officer's power to carry out this object; he has never time, seldom the necessary knowledge and experience, and far too often no inclination. The majority of the observations are in most cases left to personal native or other servants, and the laborious results I have examined are too frequently worthless.] has neither the time nor the opportunity to give even the minimum of required attention to the subject of meteorology. This defect has been in a measure remedied by Dr. Chapman, who kept a twelve-months' register in 1837, with instruments carefully compared with Calcutta standards by the late James Prinsep, Esq., one of the most accomplished men in literature and science that India ever saw.
The annual means of temperature, rain-fall, etc., vary greatly in the Himalaya; and apparently slight local causes produce such great differences of temperature and humidity, that one year's observations taken at one spot, however full and accurate they may be, are insufficient: this is remarkably the case in Sikkim, where the rainfall is great, and where the difference between those of two consecutive years is often greater than the whole annual London fall. My own meteorological observations necessarily form but a broken series, but they were made with the best instruments, and with a view to obtaining results that should be comparable inter se, and with those of Calcutta; when away from Dorjiling too, in the interior of Sikkim, I had the advantage of Mr. Muller's services in taking observations at hours agreed upon previous to my leaving, and these were of the greatest importance, both for calculating elevations, and for ascertaining the differences of temperature, humidity, diurnal atmospheric tide, and rain-fall; all of which vary with the elevation, and the distance from the plains of India.
Mr. Hodgson's house proved a most favourable spot for an observatory, being placed on the top of the Dorjiling spur, with its broad verandah facing the north, in which I protected the instruments from radiation* [This is a most important point, generally wholly neglected in India, where I have usually seen the thermometer hung in good shade, but exposed to reflected heat from walls, gravel walks, or dry earth. I am accustomed from experience to view all extreme temperatures with great suspicion, on this and other accounts. It is very seldom that the temperature of the free shaded air rises much above 100 degrees, except during hot winds, when the lower stratum only of atmosphere (often loaded with hot particles of sand), sweeps over the surface of a soil scorched by the direct rays of the sun.] and wind. Broad grass-plots and a gravel walk surrounded the house, and large trees were scattered about; on three sides the ground sloped away, while to the north the spur gently rose behind.
Throughout the greater part of the year the prevailing wind is from the south-east, and comes laden with moisture from the Bay of Bengal: it rises at sunrise, and its vapours are early condensed on the forests of Sinchul; billowy clouds rapidly succeed small patches of vapour, which rolling over to the north side of the mountain, are carried north-west, over a broad intervening valley, to Dorjiling. There they bank on the east side of the spur, and this being partially clear of wood, the accumulation is slow, and always first upon the clumps of trees. Very generally by 9 a.m., the whole eastern sky, from the top of Dorjiling ridge, is enveloped in a dense fog, while the whole western exposure enjoys sunshine for an hour or two later. At 7 or 8 a.m., very small patches are seen to collect on Tonglo, which gradually dilate and coalesce, but do not shroud the mountain for some hours, generally not before 11 a.m. or noon. Before that time, however, masses of mist have been rolling over Dorjiling ridge to the westward, and gradually filling up the valleys, so that by noon, or 1 p.m., every object is in cloud. Towards sunset it falls calm, when the mist rises, first from Sinchul, or if a south-east wind sets in, from Tonglo first.
The temperature is more uuiform at Mr. Hodgson's bungalow, which is on the top of the Dorjiling ridge, than on either of its flanks; this is very much because a good deal of wood is left upon it, whose cool foliage attracts and condenses the mists. Its mean temperature is lower by nearly 22 degrees than that of Mr. Muller's and Dr. Campbell's houses, both situated on the slopes, 400 feet below. This I ascertained by numerous comparative observations of the temperature of the air, and by burying thermometers in the earth it is chiefly to be accounted for by the more frequent sunshine at the lower stations, the power of the sun often raising the thermometer in shade to 80 degrees, at Mr. Muller's; whereas during the summer I spent at Mr. Hodgson's it never rose much above 70 degrees, attaining that height very seldom and for a very short period only. The nights, again, are uniformly and equally cloudy at both stations, so that there is no corresponding cold of nocturnal radiation to reduce the temperature.
The mean decrease of temperature due to elevation, I have stated (Appendix I.) to be about 1 degree for every 300 feet of ascent; according to which law Mr. Hodgson's should not be more than 1.5 degrees° colder than Mr. Muller's. These facts prove how difficult it is to choose unexceptionable sites for meteorological observatories in mountainous countries; discrepancies of so great an amount being due to local causes, which, as in this case, are perhaps transient; for should the top of the spur be wholly cleared of timber, its temperature would be materially raised; at the expense, probably, of a deficiency of water at certain seasons. Great inequalities of temperature are also produced by ascending currents of heated air from the Great Rungeet valley, which affect certain parts of the station only; and these raise the thermometer 10 degrees (even when the sun is clouded) above what it indicates at other places of equal elevation.
The mean temperature of Dorjiling (elev. 7,430 feet) is very nearly 50 degrees, or 2 degrees higher than that of London, and 26 degrees below that of Calcutta (78 degrees,* [Prinsep, in As. Soc. Journ., Jan. 1832, p. 30.] or 78.5 degrees in the latest published tables* [Daniell's Met. Essays, vol. ii. p. 341.]); which, allowing 1 degree of diminution of temperature for every degree of latitude leaves 1 degree due to every 300 feet of ascent above Calcutta to the height of Dorjiling, agreeably to my own observations. This diminution is not the same for greater heights, as I shall have occasion to show in a separate chapter of this Appendix, on the decrement of heat with elevation.
A remarkable uniformity of temperature prevails throughout the year at Dorjiling, there being only 22 degrees difference between the mean temperatures of the hottest and coldest months; whilst in London, with a lower mean temperature, the equivalent difference is 27 degrees. At 11,000 feet this difference is equal to that of London. In more elevated regions, it is still greater, the climate becoming excessive at 15,000 feet, where the difference amounts to 30 degrees at least.* [This is contrary to the conclusions of all meteorologists who have studied the climate of the Alps, and is entirely due to the local disturbances which I have so often dwelt upon, and principally to the unequal distribution of moisture in the loftier rearward regions, and the aridity of Tibet. Professor James Forbes states (Ed. Phil. Trans., v. xiv. p. 489):—1. That the decrement of temperature with altitude is most rapid in summer: this (as I shall hereafter show) is not the case in the Himalaya, chiefly because the warm south moist wind then prevails. 2. That the annual range of temperature diminishes with the elevation: this, too, is not the case in Sikkim, because of the barer surface and more cloudless skies of the rearward loftier regions. 3. That the diurnal range of temperature diminishes with the height: that this is not the cane follows from the same cause. 4. That radiation is least in winter: this is negatived by the influence of the summer rains.] The accompanying table is the result of an attempt to approximate to the mean temperatures and ranges of the thermometer at various elevations.
Altitude 11,000 feet 15,000 feet 19,000 feet Mean shade 40.9 29.8 19.8 Mean warmest month 50.0 40.0 32.0 Mean coldest month 24.0 11.0 0.0 Mean daily range of temperature 20.0 27.0 35.0 Rain-fall in inches 40.0 20.0 10.0 1 degree equals 320 feet 350 feet 400 feet
Supposing the same formula to apply (which I exceedingly doubt) to heights above 19,000 feet, 2 degrees would be the mean annual temperature of the summit of Kinchinjunga, altitude 28,178 feet, the loftiest known spot on the globe: this is a degree or two higher than the temperature of the poles of greatest cold on the earth's surface, and about the temperature of Spitzbergen and Melville island.
The upper limit of phenogamic vegetation coincides with a mean temperature of 30 degrees on the south flank of Kinchinjunga, and of 22 degrees in Tibet; in both cases annuals and perennial-rooted herbaceous plants are to be found at elevations corresponding to these mean temperatures, and often at higher elevations in sheltered localities. I have assumed the decrease of temperature for a corresponding amount of elevation to be gradually less in ascending (1 degree=320 feet at 6000 to 10,000 feet, 1 degree=400 feet at 14,000 to 18,000 feet). My observations appear to prove this, but I do not regard them as conclusive; supposing them to be so, I attribute it to a combination of various causes, especially to the increased elevation and yet unsnowed condition of the mass of land elevated above 16,000 feet, and consequent radiation of heat; also to the greater amount of sunshine there; and to the less dense mists which obstruct the sun's rays at all elevations. In corroboration of this I may mention that the decrease of temperature with elevation is much less in summer than in winter, 1 degree of Fahr. being equivalent to only 250 feet in January between 7000 and 13,000 feet, and to upwards of 400 feet in July. Again, at Dorjiling (7,430 feet) the temperature hardly ever rises above 70 degrees in the summer months, yet it often rises even higher in Tibet at 12,000 to 14,000 feet. On the other hand, the winters, and the winter nights especially, are disproportionately cold at great heights, the thermometer falling upwards of 40 degrees below the Dorjiling temperature at an elevation only 6000 feet higher.
The diurnal distribution of temperature is equally and similarly affected by the presence of vapour at different altitudes. The lower and outer ranges of 6000 to 10,000 feet, first receive the diurnal charge of vapour-loaded southerly winds; those beyond them get more of the sun's rays, and the rearward ones more still. Though the summer days of the northern localities are warmer than their elevation would indicate, the nights are not proportionally cold; for the light mist of 14,000 feet, which replaces the dense fog of 7000 feet, effectually obstructs nocturnal radiation, though it is less an obstacle to solar radiation. Clear nights, be it observed, are as rare at Momay (15,300 feet) as at Dorjiling, the nights if windy being rainy; or, if calm, cold currents descend from the mountains, condensing the moist vapours of the valleys, whose narrow floors are at sunrise bathed in mist at all elevations in Sikkim. The rise and dispersion of these dense mists, and their collection and recondensation on the mountains in the morning, is one of the most magnificent phenomena of the Himalaya, when viewed from a proper elevation; it commences as soon as the sun appears on the horizon.
The mean daily range of the thermometer at 7000 feet is 13 degrees in cleared spots, but considerably less in wooded, and certainly one-third less in the forest itself. At Calcutta, which has almost an insular climate, it amounts to 17 degrees; at Delhi, which has a continental one, to 24.6 degrees; and in London to 17.5 degrees. At 11,000 feet it amounts to about 20 degrees, and at 15,000 feet to 27 degrees. These values vary widely in the different months, being much less in the summer or rainy months. The following is probably a fair approximation:—
At 7,000 feet it amounts to 8-9 degrees in Aug. and Sept., and 17 degrees in Dec. At 11,000 feet it amounts to 12 degrees in Aug. and Sept., and 30 degrees in Dec. At 15,000 feet it amounts to 15 degrees in Aug. and Sept., and 40 degrees in Dec. At London it amounts to 20 degrees in Aug. and Sept., and 10 degrees in Dec.
The distribution of temperature throughout the day and year varies less at Dorjiling than in most mountainous countries, owing to the prevailing moisture, the effect of which is analogous to that of a circumambient ocean to an island: the difference being, that in the case of the island the bulk of water maintains an uniform temperature; in that of Dorjiling the quantity of vapour acts directly by interfering with terrestrial and solar-radiation, and indirectly by nurturing a luxuriant vegetation. The result in the latter case is a climate remarkable for its equability, and similar in many features to that of New Zealand, South-west Chili, Fuegia, and the damp west coasts of Scotland and Ireland, and other countries exposed to moist sea winds.
The mean temperature of the year at Dorjiling, as taken by maxima and minima thermometers* [The mean of several of the months, thus deduced, often varies a good deal from the truth, owing to the unequal diurnal distribution of heat; a very few minutes' sunshine raises the temperature l0 degrees or 15 degrees above the mean of the day; which excessive heat (usually transient) the maximum thermometer registers, and consequently gives too high a mean.] by Dr. Chapman, is nearly the same as that of March and October: January, the coldest month, is more than 13.4 degrees colder than the mean of the year; but the hottest month is only 8.3 degrees warmer than the same mean: at Calcutta the months vary less from the mean; at Delhi more; and in London the distribution is wholly different; there being no rains to modify the summer heat, July is 13 degrees hotter, and January 14 degrees colder than the mean of the year.
This distribution of the seasons has a most important effect upon vegetation, to which sufficient attention has not been paid by cultivators of alpine Indian plants; in the first place, though English winters are cold enough for such, the summers are too hot and dry; and, in the second place, the great accession of temperature, causing the buds to burst in spring, occurs in the Himalaya in March, when the temperature at 7000 feet rises 8 degrees above that of February, raising the radiating thermometer always above the freezing point, whence the young leaves are never injured by night frost: in England the corresponding rise is only 3 degrees, and there is no such accession of temperature till May, which is 8 degrees warmer than April; hence, the young foliage of many Himalayan plants is cut off by night frosts in English gardens early in the season, of which Abies Webbiana is a conspicuous example.
The greatest heat of the day occurs at Dorjiling about noon, owing to the prevalent cloud, especially during the rainy months, when the sun shines only in the mornings, if at all, and the clouds accumulate as the day advances. According to hourly observations of my own, it occurred in July at noon, in August at 1 p.m., and in September (the most rainy month) there was only four-tenths of a degree difference between the means of noon, 1 p.m., and 2 p.m., but I must refer to the abstracts at the end of this chapter for evidence of this, and of the wonderful uniformity of temperature during the rainy months. In the drier season again, after September, the greatest heat occurs between 2 and 3 p.m.; in Calcutta the hottest hour is about 2.45 p.m., throughout the year; and in England also about 3 p.m.
The hour whose temperature coincides with the mean of the day necessarily varies with the distribution of cloud and sunshine; it is usually about 7 a.m. and 7 p.m.; whereas in Calcutta the same coincidence occurs at a little before 10 a.m., and in England at about 8 a.m.
Next to the temperature of the air, observations on that of the earth are perhaps of the greatest value; both from their application to horticulture, and from the approximation they afford to the mean temperature of the week or month in which they are taken. These form the subject of a separate chapter.
Nocturnal and solar radiation, the one causing the formation of dew and hoar-frost when the air in the shade is above freezing, end killing plants by the rapid abstraction of heat from all their surfaces which are exposed to the clear sky, and the other scorching the skin and tender plants during the day, are now familiar phenomena, and particularly engaged my attention during my whole Indian journey. Two phenomena particularly obstruct radiation in Sikkim—the clouds and fog from the end of May till October, and the haze from February till May. Two months alone are usually clear; one before and one after the rains, when the air, though still humid, is transparent. The haze has never been fully explained, though a well-known phenomenon. On the plains of India, at the foot of the hills, it begins generally in the forenoon of the cold season, with the rise of the west wind; and, in February especially, obscures the sun's disc by noon; frequently it lasts throughout the twenty-four hours, and is usually accompanied by great dryness of the atmosphere. It gradually diminishes in ascending, and have never experienced it at 10,000 feet; at 7000, however, it very often, in April, obscures the snowy ranges 30 miles off, which are bright and defined at sunrise, and either pale away, or become of a lurid yellow-red, according to the density of this haze, till they disappear at 10 a.m. I believe it always accompanies a south-west wind (which is a deflected current of the north-west) and dry atmosphere in Sikkim.
The observations for solar radiation were taken with a black-bulb thermometer, and also with actinometers, but the value of the data afforded by the latter not being fixed or comparative, I shall give the results in a separate section. (See Appendix K.) From a multitude of desultory observations, I conclude that at 7,400 feet, 125.7 degrees, or + 67 degrees above the temperature of the air, is the average maximum effect of the sun's rays on a black-bulb thermometer* [From the mean of very many observations, I find that 10 degrees is the average difference at the level of the sea, in India, between two similar thermometers, with spherical bulbs (half-inch diam.), the one of black, and the other of plain glass, and both being equally exposed to the sun's rays.] throughout the year, amounting rarely to + 70 degrees and + 80 degrees in the summer months, but more frequently in the winter or spring. These results, though greatly above what are obtained at Calcutta, are not much, if at all, above what may be observed on the plains of India. This effect is much increased with the elevation. At 10,000 feet in December, at 9 a.m., I saw the mercury mount to 132 degrees with a difl: of + 94 degrees, whilst the temperature of shaded snow hard by was 22 degrees; at 13,100 feet, in January, at 9 a.m., it has stood at 98 degrees, diff. + 68.2 degrees; and at 10 a.m., at 114 degrees, diff. + 81.4 degrees, whilst the radiating thermometer on the snow had fallen at sunrise to 0.7 degree. In December, at 13,500 feet, I have seen it 110 degrees, diff. + 84 degrees; at 11 a.m., 11,500 feet; 122 degrees, diff: + 82 degrees. This is but a small selection from many instances of the extraordinary power of solar radiation in the coldest months, at great elevations.
Nocturnal and terrestrial radiation are even more difficult phenomena for the traveller to estimate than solar radiation, the danger of exposing instruments at night being always great in wild countries. I most frequently used a thermometer graduated on the glass, and placed in the focus of a parabolic reflector, and a similar one laid upon white cotton,* [Snow radiates the most powerfully of any substance I have tried; in one instance, at 13,000 feet, in January, the thermometer on snow fell to 0.2 degree, which was 10.8 degrees below the temperature at the time, the grass showing 6.7 degrees; and on another occasion to l.2 degrees, when the air at the time (before sunrise) was 21.2 degrees; the difference therefore being 20 degrees. I have frequently made this observation, and always with a similar result; it may account for the great injury plants sustain from a thin covering of ice on their foliage, even when the temperature is but little below the freezing-point.] and found no material difference in the mean of many observations of each, though often 1 degree to 2 degrees in individual ones. Avoiding radiation from surrounding objects is very difficult, especially in wooded countries. I have also tried the radiating power of grass and the earth; the temperature of the latter is generally less, and that of the former greater, than the thermometer exposed on cotton or in the reflector, but much depends on the surface of the herbage and soil.
The power of terrestrial, like that of solar radiation, increases with the elevation, but not in an equal proportion. At 7,400 feet, the mean of all my observations shows a temperature of 35.4 degrees. During the rains, 3 degrees to 4 degrees is the mean maximum, but the nights being almost invariably cloudy, it is scarcely on one night out of six that there is any radiation. From October to December the amount is greater = 10 degrees to 12, and from January till May greater still, being as much as 15 degrees. During the winter months the effect of radiation is often felt throughout the clear days, dew forming abundantly at 4000 to 8000 feet in the shaded bottoms of narrow valleys, into which the sun does not penetrate till 10 a.m., and from which it disappears at 3 p.m. I have seen the thermometer in the reflector fall 12 degrees at 10 a.m. in a shaded valley. This often produces an anomalous effect, causing the temperature in the shade to fall after sunrise; for the mists which condense in the bottom of the valleys after midnight disperse after sunrise, but long before reached by the sun, and powerful radiation ensues, lowering the surrounding temperature: a fall of 1 degree to 2 degrees after sunrise of air in the shade is hence common in valleys in November and December.* [Such is the explanation which I have offered of this phenomenon in the Hort. Soc. Journal. On thinking over the matter since, I have speculated upon the probability of this fall of temperature being due to the absorption of heat that must become latent on the dispersion of the dense masses of white fog that choke the valleys at sunrise.] The excessive radiation of the winter months often gives rise to a curious phenomenon; it causes the formation of copious dew on the blanket of the traveller's bed, which radiates heat to the tent roof, and this inside either an open or a closed tent. I have experienced this at various elevations, from 6000 to 16,000 feet. Whether the minimum temperature be as high as 50 degrees, or but little above zero, the effect is the same, except that hoar-frost or ice forms in the latter case. Another remarkable effect of nocturnal radiation is the curl of the alpine rhododendron leaves in November, which is probably due to the freezing and consequent expansion of the water in the upper strata of cells exposed to the sky. The first curl is generally repaired by the ensuing day's sun, but after two or three nights the leaves become permanently curled, and remain so till they fall in the following spring.
I have said that the nocturnal radiation in the English spring months is the great obstacle to the cultivation of many Himalayan plants; but it is not therefore to be inferred that there is no similar amount of radiation in the Himalaya; for, on the contrary, in April its amount is much greater than in England, frequently equalling 13 degrees of difference; and I have seen 16 degrees at 7,500 feet; but the minimum temperature at the time is 51 degrees, and the absolute amount of cold therefore immaterial. The mean minimum of London is 38 degrees, and, when lowered 5.5 degrees by radiation, the consequent cold is very considerable. Mr. Daniell, in his admirable essay on the climate of London, mentions 17 degrees as the maximum effect of nocturnal radiation ever observed by him. I have registered 16 degrees in April at Dorjiling; nearly as much at 6000 feet in February; twice 13 degrees, and once 14.2 degrees in September at 15,500 feet; and 10 degrees in October at 16,800 feet; nearly 13 degrees in January at 7000 feet; 14.5 degrees in February at that elevation, and, on several occasions, 14.7 degrees at 10,000 feet in November.
The annual rain-fall at Dorjiling averages 120 inches (or 10 feet), but varies from 100 to 130 in different years; this is fully three times the amount of the average English fall,* [The general ideas on the subject of the English rain-fall are so very vague, that I may be pardoned for reminding my readers that in 1852, the year of extraordinary rain, the amounts varied from 28.5 inches in Essex, to 50 inches at Cirencester, and 67.5 (average of five years) at Plympton St. Mary's, and 102.5 at Holme, on the Dart.] and yet not one-fourth of what is experienced on the Khasia hills in Eastern Bengal, where fifty feet of rain falls. The greater proportion descends between June and September, as much as thirty inches sometimes falling in one month. From November to February inclusive, the months are comparatively dry; March and October are characterised by violent storms at the equinoxes, with thunder, destructive lightning, and hail.
The rain-gauge takes no account of the enormous deposition from mists and fogs: these keep the atmosphere in a state of moisture, the amount of which I have estimated at 0.88 as the saturation-point at Dorjiling, 0.83 being that of London. In July, the dampest month, the saturation-point is 0.97; and in December, owing to the dryness of the air on the neighbouring plains of India, whence dry blasts pass over Sikkim, the mean saturation-point of the month sometimes falls as low as 0.69.
The dew-point is on the average of the year 49.3 degrees, or 3 degrees below the mean temperature of the air. In the dampest month (July) the mean dew-point is only eight-tenths of a degree below the temperature, whilst in December it sinks 10 degrees below it. In London the dew-point is on the average 5.6 degrees below the temperature; none of the English months are so wet as those of Sikkim, but none are so dry as the Sikkim December sometimes is.
On the weight of the atmosphere in Sikkim; and its effects on the human frame.
Of all the phenomena of climate, the weight of the atmosphere is the most remarkable for its elusion of direct observation, when unaided by instruments. At the level of the sea, a man of ordinary bulk and stature is pressed upon by a auperincumbent weight of 30,000 pounds or 13.5 tons. An inch fall or rise in the barometer shows that this load is lightened or increased, sometimes in a few hours, by nearly 1,000 pounds; and no notice is taken of it, except by the meteorologist, or by the speculative physician, seeking the subtle causes of epidemic and endemic domplaints. At Dorjiling (7,400 feet), this load is reduced to less than 2,500 pounds, with no appreciable result whatever on the frame, however suddenly it be transported to that elevation. And the observation of my own habits convinced me that I took the same amount of meat, drink, sleep, exercise and work, not only without inconvenience, but without the slightest perception of my altered circumstances. On ascending to 14,000 feet, owing to the diminished supply of oxygen, exercise brings on vertigo and headache; ascending higher still, lassitude and tension across the forehead ensue, with retching, and a sense of weight dragging down the stomach, probably due to dilatation of the air contained in that organ. Such are the all but invariable effects of high elevations; varying with most persons according to the suddenness and steepness of the ascent, the amount and duration of exertion, and the length of time previously passed at great heights. After having lived for some weeks at 15,300 feet, I have thence ascended several times to 18,500, and once above 19,000 feet, without any sensations but lassitude and quickness of pulse;* [I have in a note to vol. ii. chapter xxiii, stated that I never experienced in my own person, nor saw in others, bleeding at the ears, nose, lips, or eyelids.] but in these instances it required great caution to avoid painful symptoms. Residing at 15,300 feet, however, my functions were wholly undisturbed; nor could I detect any quickness of pulse or of respiration when the body was at rest, below 17,000 feet. At that elevation, after resting a party of eight men for an hour, the average of their and my pulses was above 100 degrees, both before and after eating; in one case it was 120 degrees, in none below 80 degrees.
Not only is the frame of a transient visitor unaffected (when at rest) by the pressure being reduced from 30,000 to 13,000 pounds, but the Tibetan, born and constantly residing at upwards of 14,000 feet, differs in no respect that can be attributed to diminished pressure, from the native of the level of the sea. The averaged duration of life, and the amount of food and exercise is the same; eighty years are rarely reached by either. The Tibetan too, however inured to cold and great elevations, still suffers when he crosses passes 18,000 or 19,000 feet high, and apparently neither more nor less than I did.
Liebig remarks (in his "Animal Chemistry") that in an equal number of respirations,* [For the following note I am indebted to my friend, C. Muller, Esq., of Patna.—
According to Sir H. Davy, a man consumes 45,504 cubic inches of oxygen in twenty-four hours, necessitating the inspiration of 147,520 cubic inches of atmospheric air.—At pressure 23 inches, and temp. 60 degrees this volume of atmospheric air (dry) would weigh 35,138•75 grains.-At pressure 30 in., temp. 80°, it would weigh 43,997.83 gr.
The amount of oxygen in atmospheric air is 23.32 per cent. by weight. The oxygen, then, in 147,520 cubic inches of dry air, at pressure 23 in., temp. 80 degrees, weighs 8,194.35 gr.; and at pressure 30 in., temp. 80 degrees, it weighs 10,260.25 gr.
Hence the absolute quantity of oxygen in a given volume of atmospheric air, when the pressure is 23 in., and the temp. 60 degrees, is 20.14 per cent. less than when the pressure is 30 in. and the temp. 80 degrees.
When the air at pressure 23 in:, temp. 60 degrees, is saturated with moisture, the proportion of dry air and aqueous vapour in 100 cubic inches is as follows:— Dry air 97.173 Vapour 2.827 At pressure 30 in., temp. 80 degrees, the proportions are:— Dry air 96.133 Vapour 3.867
The effect of aqueous vapour in the sir on the amount of oxygen available for consumption, is very trifling; and it must not be forgotten that aqueous vapour supplies oxygen to the system as well as atmospheric air.] we consume a larger amount of oxygen at the level of the sea than on a mountain; and it can be shown that under ordinary circumstances at Dorjiling, 20.14 per cent. less is inhaled than on the plains of India. Yet the chest cannot expand so as to inspire more at once, nor is the respiration appreciably quickened; by either of which means nature would be enabled to make up the deficiency. It is true that it is difficult to count one's own respirations, but the average is considered in a healthy man to be eighteen in a minute; in my own case it is sixteen, an acceleration of which by three or four could not have been overlooked, in the repeated trials I made at Dorjiling, and still less the eight additional inhalations required at 15,000 feet to make up for the deficiency of oxygen in the air of that elevation.
It has long been surmised that an alpine vegetation may owe some of its peculiarities to the diminished atmospheric pressure; and that the latter being a condition which the gardener cannot supply, he can never successfully cultivate such plants in general. I know of no foundation for this hypothesis; many plants, natives of the level of the sea in other parts of the world, and some even of the hot plains of Bengal, ascend to 12,000 and even 15,000 feet on the Himalaya, unaffected by the diminished pressure. Any number of species from low countries may be cultivated, and some have been for ages, at 10,000 to 14,000 feet without change. It is the same with the lower animals; innumerable instances may with ease be adduced of pressure alone inducing no appreciable change, whilst there is absence of proof to the contrary. The phenomena that accompany diminished pressure are the real obstacles to the cultivation of alpine plants, of which cold and the excessive climate are perhaps the most formidable. Plants that grow in localities marked by sudden extremes of heat and cold, are always very variable in stature, habit, and foliage. In a state of nature we say the plants "accommodate themselves" to these changes, and so they do within certain limits; but for one that survives of all the seeds that germinate in these inhospitable localities, thousands die. In our gardens we can neither imitate the conditions of an alpine climate, nor offer others suited to the plants of such climates.
The mean height of the barometer at Mr. Hodgson's was 23.010, but varied 0.161 between July, when it was lowest, and October, when it was highest; following the monthly rise and fall of Calcutta as to period, but not as to amount (or amplitude); for the mercury at Calcutta stands in July upwards of half an inch (0.555 Prinsep) lower than it does in December.
The diurnal tide of atmosphere is as constant as to the time of its ebb and flow at Dorjiling as at Calcutta; and a number of very careful observations (made with special reference to this object) between the level of the plains of India, and 17,000 feet, would indicate that there is no very material deviation from this at any elevation in Sikkim. These times are very nearly 9.50 a.m. and about 10 p.m. for the maxima, the 9.50 a.m. very constantly, and the 10 p.m. with more uncertainty; and 4 a.m. and 4 p.m. for the minima, the afternoon ebb being most true to its time, except during the rains.
At 9.50 a.m. the barometer is at its highest, and falls till 4 p.m., when it stands on the average of the year 0.074 of an inch lower; during the same period the Calcutta fall is upwards of one-tenth of an inch (0.121 Prinsep).
It has been proved that at considerable elevations in Europe, the hours of periodic ebb and flow differ materially from those which prevail at the level of the sea; but this is certainly not the case in the Sikkim Himalaya.
The amplitude decreases in amount from 0.100 at the foot of the hills, to 0.074 at 7,000 feet; and the mean of 132 selected unexceptionable observations, taken at nine stations between 8000 and 15,500 feet, at 9.50 a.m. and 4 p.m., gives an average fall of 0.056 of an inch; a result which is confirmed by interpolation from numerous horary observations at these and many other elevations, where I could observe at the critical hours.
That the Calcutta amplitude is not exceptionally great, is shewn by the register kept at different places in the Gangetic valley and plains of India, between Saharunpore and the Bay of Bengal. I have seen apparently trustworthy records of seven* [Calcutta, Berampore, Benares, Nagpore, Moozufferpore, Delhi, and Saharunpore.] such, and find that in all it amounts to between 0.084 and 0.120 inch, the mean of the whole being 0.101 of an inch.
The amplitude is greatest (0.088) in the spring months (March, April, and May), both at Dorjiling and Calcutta: it is least at both in June and July, (0.027 at Dorjiling), and rises again in autumn (to .082 in September).
The horary oscillations also are as remarkably uniform at all elevations, as the period of ebb and flow: the mercury falls slowly from 9.50 a.m. (when it is at its highest) till noon, then rapidly till 3 p.m., and slowly again till 4 p.m.; after which there is little change until sunset; it rises rapidly between 7 and 9 p.m., and a little more till 10 p.m.; thence till 4 a.m. the fall is inconsiderable, and the great rise occurs between 7 and 9 a.m.
It is well known that these fluctuations of the barometer are due to the expansion and contraction by heat and moisture of the column of atmosphere that presses on the mercury, in the cistern of the instrument: were the air dry, the effect would be a single rise and fall;* [This law, for which we are indebted to Professor Dove, has been clearly explained by Colonel Sabine in the appendix to his translation of Humboldt's "Cosmos," vol. i. p. 457.] the barometer would stand highest at the hottest of the twenty-four hours, and lowest at the coldest; and such is the case in arid continental regions which are perennially dry. That such would also be the case at Calcutta and throughout the Himalaya of Sikkim, is theoretically self-evident, and proved by my horary observations taken during the rainy months of 1848. An inspection of these at the end of this section (where a column contains the pressure of dry air) shows but one maximum of pressure, which occurs at the coldest time of the twenty-four hours (early in the morning), and one minimum in the afternoon. In the table of mean temperatures of the months, also appended to this section, will also be found a column allowing the pressure of dry air, whence it will be seen that there is but one maximum of the pressure of dry air, occurring at the coldest season in December, and one minimum, in July. The effect of the vapour is the same on the annual as upon the diurnal march of the pressure, producing a double maximum and minimum in the year in one case, and in the twenty-four hours in the other.
I append a meteorological register of the separate months, but at the same time must remind the reader that it does not pretend to strict accuracy. It is founded upon observations made at Dorjiling by Dr. Chapman in the year 1837, for pressure temperature and wet-bulb only; the other data and some modifications of the above are supplied from observations of my own. Those for terrestrial and nocturnal radiation are accurate as far as they go, that is to say, they are absolute temperatures taken by myself, which may, I believe, be recorded in any year, but much higher are no doubt often to be obtained. The dew-points and saturations are generally calculated from the mean of two day observations (10 a.m. and 4 p.m.) of the wet-bulb thermometer, together with the minimum, or are taken from observations of Daniell's hygrometer; and as I find the mean of the temperature of 10 a.m., 4 p.m., and the minimum, to coincide within a few tenths with the mean temperature of the whole day, I assume that the mean of the wet-bulb observations of the same hours will give a near approach to that of the twenty-four hours. The climate of Dorjiling station has been in some degree altered by extensive clearances of forest, which render it more variable, more exposed to night frosts and strong sun-heat, and to drought, the drying up of small streams being one direct consequence. My own observations were taken at Mr. Hodgson's house, elevated 7,430 feet, the position of which I have indicated at the commencement of this section, where the differences of climate due to local causes are sufficiently indicated to show that in no two spots could similar meteorological results be obtained. At Mr. Hodgson's, for instance, the uniformity of temperature and humidity is infinitely more remarkable than at Dr. Chapman's, possibly from my guarding more effectually against radiation, and from the greater forests about Mr. Hodgson's house. I have not, however, ventured to interfere with the temperature columns on this account.
DORJILING METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Pressure of Atmosphere* 23.307 .305 .307 .280 .259 .207 Range of Pressure .072 .061 .083 .085 .088 .067 Mean Shade 40.0 42.1 50.7 55.9 57.6 61.2 Max. Shade 56.0 57.0 66.5 68.5 69.0 71.0 Max. Sun 119.0 124.0 120.0 125.0 125.0 126.2 Greatest Diff. 72.0 78.0 60.0 66.0 65.0 62.2 Mean Max. Shade 47.2 50.0 58.4 63.7 65.3 66.7 Minim. Shade 29.0 25.5 37.0 38.0 38.0 51.5 Minim. Rad. 16.0 23.0 27.8 33.0 40.0 47.0 Greatest Diff. 12.7 15.3 8.7 16.0 10.0 4.8 Mean Minim. Shade 32.8 34.2 43.1 48.1 50.0 55.8 Mean Daily Range of Temp. 14.4 15.8 15.3 15.6 15.3 10.9 Sunk Therm. 46.0 48.0 50.0 58.0 61.0 62.0 Mean Dew-Point 34.3 37.2 45.8 49.8 54.4 59.5 Mean Dryness 5.1 3.9 5.8 6.6 2.7 2.0 Force of Vapour .216 .239 .323 .371 .434 .515 Pressure of Dry Air 23.091 .066 .084 22.909 .825 .692 Mean Saturation .84 .87 .82 .80 .91 .93 Rain in Inches 1.72 0.92 1.12 2.52 9.25 26.96
July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean Pressure of Atmosphere* 23.203 .230 .300 .372 .330 .365 23.289 Range of Pressure .062 .070 .082 .075 .078 .062 .074 Mean Shade 61.4 61.7 59.9 58.0 50.0 43.0 53.5 Max. Shade 69.5 70.0 70.0 68.0 63.0 56.0 65.4 Max. Sun 130.0 133.0 142.0 133.0 123.0 108.0 125.7 Greatest Diff. 62.0 62.0 70.0 65.0 68.0 77.2 67.3 Mean Max. Shade 65.5 66.1 64.7 66.5 56.5 51.6 60.2 Minim. Shade 56.0 54.5 51.5 43.5 38.0 32.5 41.3 Minim. Rad. 52.0 50.0 47.5 32.0 30.0 26.0 35.4 Greatest Diff. 3.5 3.5 10.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 9.9 Mean Minim. Shade 57.3 57.4 55.2 49.5 43.5 34.9 46.8 Mean Daily Range of Temp. 8.2 8.7 9.5 17.0 13.0 16.7 13.4 Sunk Therm. 62.2 62.0 61.0 60.0 55.0 49.0 56.2 Mean Dew-Point 60.7 60.4 58.5 52.5 46.5 31.8 49.4 Mean Dryness 0.8 1.1 1.4 4.2 3.2 10.6 4.0 Force of Vapour .535 .530 .498 .407 .331 .198 .383 Pressure of Dry Air 22.668 .700 .802 .865 .999 23.165 22.906 Mean Saturation .97 .96 .95 .86 .90 .69 .88 Rain in Inches 25.34 29.45 15.76 8.66 0.11 0.45 Sum 122.26
*These are taken from Dr. Chapman's Table; and present a greater annual range (=0.169) than my observations in 1848-9, taken at Mr. Hodgson's, which is higher than Dr. Chapman's; or Mr. Muller's, which is a little lower, and very near.
Horary Observations at Jillapahar, Dorjiling, Alt. 7,430 feet.
ON THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY, AND ABSOLUTE AMOUNT OF VAPOUR CONTAINED IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS IN THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA.
My observations for temperature and wet-bulb being for the most part desultory, taken at different dates, and under very different conditions of exposure, etc., it is obvious that those at one station are hardly, if at all, comparative with those of another, and I have therefore selected only such as were taken at the same date and hour with others taken at the Calcutta Observatory, or as can easily be reduced; which thus afford a standard (however defective in many respects) for a comparison. I need hardly remind my reader that the vapour-charged wind of Sikkim is the southerly one, which blows over Calcutta; that in its passage northwards to Sikkim in the summer months, it traverses the heated plains at the foot of the Himalaya, and ascending that range, it discharges the greater part of its moisture (120 to 140 inches annually) over the outer Himalayan ranges, at elevations of 4000 to 8000 feet. The cooling effect of the uniform covering of forest on the Sikkim ranges is particularly favourable to this deposition, but the slope of the mountains being gradual, the ascending currents are not arrested and cooled so suddenly as in the Khasia mountains, where the discharge is consequently much greater. The heating of the atmosphere, too, over the dry plains at the foot of the outer range, increases farther its capacity for the retention of vapour, and also tends to render the rain-fall less sudden and violent than on the Khasia, where the south wind blows over the cool expanse of the Jheels. It will be seen from the following observations, that in Sikkim the relative humidity of the atmosphere remains pretty constantly very high in the summer months, and at all elevations, except in the rearward valleys; and even there a humid atmosphere prevails up to 14,000 feet, everywhere within the influence of the snowy mountains. The uniformly high temperature which prevails throughout the summer, even at elevations of 17,000 and 18,000 feet, is no doubt proximately due to the evolution of heat during the condensation of these vapours. It will be seen by the pages of my journal, that continued sunshine, and the consequent heating of the soil, is almost unknown during the summer, at any elevation on the outer or southward ranges of Dorjiling: but the sunk thermometer proves that in advancing northward into the heart of the mountains and ascending, the sun's effect is increased, the temperature of the earth becoming in summer considerably higher than that of the air. With regard to the observations themselves, they may be depended upon as comparable with those of Calcutta, the instruments having been carefully compared, and the cases of interpolation being few. The number of observations taken at each station is recorded in a separate column; where only one is thus recorded, it is not to be regarded as a single reading, but the mean, of several taken during an hour or longer period. I have rejected all solitary observations, even when accompanied by others at Calcutta; and sundry that were, for obvious reasons, likely to mislead. Where many observations were taken at one place, I have divided them into sets, corresponding to the hours at which alone the Calcutta temperature and wet-bulb thermometer are recorded,* [Sunrise; 9.50 a.m.; noon; 2.40 p.m.; 4 p.m., and sunset.] in order that meteorologists may apply them to the solution of other questions relating to the distribution of heat and moisture. The Dorjiling observations, and those in the immediate neighbourhood of that station, appeared to me sufficiently numerous to render it worth while classing them in months, and keeping them in a series by themselves. The tensions of vapour are worked from the wet-bulb readings by Apjohn's formula and tables, corrected for the height of the barometer at the time. The observations, except where otherwise noted, are taken by myself.
Dorjiling.—Humidity 0.798 Calcutta 0.640 ,, Weight of vapour 3.40 gr. ,, 6.27 gr.
Comparison of Dorjiling and Calutta.
HUMIDITY
No. of Diff. Obs. Month Dorjiling Calcutta Dorjiling ————————————————————————————- 102 January -.795 .571 +.224 97 February .828 .590 +.238 40 March .940 -.438 +.502 23 April .684 .523 +.161 48 May .926 .698 +.228 40 June .895 .800 +.095 176 July .929 .800 +.129 167 August +.955 +.818 +.136 185 September .932 .760 +.172 74 October .950 .658 +.292 46 Nov. and Dec. .798 .640 +.158 ————————————————————————————— 998 Mean 0.876 0.663 +.212
WEIGHT OF VAPOUR IN CUBIC FOOT OF AIR
No. of Diff. Obs. Month Dorjiling Calcutta Calcutta ———————————————————————————— 102 January -2.68 -4.80 +2.12 97 February 2.75 5.40 +2.65 40 March 3.42 5.72 +2.30 23 April 3.98 7.65 +3.67 48 May 5.22 9.90 +4.62 40 June 5.39 10.17 +4.78 176 July 6.06 10.05 +3.99 167 August +6.25 +10.35 +4.10 185 September 5.72 9.88 +4.16 74 October 4.74 8.55 +3.81 46 Nov. and Dec. 3.40 6.27 +2.87 ———————————————————————————— 998 Mean 4.51 8.07 +3.55
It is hence evident, from nearly 1,000 comparative observations, that the atmosphere is relatively more humid at Dorjiling than at Calcutta, throughout the year. As the southerly current, to which alone is due all the moisture of Sikkim, traverses 200 miles of land, and discharges from sixty to eighty inches of rain before arriving at Dorjiling, it follows that the whole atmospheric column is relatively drier over the Himalaya than over Calcutta; that the absolute amount of vapour, in short, is less than it would otherwise be at the elevation of Dorjiling, though the relative humidity is so great. A glance at the table at the end of this section appears to confirm this; for it is there shown that, at the base of the Himalaya, at an elevation of only 250 feet higher than Calcutta, the absolute amount of vapour is less, and of relative humidity greater, than at Calcutta.
SERIES II.—Observations at various Stations and Elevations in the Himalaya of East Nepal and Sikkim.
ELEVATION 735 TO 2000 FEET. EASTERN NEPAL AND SIKKIM. No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Tem. D.P. Diff. Tens ——————————————————————————————————- 3 Katong Ghat. 735 Dec. 60.2 55.3 4.9 .447 Teesta river 2 Great Rungeet, at bridge 818 April 82.8 63.5 19.3 .588 1 Ditto 818 May 77.8 60.3 17.5 .528 3 Tambur river, E. Nepal 1388 Nov. 60.6 57.0 3.6 .473 1 Ditto 1457 Nov. 64.2 59.1 5.1 .507 6 Bhomsong, Teesta river 1596 Dec. 58.6 52.0 6.6 .399 1 Ditto 1596 May 68.2 66.4 1.8 .647 5 Little Rungeet 1672 Jan. 51.0 50.2 0.8 .377 5 Pemiongchi, Great Rungeet 1840 Dec. 54.6 53.7 0.9 .424 11 Punkabaree 1850 March 70.1 55.6 14.5 .472 Ditto 1850 May 73.5 68.3 5.2 .687 10 Guard house 1864 April 73.7 63.8 9.9 .592 (Gt. Rungeet) ——————————————————————————————————- 48 Mean 66.3 58.8 7.5 .512
CALCUTTA. No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Tem. D.P. Diff. Tens ——————————————————————————————————- 3 Katong Ghat. 735 Dec. 73.2 56.7 16.5 .468 Teesta river 2 Great Rungeet, at bridge 818 April 95.8 61.9 33.9 .557 1 Ditto 818 May 91.7 78.3 13.4 .947 3 Tambur river, E. Nepal 1388 Nov. 73.3 62.7 10.6 .571 1 Ditto 1457 Nov. 77.3 63.4 13.9 .585 6 Bhomsong, Teesta river 1596 Dec. 71.6 57.0 14.6 .474 1 Ditto 1596 May 82.6 77.4 5.2 .923 5 Little Rungeet 1672 Jan. 58.5 58.0 0.5 .489 5 Pemiongchi, Great Rungeet 1840 Dec. 73.5 66.2 7.3 .642 11 Punkabaree 1850 March 79.2 62.6 16.6 .570 Ditto 1850 May 83.7 77.9 5.8 .938 10 Guard house 1864 April 92.4 67.0 25.4 .660 (Gt. Rungeet) ——————————————————————————————————- 48 Mean 79.4 65.8 13.6 .652
Humidity 0.717 Calcutta 0.663 Weight of vapour 5.57 gr. ,, 6.88 gr.
ELEVATION 2000 TO 3000 FEET. EASTERN NEPAL AND SIKKIM. No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Tem. D.P. Diff. Tens ——————————————————————————————————- 2 Singdong 2116 Dec. 60.5 53.4 7.1 .419 8 Mywa Guola, E. Nepal 2132 Nov. 66.2 57.5 8.7 .481 3 Pemmi river, E. Nepal 2256 Nov. 55.6 53.9 1.7 .426 3 Tambur river, E. Nepal 2545 Nov. 57.3 51.6 5.7 .394 2 Blingbong (Teesta) 2684 May 72.6 64.0 8.6 .597 8 Lingo (Teesta) 2782 May 75.8 67.3 8.5 .666 12 Serriomsa (Teesta) 2820 Dec. 64.1 56.8 7.3 .469 8 Lingmo (Teesta) 2849 May 68.6 64.6 4.0 .610 3 Ditto 2952 Dec. 56.4 53.5 2.9 .420 ——————————————————————————————————- 49 Mean 64.1 58.1 6.1 .498
ELEVATION 2000 TO 3000 FEET. EASTERN NEPAL AND SIKKIM. No. of Obs. Locality Elev. Month Tem. D.P. Diff. Tens ——————————————————————————————————- 2 Singdong 2116 Dec. 72.1 52.9 19.2 .411 8 Mywa Guola, E. Nepal 2132 Nov. 75.7 68.7 7.0 .697 3 Pemmi river, E. Nepal 2256 Nov. 62.9 62.3 0.6 .566 3 Tambur river, E. Nepal 2545 Nov. 75.0 63.7 11.3 .591 2 Blingbong (Teesta) 2684 May 81.7 73.6 8.1 .817 8 Lingo (Teesta) 2782 May 90.7 77.7 13.0 .932 12 Serriomsa (Teesta) 2820 Dec. 70.8 62.4 8.4 .567 8 Lingmo (Teesta) 2849 May 87.9 74.9 13.0 .851 3 Ditto 2952 Dec. 69.5 66.5 3.0 .647 ——————————————————————————————————- 49 Mean 76.3 67.0 9.3 .675
Humidity 0.820 Calcutta 0.740 Weight of vapour 5.45 gr. ,, 7.13 gr.
Humidity 0.532 Calcutta 0.648 Weight of vapour 1.90 gr. 8.78 gr.
SUMMARY.
HUMIDITY WEIGHT OF VAPOUR No. of Elevations Sta- Sik- Cal- Diff. Sik- Cal- Diff. Obs. in Feet tions kim cutta Sikkim kim cutta Sikkim ——————————————————————————————————— 48 735 to 2000 9 .717 .663 +.054 5.57 6.88 -1.31 49 2000 to 3000 9 .820 .740 .080 5.45 7.13 1.68 48 3000 to 4000 13 .858 .732 .116 4.23 6.60 2.37 137 4000 to 5000 23 .837 .730 .107 4.33 7.12 2.79 260 5000 to 6000 15 .865 .730 .135 4.70 7.34 2.64 76 6000 to 7000 13 .845 .701 .144 3.60 6.71 3.11 1023 7000 to 8000 14 .826 .668 .158 3.85 7.28 3.43 193 8000 to 9000 13 .858 .730 .128 4.23 8.75 4.52 18 9000 to 10,000 5 .747 .724 .023 2.80 6.28 3.48 123 10,000 to 11,000 10 .878 .740 .138 3.35 8.70 4.35 104 11,000 to 12,000 6 .860 .760 .100 3.46 9.00 5.54 140 12,000 to 13,000 6 .890 .815 .075 3.37 9.75 6.38 53 13,000 to 14,000 9 .634 .678 -.044 1.61 6.28 4.67 87 15,000 to 16,000 8 .763 .719 +.044 2.55 8.95 6.40 17 16,000 to 17,000 6 .640 .658 .018 1.53 7.80 6.27 10 17,000 to 18,500 5 .532 .648 -.116 1.90 8.78 6.88 ——————————————————————————————————— 2386 154
Considering how desultory the observations in Sikkim are, and how much affected by local circumstances, the above results must be considered highly satisfactory: they prove that the relative humidity of the atmospheric column remains pretty constant throughout all elevations, except when these are in a Tibetan climate; and when above 18,000 feet, elevations which I attained in fine weather only. Up to 12,000 feet this constant humidity is very marked; the observations made at greater elevations were almost invariably to the north, or leeward of the great snowy peaks, and consequently in a drier climate; and there it will be seen that these proportions are occasionally inverted; and in Tibet itself a degree of relative dryness is encountered, such as is never equalled on the plains of Eastern Bengal or the Gangetic delta. Whether an isolated peak rising near Calcutta, to the elevation of 19,OOQ feet, would present similar results to the above, is not proven by these observations, but as the relative humidity is the same at all elevations on the outermost ranges of Sikkim, which attain 10,000 feet, and as these rise from the plains like steep islands out of the ocean, it may be presumed that the effects of elevation would be the same in both cases.
The first effect of this humid wind is to clothe Sikkim with forests, that make it moister still; and however difficult it is to separate cause from effect in such cases as those of the reciprocal action of humidity on vegetation, and vegetation on humidity, it is necessary for the observer to consider the one as the effect of the other. There is no doubt that but for the humidity of the region, the Sikkim Himalaya would not present the uniform clothing of forest that it does; and, on the other hand, that but for this vegetation, the relative humidity would not be so great.* [Balloon ascents and observations on small mountainous islands, therefore, offer the best means of solving such questions: of these, the results of ballooning, under Mr. Welsh's intrepid and skilful pioneering (see Phil. Trans. for 1853), have proved most satisfactory; though, from the time for observation being short, and from the interference of belts of vapour, some anomalies have not been eliminated. Islands again are still more exposed to local influences, which may be easily eliminated in a long series of observations. I think that were two islands, as different in their physical characters as St. Helena and Ascension, selected for comparative observations, at various elevations, the laws that regulate the distribution of humidity in the upper regions might be deduced without difficulty. They are advantageous sites, from differing remarkably in their humidity. Owing partly to the indestructible nature of its component rock (a glassy basalt), the lower parts of Ascension have never yielded to the corroding effects of the moist sea air which surrounds it; which has decomposed the upper part into a deep bed of clay. Hence Ascension does not support a native tree, or even shrub, two feet high. St. Helena, on the other hand, which can hardly be considered more favourably situated for humidity, was clothed with a redundant vegetation when discovered, and trees and tree-ferns (types of humidity) still spread over its loftiest summits. Here the humidity, vegetation, and mineral and mechanical composition reciprocate their influences.]
The great amount of relative humidity registered at 6000 to 8000 feet, arises from most of the observations having been made on the outer range, where the atmosphere is surcharged. The majority of those at 10,000 to 12,000 feet, which also give a disproportionate amount of humidity, were registered at the Zemu and Thlonok rivers, where the narrowness of the valleys, the proximity of great snowy peaks, and the rank luxuriance of the vegetation, all favour a humid atmosphere.
I would have added the relative rain-fall to the above, but this is so very local a phenomenon, and my observations were so repeatedly deranged by having to camp in forests, and by local obstacles of all kinds, that I have suppressed them; their general results I have given in Appendix F.
I here add a few observations, taken on the plains at the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya during the spring months.
Comparison between Temperature and Humidity of the Sikkim Terai and Calcutta, in March and April, 1849.
Elev. No. above TEMP. D.P. TENSION SAT. of sea. Obs. Locality Feet C. T. C. T. C. T. C. T. ——————————————————————————————————- 4 Rummai 293 82.2 70.6 61.7 60.5 .553 .532 .517 .717 4 Belakoba 368 92.8 85.5 62.6 63.0 .570 .578 .382 .485 3 Rangamally 275 84.2 75.0 68.7 62.5 .695 .568 .605 .665 3 Bhojepore 404 90.1 81.2 54.1 44.3 .429 .308 .313 .295 4 Thakyagunj 284 84.9 77.1 61.3 60.8 .547 .537 .466 .588 3 Bhatgong 225 87.4 74.9 64.7 54.6 .611 .436 .480 .512 2 Sahigunj 231 80.2 68.0 66.2 53.1 .642 .414 .635 .409 8 Titalya 362 85.5 80.0 55.4 56.1 .448 .459 .376 .459 ——————————————————————————————————- 31 Means 305 85.9 79.0 61.8 56.9 .562 .479 .472 .516 May, 1850 ) 131 89.7 K78.6 76.7 K71.4 .904 K.759 .665 K.793 Kishengunj) ——————————————————————————————————- Vapour in a cubic foot—Kishengunj 8.20 Terai 5.08 Calcutta 9.52 Calcutta 5.90 Mean difference of temperature between Terai and Calcutta, from 31 observations in March, as above, excluding minima Terai—6.9 Mean difference from 26 observations in March, including minima Terai—9.7 Mean difference of temperature at Siligore on May 1, 1850— 10.9 Mean difference of temperature at Kishengunj on May 1, 1850— 11.1
From the above, it appears that during the spring months, and before the rains commence, the belt of sandy and grassy land along the Himalaya, though only 3.5 degrees north of Calcutta, is at least 6 degrees or 7 degrees colder, and always more humid relatively, though there is absolutely less moisture suspended in the air. After the rains commence; I believe that this is in a great measure inverted, the plains becoming excessively heated, and the temperature being higher than at Calcutta. This indeed follows from the well known fact that the summer heat increases greatly in advancing north-west from the Bay of Bengal to the trans-Sutledge regions; it is admirably expressed in the maps of Dove's great work "On the Distribution of Heat on the Surface of the Globe."
APPENDIX H.
ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS.
These observations were taken by burying a brass tube two feet six inches to three feet deep, in exposed soil, and sinking in it, by a string or tied to a slip of wood, a thermometer whose bulb was well padded with wool: this, after a few hours' rest, indicates the temperature of the soil. Such a tube and thermometer I usually caused to be sunk wherever I halted, if even for one night, except during the height of the rains, which are so heavy that they communicate to the earth a temperature considerably above that of the air.
The results proved that the temperature of the soil at Dorjiling varies with that of the month, from 46 degrees to 62.2 degrees, but is hardly affected by the diurnal variation, except in extreme cases. In summer, throughout the rains, May to October, the temperature is that of the month, which is imparted by the rain to the depth of eleven feet during heavy continued falls (of six to twelve inches a day), on which occasions I have seen the buried thermometer indicating a temperature above the mean of the month. Again, in the winter months, December and January, it stands 5 degrees above the monthly mean; in November and February 4 degrees to 5 degrees; in March a few degrees below the mean temperature of the month, and in October above it; April and May being sunny, it stands above their mean; June to September a little below the mean temperature of each respectively.
The temperature of the soil is affected by:—1. The exposure of the surface; 2. The nature of the soil; 3. Its permeability by rain, and the presence of underground springs; 4. The sun's declination; 5. The elevation above the sea, and consequently the heating power of the sun's rays: and 6, The amount of cloud and sunshine.
The appended observations, though taken at sixty-seven places, are far from being sufficient to supply data for the exact estimation of the effects of the sun on the soil at any elevation or locality; they, however, indicate with tolerable certainty the main features of this phenomenon, and these are in entire conformity with more ample series obtained elsewhere. The result, which at first sight appears the most anomalous, is, that the mean temperature of the soil, at two or three feet depth, is almost throughout the year in India above that of the surrounding atmosphere. This has been also ascertained to be the case in England by several observers, and the carefully conducted observations of Mr. Robert Thompson at the Horticultural Society's Gardens at Chiswick, show that the temperature of the soil at that place is, on the mean of six years, at the depth of one foot, 1 degree above that of the air, and at two feet 1.5 degrees. During the winter months the soil is considerably (l degree to 3 degrees) warmer than the air, and during summer the soil is a fraction of a degree cooler than the air.
In India, the sun's declination being greater, these effects are much exaggerated, the soil on the plains being in winter sometimes 9 degrees hotter than the air; and at considerable elevations in the Himalaya very much more than that; in summer also, the temperature of the soil seldom falls below that of the air, except where copious rain-falls communicate a low temperature, or where forests interfere with the sun's rays.
At considerable elevations these effects are so greatly increased, that it is extremely probable that at certain localities the mean temperature of the soil may be even 10 degrees warmer than that of the air; thus, at Jongri, elevation 13,194 feet, the soil in January was 34.5 degrees, or 19.2 degrees above the mean temperature of the month, immediately before the ground became covered with snow for the remainder of the winter; during the three succeeding months, therefore, the temperature of the soil probably does not fall below that of the snow, whilst the mean temperature of the air in January may be estimated at about 20 degrees, February 22 degrees, March 30 degrees, and April 35 degrees. If, again, we assume the temperature of the soil of Jongri to be that of other Sikkim localities between 10,000 and 14,000 feet, we may assume the soil to be warmer by 10 degrees in July (see Tungu observations), by 8 degrees or 9 degrees in September (see Yeumtong); by l0 degrees in October (see Tungu); and by 7 degrees to l0 degrees in November (see Wallanchoon and Nanki). These temperatures, however, vary extremely according to exposure and amount of sunshine; and I should expect that the greatest differences would be found in the sunny climate of Tibet, where the sun's heat is most powerful. Were nocturnal or terrestrial radiation as constant and powerful as solar, the effects of the latter would be neutralised; but such is not the case at any elevation in Sikkim.
This accumulated heat in the upper strata of soil must have a very powerful effect upon vegetation, preventing the delicate rootlets of shrubs from becoming frozen, and preserving vitality in the more fleshy, roots, such as those of the large rhubarbs and small orchids, whose spongy cellular tissues would no doubt be ruptured by severe frosts. To the burrowing rodents, the hares, marmots, and rats, which abound at 15,000 to 17,000 feet in Tibet, this phenomenon is even more conspicuously important; for were the soil in winter to acquire the mean temperature of the air, it would take very long to heat after the melting of the snow, and indeed the latter phenomenon would be greatly retarded. The rapid development of vegetation after the disappearance of the snow, is no doubt also proximately due to the heat of the soil, quite as much as to the increased strength of the sun's direct rays in lofty regions.
I have given in the column following that containing the temperature of the sunk thermometer, first the extreme temperatures of the air recorded during the time the instrument was sunk; and in the next following, the mean temperature of the air during the same period, so far as I could ascertain it from my own observations.
SERIES I.—Soane Valley ——————————————————————————————————- Locality Muddunpore Date Feb. 11 to 12 Elevation 440 feet Depth 3 ft. 4 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 62.0 to 77.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.5 ——————————————————————————- Locality Nourunga Date Feb. 12 to 13 Elevation 340 feet Depth 3 ft. 8 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 57.0 to 71.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. 3.4 ——————————————————————————- Locality Baroon Date Feb. 13 to 14 Elevation 345 feet Depth 2 ft. 4 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 68.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 53.5 to 76.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.6 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. 1.9 ——————————————————————————- Locality Tilotho Date Feb. 15 to 16 Elevation 395 feet Depth 4 ft. 6 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 76.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.5 to 80.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.8 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. 8.7 ——————————————————————————- Locality Akbarpore Date Feb. 17 to 19 Elevation 400 feet Depth (2 therm.) 4 ft. 6 in. 5 ft. 6 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 76.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 56.9 to 79.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 68.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. 8.0 ——————————————————————————-
SERIES II.—Himalaya of East Nepal and Sikkim. —————————————————————————————————- Locality Base of Tonglo Date May 19 Elevation 3,000 feet Depth 2 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 78.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 67.5 to 67.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. —————————————————————————————————- Locality Simsibong Date May 20 Elevation 7,000 feet Depth 2 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 61.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 59.0 to 59.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. —————————————————————————————————- Locality Tonglo saddle Date May 21 to 22 Elevation 10,008 feet Depth 2 ft. 6 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 50.7* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 47.5 to 57.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 52.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Tonglo summit Date May 23 Elevation 10,079 feet Depth 2 ft. 6 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 49.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 47.5 to 53.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 52.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Simonbong Date May 24 Elevation 5,000 feet Depth 2 ft. 6 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 69.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 51.2 to 55.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 52.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Nanki Date Nov. 4 to 5 Elevation 9,300 feet Depth 3 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 51.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 33.0 to 50.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 41.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +9.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Sakkiazong Date Nov. 9 to 10 Elevation 8,353 feet Depth 3 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 53.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 37.8 to 55.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 46.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Mywa guola Date Nov. 17 to 18 Elevation 2,132 feet Depth 3 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 73.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 41.0 to 85.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.4 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +9.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Banks of Tambur Date Nov. 18 to 19 Elevation 2,545 feet Depth 3 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 48.0 to 65.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 55.6 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +15.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Banks of Tambur higher up river Date Nov. 19 to 20 Elevation 3,201 feet Depth 3 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 64.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 44.3 to 60.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 51.6 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +12.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Wallanchoon Date Nov. 23 to 25 Elevation 10,386 feet Depth 2 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 43.5 to 45.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 25.0 to 49.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 37.4 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Yangma village Date Nov. 30, Dec. 3 Elevation 13,502 feet Depth 2 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 37.3 to 38.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 20.0 to 46.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 33.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Yangma river Date Dec. 2 to 3 Elevation 10,999 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 41.4 to 42.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 23.0 to 40.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 27.9 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Bhomsong Date Dec. 24 to 25 Elevation 1,596 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 64.5 to 65.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 42.8 to 71.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 57.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Tchonpong Date Jan. 4 Elevation 4,978 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 55.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 33.0 to 54.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 43.9 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +11.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jongri Date Jan. 10 to 11 Elevation 13,194 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 34.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 3.7 to 34.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 15.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +19.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Buckeem Date Jan. 12 Elevation 8,665 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 43.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 40.0 to 29.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 32.4 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +10.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Choongtam Date May 19 to 25 Elevation 5,268 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 62.5 to 62.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 48.0 to 78.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -0.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Junction of Thlonok and Zemu Date June 13 to 16 Elevation 10,846 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 51.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 38.2 to 57.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 49.8 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Tungu Date July 26 to 30 Elevation 12,751 feet Depth 2 ft. 5 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 59.0 to 56.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 38.0 to 62.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 50.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Tungu Date Oct. 10 to 15 Elevation 12,751 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 50.8 to 52.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 34.5 to 53.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 41.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +10.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Lamteng Date Aug. 1 to 3 Elevation 8,884 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 62.2 to 62.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 47.5 to 78.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 57.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +5.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Choongtam Date Aug. 13 to 15 Elevation 5,268 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 72.1 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 54.8 to 82.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 72.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Lachoong Date Aug. 17 to 19 Elevation 8,712 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 66.3 to 66.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 43.5 to 68.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 57.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +9.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Yeumtong Date Sept. 2 to 8 Elevation 11,919 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 55.5 to 56.1 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 39.5 to 59.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 47.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +8.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Momay Date Sept. 10 to 14 Elevation 15,362 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 52.5 to 51.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 31.0 to 62.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 4106 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +10.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Yeumtso Date Oct. 16 to 18 Elevation 16,8.8 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 43.5 to 43.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 4.0 to 52.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 30.6 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +12.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Lachoong Date Oct. 24 to 25 Elevation 8,712 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 60.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 39.0 to 62.6 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 52.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +8.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Great Rungeet Date Feb. 11 to 13 Elevation 818 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 65.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 56.0 to 71.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Leebong Date Feb. 14 to 15 Elevation 6,000 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 50.8 to 52.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 41.5 to 56.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 46.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +5.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kursiong Date Apr. 16 Elevation 4,813 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 64.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 63.0 to 60.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Leebong Date Apr. 22 Elevation 6,000 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 61.8 to 62.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 54.0 to 67.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 60.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Punkabaree Date May 1 Elevation 1,850 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 80.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 68.2 to 78.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 76.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Aug. 15 to 16 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 5 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 62.0 to 62.8 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.0 to 66.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 61.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Aug. 15 to 16 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 7 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 61.5 to 62.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.0 to 66.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 61.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Aug. 20 to 22 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 5 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 61.6 to 61.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.7 to 67.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 61.7 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -0.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Aug. 20 to 22 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 7 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 60.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.7 to 67.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 61.7 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Sept. 9 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 5 ft. 0 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 60.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 56.2 to 65.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 60.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Sept. 9 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 7 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 60.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 56.2 to 65.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 60.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Oct. 6 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 7 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 60.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 52.0 to 61.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 58.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Oct. 20 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 7 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 58.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 49.7 to 55.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 56.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date Feb. 18 to 28 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 46.0 to 46.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 36.0 to 52.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 43.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date March 1 to 13 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 46.3 to 48.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 34.5 to 53.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 46.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date April 18 to 20 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 55.3 to 56.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 46.0 to 61.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 54.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's) Date April 30 Elevation 7,430 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 57.4 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 46.0 to 61.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 55.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Superintendent's house Date April 21 to 30 Elevation 6,932 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 58.8 to 60.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 48.5 to 65.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 58.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +1.5 —————————————————————————————————- *Sheltered by trees, ground spongy and wet.
SERIES III.—Plains of Bengal —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kishengunj Date May 3 to 4 Elevation 131 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 82.8 to 83.0 (Dry sand) Extreme Temperature of Air observed 70.0 to 85.7 (Dry sand) Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Dulalgunj Date May 7 Elevation 130 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 81.3 to 83.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 74.3 to 90.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -0.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Banks of Mahanuddy river Date May 8 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 79.3 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 75.0 to 91.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 83.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -3.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Banks of Mahanuddy river Date May 9 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 87.5 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 77.8 to 92.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 83.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -4.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Banks of Mahanuddy river May 10 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 88.0 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 78.5 to 91.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -5.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Maldah Date May 11 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 88.8 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 75.3 to 91.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -6.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Mahanuddy river Date May 14 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 87.8 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 71.0 to 91.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -4.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Ganges Date May 15 Elevation 100 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 88.0 to 83.0* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 73.0 to 87.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 82.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -5.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Bauleah Date May 16 to 18 Elevation 130 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 87.8 to 89.8 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 78.0 to 106.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 80.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Dacca Date May 28 to 30 Elevation 72 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 84.9 to 84.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 75.3 to 95.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 83.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.9 —————————————————————————————————- * Soil, a moist sand.
SERIES IV.—Khasia Mountains.
—————————————————————————————————- Locality Churra Date June 23 to 25 Elevation 4,226 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.8 to 72.3* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 64.8 to 72.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.9 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Churra Date Oct. 29 to Nov. 16 Elevation 4,226 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 68.3 to 64.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 70.7 to 49.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 61.7 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kala-panee Date June 28 to 29 Elevation 5,302 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 69.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 64.2 to 71.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kala-panee Date Aug. 5 to 7 Elevation 5,302 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 70.0 to 70.4 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 72.2 to 61.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 64.9 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +5.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kala-panee Date Sept. 13 to 14 Elevation 5,302 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 70.2* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 65.5 to 69.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 66.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Kala-panee Date Oct. 27 to 28 Elevation 5,302 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 66.3* Extreme Temperature of Air observed 64.0 to 56.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 60.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Moflong Date June 30 to July 4 Elevation 6,062 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 65.0 to 67.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 61.0 to 68.3 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 64.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Moflong Date July 30 to Aug. 4 Elevation 6,062 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 67.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 64.0 to 75.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 68.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Moflong Date Oct. 25 to 27 Elevation 6,062 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 63.2 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 63.7 to 55.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 64.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -0.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Syong Date July 29 to 30 Elevation 5,725 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 69.2 to 69.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 60.0 to 78.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +0.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Syong Date Oct. 11 to 12 Elevation 5,725 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 67.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 65.7 to 55.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 62.8 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +4.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Myrung Date July 9 to 10 Elevation 5,647 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 66.2 to 66.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 60.0 to 73.8 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 67.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -1.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Myrung Date July 26 to 29 Elevation 5,647 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 68.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 78.0 to 64.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 71.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -2.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Myrung Date Oct. 12 to 17 Elevation 5,647 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 66.0 to 64.8 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 70.0 to 55.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.4 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Myrung Date Oct. 21 to 25 Elevation 5,647 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 64.8 to 64.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 66.0 to 53.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 60.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Nunklow Date July 11 to 26 Elevation 4,688 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 70.5 to 71.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 65.5 to 81.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 71.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. -0.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Nunklow Date Oct. 17 to 21 Elevation 4,688 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 68.8 to 68.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 75.7 to 58.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 6601 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +2.5 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Pomrang Date Sept. 15 to 23 Elevation 5,143 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 70.3 to 68.5 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 73.0 to 57.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.9 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Pomrang Date Oct. 6 to 10 Elevation 5,143 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 68.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 73.7 to 58.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.3 —————————————————————————————————- * Hole full of rain-water.
SERIES V.—Jheels, Gangetic Delta, and Chittagong. —————————————————————————————————- Locality Silchar Date Nov.27 to 30 Elevation 116 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 77.7 to 75.8 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 55.0 to 81.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.1 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.7 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Silhet Date Dec. 3 to 7 Elevation 133 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 73.5 to 73.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 63.0 to 74.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.1 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Noacolly Date Dec. 18 to 19 Elevation 20 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 73.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 58.5 to 76.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.8 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Chittagong Date Dec. 23 to 31 Elevation 191 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 72.5 to 73.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 53.2 to 75.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 63.8 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +9.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Chittagong Date Jan. 14 to 16 Elevation 116 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 73.3 to 73.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 61.3 to 78.7 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +8.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Chittagong flagstaf hill Date Dec. 28 to 30 Elevation 151 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 72.0 to 71.8 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 55.2 to 74.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.6 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Hat-hazaree Date Jan.4 to 5 Elevation 20 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.3 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 50.5 to 62.0 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Sidhee Date Jan.5 to 6 Elevation 20 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 71.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 52.7 to 70.2 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 65.0 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +6.0 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Hattiah Date Jan.6 to 9 Elevation 20 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 67.7 (shaded by trees) Extreme Temperature of Air observed 50.2 to 77.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 64.5 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.2 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Seetakoond Date Jan. 9 to 14 Elevation 20 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 73.3 to 73.7 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 55.2 to 79.5 Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 70.2 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +3.3 —————————————————————————————————- Locality Calcutta* Date Jan. 16 to Feb. 5 Elevation 18 feet Depth 2 ft. 7 in. Temp. of sunk Therm. 76.0 to 77.0 Extreme Temperature of Air observed 56.5 to 82.0** Approximate Mean Temp. of Air deduced 69.3 Diff. between Air and sunk Therm. +7.2 —————————————————————————————————- * Observations at the Mint, etc., by Mr. Muller. ** Observations for temperature of air, taken at the Observatory.
APPENDIX I.
ON THE DECREMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN ASCENDING THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS AND KHASIA MOUNTAINS.
I have selected as many of my observations for temperature of the sir as appeared to be trustworthy, and which, also, were taken contemporaneously with others at Calcutta, and I have compared them with the Calcutta observations, in order to find the ratio of decrement of heat to an increase of elevation. The results of several sets of observations are grouped together, but show so great an amount of discrepancy, that it is evident that a long series of months and the selection of several stations are necessary in a mountain country to arrive at any accurate results. Even at the stations where the most numerous and the most trustworthy observations were recorded, the results of different months differ extremely; and with regard to the other stations, where few observations were taken, each one is affected differently from another at the same level with it, by the presence or proximity of forest, by exposure to the east or west, to ascending or descending currents in the valleys, and to cloud or sunshine. Other and still more important modifying influences are to be traced to the monthly variations in the amount of humidity in the air and the strength of its currents, to radiation, and to the evolution of heat which accompanies condensation raising the temperature of elevated regions during the rainy season. The proximity of large masses of snow has not the influence I should have expected in lowering the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, partly no doubt because of the more rapid condensation of vapours which it effects, and partly because of the free circulation of the currents around it. The difference between the temperatures of adjacent grassy and naked or rocky spots, on the other hand, is very great indeed, the former soon becoming powerfully heated in lofty regions where the sun's rays pass through a rarefied atmosphere, and the rocks especially radiating much of the heat thus accumulated, for long after sunset. In various parts of my journals I have alluded to other disturbing causes, which being all more or leas familiar to meteorologists, I need not recapitulate here. Their combined effects raise all the summer temperatures above what they should theoretically be.
In taking Calcutta as a standard of comparison, I have been guided by two circumstances; first, the necessity of selecting a spot where observations were regularly and accurately made; and secondly, the being able to satisfy myself by a comparison of my instruments that the results should be so far strictly comparable.
I have allowed 1 degree Fahr. for every degree in latitude intervening between Sikkim and Calcutta, as the probable ratio of diminution of temperature. So far as my observations made in east Bengal and in various parts of the Gangetic delta afford a means of solving this question, this is a near approximation to the truth. The spring observations however which I have made at the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya would indicate a much more rapid decrement; the mean temperature of Titalya and other parts of the plains south of the forests, between March and May being certainly 6 degrees-9 degrees lower than Calcutta: this period however is marked by north-west and north-east winds, and by a strong haze which prevents the sun's rays from impinging on the soil with any effect. During the southerly winds, the same region is probably hotter than Calcutta, there being but scanty vegetation, and the rain-fall being moderate.
In the following observations solitary readings are always rejected.
I.—Summer or Rainy Season observations at Dorjiling.
Observations taken during the rainy season of 1848, at Mr. Hodgson's (Jillapahar, Dorjiling) alt. 7,430 feet, exposure free to the north east and west, the slopes all round covered with heavy timber; much mist hence hangs over the station. The mean temperatures of the month at Jillapahar are deduced from horary observations, and those of Calcutta from the mean of the daily maximum and minimum.
No. of Obs. Temp. Equiv. of Month at Jillapahar Temp. Calcutta 1 degree F. ——————————————————————————————- July 284 61.7 86.6 364 feet August 378 61.7 85.7 346 feet September 407 58.9 84.7 348 feet October 255 55.3 83.3 316 feet ——————————————————————————————- 1,324 Mean 344 feet
IL—Winter or dry season obaervatians at Dorjiling.
1. Observations taken at Mr. J. Muller's, and chiefly by himself, at "the Dale;" elev. 6,956 feet; a sheltered spot, with no forest near, and a free west exposure. 103 observations. Months: November, December, January, and February 1 degree=313 ft. 2. Observations at Dr. Campbell's (Superintendent's) house in April; elev. 6,950 feet; similar exposure to the last. 13 observations in April 1 degree=308 ft. 3. Observations by Mr. Muller at Colinton; elev. 7,179 feet; free exposure to north-west; much forest about the station, and a high ridge to east and south. 38 observations in winter months 1 degree=290 ft. 4. Miscellaneous (11) observations at Leebong; elev. 6000 feet; in February; free exposure all round 1 degree=266 ft. 5. Miscellaneous observations at "Smith's Hotel;" Dorjiling, on a cleared ridge; exposed all round; elev. 6,863 feet. April and May 1 degree=252 ft. ————————- Mean of winter observations 1 degree=286 ft. Mean of summer observations 1 degree=344 ft. ————————- Mean 310 ft.
III.—Miscellaneous observations taken at different places in Dorjiling, elevations 6,900 to 7,400 feet, with the differences of temperature between Calcutta and Dorjiling.
Number Difference Equivalent Monthof Observ. of Temperature 1 degree F.= ——————————————————————————————- January 27 30.4 287 ft. February 84 32.8 265 March 37 41.9 196 April 7 36.0 236 March and April 29 37.3 224 July 83 23.6 389 August 74 22.4 415 September 95 25.7 350 October 18 29.5 297 ——————————————————————————————- Sum 454 Mean 31.1 Mean 296 ft.
These, it will be seen, give a result which approximates to that of the sets I and II. Being deduced from observations at different exposures, the effects of these may be supposed to be eliminated. It is to be observed that the probable results of the addition of November and December's observations, would be balanced by those of May and June, which are hot moist months.
IV.—Miscellaneous cold weather observations made at various elevations between 1000 and 17,000 feet, during my journey into east Nepal and Sikkim, in November to January 1848 and 1849. The equivalent to 1 degree Fahr. was deduced from the mean of all the observations at each station, and these being arranged in sets corresponding to their elevations, gave the following results.
Number of Number of Equivalent Elevation Stations Observations 1 degree F.= ———————————————————————————————- 1,000 to 4,000 ft. 27 111 215 ft. 4,000 to 8,000 ft. 52 197 315 8,000 to 12,000 ft. 20 84 327 12,000 to 17,000 ft. 14 54 377 ———————————————————————————————- Sum 113 Sum 446 Mean 308 ft.
The total number of comparative observations taken during that journey, amounted to 563, and the mean equivalent was 1 degree=303 feet, but I rejected many of the observations that were obviously unworthy of confidence.
V.—Miscellaneous observations (chiefy during the rainy season) taken during my journey into Sikkim and the frontier of Tibet, between May 2nd and December 25th, 1848. The observations were reduced as in the previous instance. The rains on this occasion were unusually protracted, and cannot be said to have ceased till mid-winter, which partly accounts for the very high temperatures.
Number of Number of Equivalent Elevation Stations Observations 1 degree F.= ———————————————————————————————- 1,000 to 4,000 ft. 10 45 422 ft. 4,000 to 8,000 ft. 21 283 336 8,000 to 12,000 ft. 18 343 355 12,000 to 17,000 ft. 29 219 417 ———————————————————————————————- Sum 78 Sum 890 Mean 383 ft.
The great elevation of the temperature in the lowest elevations is accounted for by the heating of the valleys wherein these observations were taken, and especially of the rocks on their floors. The increase with the elevation, of the three succeeding sets, arises from the fact that the loftier regions are far within the mountain region, and are less forest clad and more sunny than the outer Himalaya.
A considerable number of observations were taken during this journey at night, when none are recorded at Calcutta, but which are comparable with contemporaneous observations taken by Mr. Muller at Dorjiling. These being all taken during the three most rainy months, when the temperature varies but very little during the whole twenty-four hours, I expected satisfactory results, but they proved very irregular and anomalous.
The means were—
At 21 stations of greater elevation than Dorjiling 1 degree=348 ft. At 17 stations lower in elevation 1 degree=447 ft.
VI.—_Sixty-four contemporaneous observations at Jillapahar, 7,430 feet, and the bed of the Great Rungeet river, 818 feet; taken in January and February, give 1 degree=322 feet.
VII.—Observations taken by burying a thermometer two and a half to three feet deep, in a brass tube, at Dorjiling and at various elevations near that station.
Month February and March Upper Stations Jillapahar, 7,430 feet Lower Stations Leebong, 6000 feet 1 degree= 269 feet
Month February Upper Stations Jillapahar, 7,430 feet Lower Stations Guard-house, Great Rungeet, 1,864 feet 1 degree= 298 feet
Month April Upper Stations Leebong, 6000 feet Lower Stations Guard-house, Great Rungeet, 1,864 feet 1 degree= 297 feet
Month March and April Upper Stations Khersiong, 4,813 feet Lower Stations Punkabaree, 1,850 feet 1 degree= 223 feet
Month March, April, May Upper Stations Jillapahar, 7,430 feet Lower Stations Punkabaree, 1,850 feet 1 degree= 253 feet
Mean 1 degree=273 feet
The above results would seem to indicate that up to an elevation of 7,500 feet, the temperature diminishes rather more than 1 degree Fahr. for every 300 feet of ascent or thereabouts; that this decrement is much leas in the summer than in the winter months; and I may add that it is less by day than by night. There is much discrepancy between the results obtained at greater or less elevations than 7000 feet; but a careful study of these, which I have arranged in every possible way, leads me to the conclusion that the proportion map be roughly indicated thus:—
1 degree=300 feet, for elevations from 1000 to 8000 feet. 1 degree=320 feet, for elevations from 8000 to 10,000 feet. 1 degree=350 feet, for elevations from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. 1 degree=400 feet, for elevations from 14,000 to 18,000 feet.
VIII.—Khasia mountain observations.
Churra Poonji Date June 13 to 26 Calcutta Observations 86.3 degrees Number of Observations 63 Churra Observations 70.1 degrees Number of Observations 67 1 degree= 300 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,069 feet
Date August 7 to September 4 Calcutta Observations 84.6 degrees Number of Observations 196 Churra Observations 69.2 degrees Number of Observations 214 1 degree= 331 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,225 feet
Date October 29 to November 16 Calcutta Observations 80.7 degrees Number of Observations 85 Churra Observations 63.1 degrees Number of Observations 133 1 degree= 282 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,225 feet
Total Calcutta Observations 354 Total Churra Observations 414 Mean 1 degree= 304 feet
Kala-panee Date June, Aug., Sept. Calcutta Observations 85.5 degrees Number of Observations 35 Khasia Observations 67.4 degrees Number of Observations 35 1 degree= 345 feet Altitude above the Sea 5,302 feet
Moflong Date June, July, Aug., Oct. Calcutta Observations 85.9 degrees Number of Observations 73 Khasia Observations 68.8 degrees Number of Observations 74 1 degree= 373 feet Altitude above the Sea 6,062 feet
Syong Date Calcutta Observations 85.1 degrees Number of Observations 4 Khasia Observations 65.0 degrees Number of Observations 6 1 degree= 332 feet Altitude above the Sea 5,734 feet
Myrung Date August Calcutta Observations 89.1 degrees Number of Observations 42 Khasia Observations 69.7 degrees Number of Observations 41 1 degree= 343 feet Altitude above the Sea 5,632 feet
Myrung Date October Calcutta Observations 82.9 degrees Number of Observations 21 Khasia Observations 63.2 degrees Number of Observations 58 1 degree= 336 feet Altitude above the Sea 5,632 feet
Nunklow Calcutta Observations 86.4 degrees Number of Observations 139 Khasia Observations 70.9 degrees Number of Observations 139 1 degree= 372 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,688 feet
Mooshye Date September 23 Calcutta Observations 78.5 degrees Number of Observations 9 Khasia Observations 66.3 degrees Number of Observations 12 1 degree= 499 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,863 feet
Pomrang Date September 23 Calcutta Observations 82.7 degrees Number of Observations 51 Khasia Observations 65.8 degrees Number of Observations 51 1 degree= 369 feet Altitude above the Sea 5,143 feet
Amwee Date September 23 Calcutta Observations 79.9 degrees Number of Observations 15 Khasia Observations 67.1 degrees Number of Observations 11 1 degree= 396 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,105 feet
Joowy Date September 23 Calcutta Observations 79.5 degrees Number of Observations 11 Khasia Observations 69.0 degrees Number of Observations 7 1 degree= 567 feet Altitude above the Sea 4,387 feet
Total Calcutta Observations 400 Total Khasia Observations 434 Mean 1 degree= 385 feet
The equivalent thus deduced is far greater than that brought out by the Sikkim observations. It indicates a considerably higher temperature of the atmosphere, and is probably attributable to the evolution of heat during extraordinary rain-fall, and to the formation of the surface, which is a very undulating table-land, and everywhere traversed by broad deep valleys, with very steep, often precipitous flanks; these get heated by the powerful sun, and from them, powerful currents ascend. The scanty covering of herbage too over a great amount of the surface, and the consequent radiation of heat from the earth, must have a sensible influence on the mean temperature of the summer months.
APPENDIX J.
ON THE MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDES BY THE BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER.
The use of the boiling-point thermometer for the determination of elevations in mountainous countries appearing to me to be much underrated, I have collected the observations which I was enabled to take, and compared their results with barometrical ones.
I had always three boiling-point thermometers in use, and for several months five; the instruments were constructed by Newman, Dollond, Troughton, and Simms, and Jones, and though all in one sense good instruments, differed much from one another, and from the truth. Mr. Welsh has had the kindness to compare the three best instruments with the standards at the Kew Observatory at various temperatures between 180 degrees and the boiling-point; from which comparison it appears, that an error of l.5 degrees may be found at some parts of the scale of instruments most confidently vouched for by admirable makers. Dollond's thermometer, which Dr. Thomson had used throughout his extensive west Tibetan journeys, deviated but little from the truth at all ordinary temperatures. All were so far good, that the errors, which were almost entirely attributable to carelessness in the adjustments, were constant, or increased at a constant ratio throughout all parts of the scale; so that the results of the different instruments have, after correction, proved strictly comparable.
The kettle used was a copper one, supplied by Newman, with free escape for the steam; it answered perfectly for all but very high elevations indeed, where, from the water boiling at very low temperatures, the metal of the kettle, and consequently of the thermometer, often got heated above the temperature of the boiling water.
I found that no confidence could be placed in observations taken at great elevations, by plunging the thermometer in open vessels of boiling water, however large or deep, the abstraction of heat from the surface being so rapid, that the water, though boiling below, and hence bubbling above, is not uniformly of the same temperature throughout.
In the Himalaya I invariably used distilled, or snow or rain-water; but often as I have tried common river-water for comparison, I never found that it made any difference in the temperature of the boiling-point. Even the mineral-spring water at Yeumtong, and the detritus-charged glacial streams, gave no difference, and I am hence satisfied that no objection can be urged against river waters of ordinary purity.
On several occasions I found anomalous rises and falls in the column of mercury, for which I could not account, except theoretically, by assuming breaks in the column, which I failed to detect on lifting the instrument out of the water; at other times, I observed that the column remained for several minutes stationary, below the true temperature of the boiling water, and then suddenly rose to it. These are no doubt instrumental defects, which I only mention as being sources of error against which the observer must be on the watch: they can only be guarded against by the use of two instruments.
With regard to the formula employed for deducing the altitude from a boiling-point observation, the same corrections are to a great extent necessary as with barometric observations: if no account is taken of the probable state of atmospheric pressure at the level of the sea at or near the place of observation, for the hour of the day and month of the year, or for the latitude, it is obvious that errors of 600 to 1000 feet may be accumulated. I have elsewhere stated that the pressure at Calcutta varies nearly one inch (1000 feet), between July and January; that the daily tide amounts to one-tenth of an inch (=100 feet); that the multiplier for temperature is too great in the hot season and too small in the cold; and I have experimentally proved that more accuracy is to be obtained in measuring heights in Sikkim, by assuming the observed Calcutta pressure and temperature to accord with that of the level of the sea in the latitude of Sikkim, than by employing a theoretical pressure and temperature for the lower station.
In the following observations, the tables I used were those printed by Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau for the East India Company's Magnetic Observatory at Simla, which are based upon Regnault's Table of the 'Elastic Force of Vapour.' The mean height of the barometrical column is assumed (from Bessel's formula) to be 29.924 at temp. 32 degrees, in lat. 45 degrees, which, differing only .002 from the barometric height corresponding to 212 degrees Fahrenheit, as determined experimentally by Regnault, gives 29.921 as the pressure corresponding to 212 degrees at the level of the sea.
The approximate height in feet corresponding to each degree of the boiling-point, is derived from Oltmann's tables. The multipliers for the mean temperature of the strata of atmosphere passed through, are computed for every degree Fahrenheit, by the formula for expansion usually employed, and given in Baily's Astronomical Tables and Biot's Astronomie Physique.
For practical purposes it may be assumed that the traveller, in countries where boiling-point observations are most desired, has never the advantage of a contemporaneous boiling-point observation at a lower station. The approximate difference in height is hence, in most cases, deduced from the assumption, that the boiling-point temperature at the level of the sea, at the place of observation, is 212 degrees, and that the corresponding temperature of the air at the level of the sea is hotter by one degree for every 330 feet of difference in elevation. As, however, the temperature of boiling water at the level of the sea varies at Calcutta between July and January almost from 210.7 degrees to 212.6 degrees, I always took the Calcutta barometer observation at the day and hour of my boiling-point observation, and corrected my approximate height by as many feet as correspond to the difference between the observed height of the barometer at Calcutta and 29.921; this correction was almost invariably (always normally) subtractive in the summer, often amounting to upwards of 400 feet: it was additive in winter, and towards the equinoxes it was very trifling.
For practical purposes I found it sufficient to assume the Calcutta temperature of the air at the day and hour of observation to be that of the level of the sea at the place of observation, and to take out the multiplier, from the mean of this and of the temperature at the upper station. As, however, 330 feet is a near approach to what I have shown (Appendix I.) to be the mean equivalent of 1 degree for all elevations between 6000 and 18,000 feet; and as the majority of my observations were taken between these elevations, it results that the mean of all the multipliers employed in Sikkim for forty-four observations amounts to 65.1 degrees Fahrenheit, using the Calcutta and upper station observations, and 65.3 degrees on the assumption of a fall of 1 degree for every 330 feet. To show, however, how great an error may accrue in individual cases from using the formula of 1 degree to 330, I may mention that on one occasion, being at an elevation of 12,000 feet, with a temperature of the air of 70 degrees, the error amounted to upwards of 220 feet, and as the same temperature may be recorded at much greater elevations, it follows that in such cases the formula should not be employed without modification.
A multitude of smaller errors, arising from anomalies in the distribution of temperature, will be apparent on consulting my observations on the temperature at various elevations in Sikkim; practically these are unavoidable. I have also calculated all my observations according to Professor J. Forbes's formula of 1 degree difference of temperature of boiling-water, being the equivalent of 550 feet at all elevations. (See Ed. Phil. Trans., vol xv. p. 405.) The formula is certainly not applicable to the Sikkim Himalaya; on the contrary, my observations show that the formula employed for Boileau's tables gives at all ordinary elevations so very close an approach to accuracy on the mean of many observations, that no material improvement in its construction is to be anticipated.
At elevations below 4000 feet, elevations calculated from the boiling-point are not to be depended on; and Dr. Thomson remarked the same in north-west India: above 17,000 feet also the observations are hazardous, except good shelter and a very steady fire is obtainable, owing to the heating of the metal above that of the water. At all other elevations a mean error of 100 feet is on the average what is to be expected in ordinary cases. For the elevation of great mountain masses, and continuously elevated areas, I conceive that the results are as good as barometrical ones; for the general purposes of botanical geography, the boiling-point thermometer supersedes the barometer in point of practical utility, for under every advantage, the transport of a glass tube full of mercury, nearly three feet long, and cased in metal, is a great drawback to the unrestrained motion of the traveller.
In the Khasia mountains I found, from the mean of twelve stations and twenty-three observations, the multiplier as derived from the mean of the temperature at the upper station and at Calcutta, to be 75.2 degrees, and as deduced from the formula to be 73.1 degrees. Here, however, the equivalent in feet for 1 degree temp. is in summer very high, being 1 degree=385 feet. (See Appendix I.) The mean of all the elevations worked by the boiling-point is upwards of 140 feet below those worked by the barometer.
The following observations are selected as having at the time been considered trustworthy, owing to the care with which they were taken, their repetition in several cases, and the presumed accuracy of the barometrical or trigonometrical elevation with which they are compared. A small correction for the humidity of the air might have been introduced with advantage, but as in most barometrical observations, the calculations proceed on the assumption that the column of air is in a mean state of saturation; as the climate of the upper station was always very moist, and as most of the observations were taken during the rains, this correction would be always additive, and would never exceed sixty feet.
It must be borne in mind that the comparative results given below afford by no means a fair idea of the accuracy to be obtained by the boiling-point. Some of the differences in elevation are probably due to the barometer. In other cases I may have read off the scale wrong, for however simple it seems to read off an instrument, those practically acquainted with their use know well how some errors almost become chronic, how with a certain familiar instrument the chance of error is very great at one particular part of the scale, and how confusing it is to read off through steam alternately from several instruments whose scales are of different dimensions, are differently divided, and differently lettered; such causes of error are constitutional in individual observers. Again, these observations are selected without any reference to other considerations but what I have stated above; the worst have been put in with the best. Had I been dependent on the boiling-point for determining my elevations, I should have observed it oftener, or at stated periods whenever in camp, worked the greater elevations from the intermediate ones, as well as from Calcutta, and resorted to every system of interpolation. Even the following observations would be amended considerably were I to have deduced the elevation by observations of the boiling-point at my camp, and added the height of my camp, either from the boiling-point observations there, or by barometer, but I thought it better to select the most independent method of observation, and to make the level of the sea at Calcutta the only datum for a lower station.
SERIES I.—Sikkim Observations.
Elev. by Barom. or Temp. Elev. Place. Month. Trigonom. B.P. Air by B.P. Error (feet) (feet) (feet) ———————————————————————————————————— Great Rungeet river Feb. B 818 210.7 56.3 904 + 86 Bhomsong Dec. 1,544 210.2 58.0 1,321 -223 Guard House, Gt Rungeet April 1,864 208.1 72.7 2,049 +185 Choongtam Aug. 5,268 202.6 65.0 5,175 - 93 Dengha Aug. 6,368 200.6 68.0 6,246 -122 Mr. Muller's (Dorjiling) Feb. Tr 6,925 199.4 41.3 7,122 +197 Dr. Campbell's (do.) April 6,932 200.1 59.5 6,745 -187 Mr. Hodgson's (do.) Feb. B 7,429 199.4 47.6 7,318 -111 Sinchul Jan. Tr 8,607 197.0 41.7 8,529 - 78 Lachoong Aug. B 8,712 196.4 54.6 8,777 + 65 Lamteng Aug. 8,884 196.3 77.0 8,937 + 53 Zemu Samdong July 8,976 196.1 58.6 8,916 - 60 Mainom Dec. Tr 10,702 193.4 38.0 10,516 -186 Junct. of Zemu & Thlonok July B 10,846 193.6 52.0 10,872 + 26 Tallum July 11,482 191.8 54.6 11,451 - 31 Yeumtong Sept. 11,919 191.3 52.2 11,887 - 32 Zemu river June 12,070 190.4 48.5 12,139 + 69 Tungu July & 12,751 189.7 43.4 12,696 - 55 Oct. Jongri Jan. 13,194 188.8 26.0 13,151 - 43 Zemu river June 13,281 188.5 47.0 13,360 + 79 Lachee-pia Aug. 15,262 186.0 42.8 14,912 -350 Momay Sept. 15,362 186.1 48.6 14,960 -402 Palung Oct. 15,620 185.4 45.8 15,437 -183 Kongra Lama July 15,694 184.1 41.5 16,041 +347 Snow-bed above Yeumtong Sept. 15,985 184.6 44.5 15,816 -169 Tunkra pass Aug. 16,083 164.1 39.0 16,137 + 54 Yeumtso Oct. 16,808 183.1 15.0 16,279 -529 Donkia Sept. 16,978 182.4 41.0 17,049 + 71 Mountain above Momay Sept. 17,394 181.9 47.8 17,470 + 76 Sebolah pass Sept. 17,585 181.9 46.5 17,517 - 68 Kinchinjhow Sept. 17,624 181.0 47.5 18,026 +402 Donkia Mountain Sept. 18,510 180.6 37.1 18,143 -367 Ditto Sept. 18,307 179.9 38.8 18,597 +290 Bhomtso Oct. 18,450 181.2 52.0 18,305 -145 Donkia pass Sept. 18,466 181.2 45.5 17,866 -600 ———————————————————————————————————— Mean - 58
The few actinometer observations which I was enabled to record, were made with two of these instruments constructed by Barrow, and had the bulbs of their thermometers plunged into the fluid of the chamber. They were taken with the greatest care, in conformity with all the rules laid down in the "Admiralty Guide," and may, I think, be depended upon. In the Sikkim Himalaya, a cloudless day, and one admitting of more than a few hours' consecutive observations, never occurs—a day fit for any observation at all is very, rare indeed. I may mention here that a small stock of ammonia-sulphate of copper in crystals should be supplied with this instrument, also a wire and brush for cleaning, and a bottle with liquid ammonia: all of which might be packed in the box.
Active 6.568. Time always mean.
Jillapahar, Dorjiling, Elev. 7430 feet, Lat. 27 degrees 3 minutes N., Long. 88 degrees 13 minutes E.
A.— APRIL 19th, 1850. Watch slow 1 minute 15 seconds mean time.
Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.0 to 8.13 11.1 65.5 0.9900 22.960 53.5 8.15 to 8.28 15.0 69.5 12.2645 9.0 to 9.13 17.7 71.5 14.5140 22.948 56.0 10.0 to 10.13 19.1 72.5 15.4710 22.947 57.0 11.0 to 11.13 19.0 75.0 14.9150 22.946 58.5 p.m. 0.0 to 0.13 18.8 75.0 12.7600 22.944 60.3 1.0 to 1.13 17.2 73.3 13.8976 22.939 59.4 2.0 to 2.13 17.4 74.0 13.8330 22.914 60.3 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.0 to 8.13 33.8 19.7 .505 88.0 Day unexceptional, 8.15 to 8.28 111.5 wind S.W., after 9.0 to 9.13 37.2 18.8 .153 110.0 10 a.m. squally. 10.0 to 10.13 39.7 17.3 .550 121.0 11.0 to 11.13 38.2 20.3 .500 125.0 p.m. 0.0 to 0.13 44.8 15.5 .592 120.0 1.0 to 1.13 40.7 18.7 .546 122.0 Dense haze over 2.0 to 2.13 44.1 16.2 .577 108.0 snowy Mts. —————————————————————————————————
B.—APRIL 20th Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.0 to 8.13 11.8 64.0 10.9150 22.969 43.4 9.0 to 9.13 17.8 73.3 14.2750 22.974 36.2 10.0 to 10.13 18.8 65.0 14.7580 22.985 57.0 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.0 to 8.13 43.4 10.8 .691 74.0 Dense haze, 9.0 to 9.13 44.1 12.1 .662 92.0 S.E. wind, 10.0 to 10.13 42.5 14.5 .609 92.0 cloudless sky. —————————————————————————————————
Superintendent's House, Dorjiling. Elev. 6932 feet. C.—APRIL 21st. Watch slow 1 minute mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.35 to 8.48 17.3 65.0 15.7084 56.4 9.07 to 9.20 20.9 72.7 16.8872 23.447 63.8 10.0 to 10.13 23.9 77.3 18.3791 60.8 11.0 to 11.13 24.4 81.0 17.8864 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 8.35 to 8.48 47.6 8.8 .741 97.0 Day very fine, 9.07 to 9.20 49.9 13.9 .628 100.0 snowy Mts. in 10.0 to 10.13 49.2 11.6 .677 109.0 dull red haze, 11.0 to 11.13 107.5 wind S.E. faint. —————————————————————————————————
Rampore Bauleah (Ganges). Elev. 130 feet. Lat. 22 degrees 24 minutes N., Long. 88 degrees 40 minutes E.
MAY 17th, 1850. Watch slow 15 seconds mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.51 to 8.13 13.0 88.0 8.8790 29.698 87.5 9.03 to 9.16 19.5 96.0 12.5190 92.0 9.20 to 9.33 21.2 107.0 12.7836 29.615 92.3 11.15 to 11.28 21.1 105.0 12.8499 98.5 11.32 to 11.45 16.5 108.7 9.8770 29.620 98.3 p.m. 1.20 to 1.33 21.6 108.5 12.9348 104.5 1.40 to 1.53 21.4 113.7 12.4976 105.8 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.51 to 8.13 80.1 7.4 .793 91.0 S.E. wind, very 9.03 to 9.16 81.2 10.8 .715 83.8 hazy to west, sky 9.20 to 9.33 80.2 12.1 .687 132.0 pale blue. 11.15 to 11.28 74.8 23.7 .478 98.5 Wind west, rising. 11.32 to 11.45 74.3 24.0 .475 142.0 p.m. 1.20 to 1.33 76.7 27.8 .425 144.0 1.40 to 1.53 72.2 33.6 .355 134.0 —————————————————————————————————
Churra, Khasia Mountains. Elev. 4225 feet, Lat. 25 degrees 15 minutes N., Long. 91 degrees 47 minutes E. A—NOVEMBER 4th, 1850. Watch slow 7 minutes mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.20 to 6.30 5.0 63.7 4.6400 25.781 57.8 6.32 to 6.42 7.4 65.4 6.6896 59.0 7.55 to 8.05 20.0 77.5 15.2400 63.5 8.08 to 8.18 21.0 82.0 15.2040 64.4 8.20 to 8.30 24.2 85.8 10.8432 64.8 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.20 to 6.30 53.1 4.7 .850 75.0 Sky faint blue, 6.32 to 6.42 54.8 4.2 .870 83.0 cloudless, 7.55 to 8.05 56.9 6.6 .806 108.0 wind S.W., 8.08 to 8.18 57.3 7.1 .790 106.5 clouding. 8.20 to 8.30 59.5 5.3 .837 113.5 —————————————————————————————————
B.—NOVEMBER 5th. Watch slow 7 minutes mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Air ——————————————————————————- a.m. 6.39 to 6.49 11.2 70.2 9.3408 59.4 6.51 to 7.01 13.4 72.8 10.8138 60.5 7.56 to 8.06 18.4 73.2 15.0161 61.7 8.08 to 8.21 20.4 77.7 15.4836 63.3 9.26 to 9.36 23.8 79.5 17.8072 9.37 to 9.47 25.1 84.0 17.7959 10.57 to 11.07 29.0 89.5 19.5460 66.7 ——————————————————————————-
Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.39 to 6.49 57.6 1.8 .940 Wind S.W., 6.51 to 7.01 57.8 2.7 .918 clouds rise and 7.56 to 8.06 57.7 4.0 .875 disperse. 8.08 to 8.21 58.7 4.6 .860 Sky pale. 9.26 to 9.36 9.37 to 9.47 10.57 to 11.07 60.8 5.9 8.28 126.0 —————————————————————————————————
C.—NOVEMBER 6th. Watch slow 7 minutes mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.05 to 6.18 2.6 62.0 2.4986 25.781 56.5 6.22 to 6.35 6.5 63.5 6.0710 57.0 6.38 to 6.51 9.6 66.7 8.5152 61.0 8.27 to 8.37 21.7 78.8 16.2750 64.2 8.39 to 8.52 23.0 81.7 19.4750 64.5 ————————————————————————————————— Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.05 to 6.18 54.5 2.0 .935 Sunrise, 6, pale 6.22 to 6.35 55.1 1.9 .935 yellow red, 6.38 to 6.51 57.4 3.6 .888 cloudless. 8.27 to 8.37 59.3 4.9 .855 100.0 Cirrhus below. 8.39 to 8.52 59.4 5.1 .847 105.0 —————————————————————————————————
D.—NOVEMBER 14th. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.12 to 6.22 2.9 60.6 3.5988 25.783 51.5 6.24 to 6.37 6.1 66.0 5.4472 52.7 7.13 to 7.23 12.4 70.8 10.2672 56.5 7.24 to 7.34 14.7 76.0 11.4025 57.8 8.34 to 8.44 19.9 82.8 14.2653 59.8 8.47 to 9.00 21.7 88.8 14.7343 60.5 9.53 to 10.03 23.5 86.6 16.2620 25.832 67.2 10.04 to 10.17 25.3 89.5 17.0775 67.0 11.24 to 11.31 33.3 111.5 20.7014 25.819 64.6 —————————————————————————————————
Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 6.12 to 6.22 49.4 2.1 .930 6.24 to 6.37 50.3 2.4 .925 7.13 to 7.23 52.3 4.2 .900 98.0 Thick cumulus low 7.24 to 7.34 53.1 4.7 .855 104.0 on plains. 8.34 to 8.44 50.8 9.0 .742 117.0 Sunrise yellow 8.47 to 9.00 51.6 8.9 .730 121.0 red. 9.53 to 10.03 61.6 5.6 .832 127.0 Cloudless. 10.04 to 10.17 58.8 8.2 .778 133.0 11.24 to 11.31 59.0 5.6 .832 130.0 Clouds rise. —————————————————————————————————
E.—NOVEMBER 15th. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 9.53 to 10.06 25.8 78.0 17.5306 25.854 63.0 10.50 to 11.03 26.1 80.5 19.1835 64.0 11.31 to 11.44 28.5 84.0 20.2065 65.3 p.m. 0.33 to 0.46 30.9 91.5 20.4267 25.844 65.8 1.07 to 1.21 29.1 90.5 20.4388 67.0 2.47 to 3.00 21.1 75.0 16.5653 25.808 67.2 3.48 to 4.00 16.7 73.0 13.4435 62.0 4.03 to 4.16 16.2 75.0 12.7170 25.803 61.5 —————————————————————————————————
Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. ——————————————————————————————- a.m. 9.53 to 10.06 55.3 8.7 .772 Sky cloudless. 10.50 to 11.03 52.8 11.2 .690 Wind N.E. 11.31 to 11.44 51.9 13.4 .638 p.m. 0.33 to 0.46 51.2 14.6 .620 1.07 to 1.21 49.6 17.4 .560 2.47 to 3.00 56.6 10.6 .708 3.48 to 4.00 50.8 11.2 .690 4.03 to 4.16 50.5 11.0 .692 ——————————————————————————————-
Silchar (Cachar), Elev. 116 feet, Lat. 24 degrees 30 minutes N., Long. 93 degrees E. (approximate).
NOVEMBER 26th, 1850 Watch slow 13 minutes 39 seconds mean time.
Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 9.11 to 9.24 19.4 69.0 16.4706 66.3 9.34 to 9.41 22.7 81.0 16.5937 9.50 to 9.57 25.3 87.5 17.3558 29.999 68.7 10.07 to 10.14 26.5 91.5 17.5695 70.3 11.03 to 11.16 26.3 89.0 17.5251 73.2 p.m. 0.00 to 0.13 26.4 90.0 17.8144 29.967 74.5 0.58 to 1.11 27.6 94.0 17.9676 76.8 2.51 to 3.04 23.0 93.0 15.0880 29.892 78.5 3.55 to 4.08 17.6 91.5 11.6688 79.5 4.09 to 4.22 15.5 93.5 11.0215 29.881 79.4 4.23 to 4.36 12.0 93.7 7.8360 78.5 —————————————————————————————————
Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. ——————————————————————————————- a.m. 9.11 to 9.24 63.5 2.8 .860 Dense fog till 9.34 to 9.41 7.30 p.m. 9.50 to 9.57 61.5 7.2 .788 Wind north. Clear. 10.07 to 10.14 62.7 7.6 .780 11.03 to 11.16 60.3 12.9 .657 Wind. N.E. Light p.m. 0.00 to 0.13 61.7 12.8 .658 cirrhus low. 0.58 to 1.11 60.3 16.5 .586 2.51 to 3.04 62.1 16.4 .588 Streaks of cirrhus 3.55 to 4.08 57.0 22.5 .480 aloft. 4.09 to 4.22 62.1 17.3 .570 4.23 to 4.36 62.1 16.4 .588 Sun sets in hazy cirrhus. ——————————————————————————————-
Chittagong, Elev. 200 feet, Lat. 22 degrees 20 minutes N., Long. 91 degrees 55 minutes E.
A.—DECEMBER 31st, 1850. Watch slow 3 minutes 45 seconds mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.39 to 7.52 10.0 70.0 8.3700 57.0 8.40 to 8.53 21.3 91.5 14.1219 29.874 59.5 9.04 to 9.08 23.2 89.5 15.6163 63.3 9.52 to 9.56 24.3 87.3 16.7341 29.923 64.5 10.02 to 10.06 25.1 90.5 16.7668 65.7 11.16 to 11.29 24.3 84.5 17.1558 68.5 11.52 to 11.56 26.6 92.6 17.5028 29.892 69.5 p.m. 1.38 to 1.41 24.7 84.0 17.5123 71.7 1.47 to 1.51 25.4 90.7 16.8418 3.10 to 3.17 21.1 86.0 14.6645 29.831 71.0 3.18 to 3.25 19.3 89.3 13.0468 —————————————————————————————————
Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.39 to 7.52 55.7 1.3 .960 Cloudless. 8.40 to 8.53 57.2 2.3 .920 127.0 Mountains clear. 9.04 to 9.08 59.7 3.6 .890 Wind E.N.E. Cool. 9.52 to 9.56 61.3 3.2 .900 142.0 10.02 to 10.06 60.4 5.3 .840 148.0 Wind N.W. 11.16 to 11.29 58.6 9.9 .722 150.0 11.52 to 11.56 59.2 10.3 .710 Wind S.W. p.m. 1.38 to 1.41 61.8 9.9 .720 1.47 to 1.51 3.10 to 3.17 60.5 10.5 .710 Clouds about in 3.18 to 3.25 patches. —————————————————————————————————
B.— JANUARY 1, 1851. Watch slow 3 minutes 45 seconds mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.34 to 7.41 10.0 69.4 8.4200 29.948 55.4 8.38 to 8.45 16.0 70.0 13.3920 58.9 9.44 to 9.51 19.5 74.7 15.3660 29.891 63.2 10.46 to 10.53 21.0 78.2 15.8550 66.7 11.50 to 11.57 21.5 81.2 15.6950 69.8 p.m. 0.06 to 0.13 24.1 88.0 16.4603 29.850 70.3 0.58 to 1.02 23.9 87.2 16.4432 71.0 1.45 to 1.52 21.4 84.5 15.0870 71.3 3.15 to 3.22 18.1 82.5 13.0320 29.798 71.3 4.27 to 4.34 10.2 82.0 7.3746 70.0 4.36 to 4.43 9.8 84.0 6.9482 4.45 to 4.52 8.5 85.0 5.9670 4.56 to 5.09 5.6 85.0 3.9312 67.5 5.12 to 5.18 3.8 84.0 2.6942 29.778 68.7 —————————————————————————————————
Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 7.34 to 7.41 54.0 1.4 .953 Mist rises and 8.38 to 8.45 57.7 1.2 .970 104.5 drifts westward 9.44 to 9.51 61.7 1.5 .960 115.0 till 7.30 a.m. 10.46 to 10.53 62.4 4.3 .870 129.0 11.50 to 11.57 58.3 11.5 .688 117.0 Wind N.W., clouds p.m. 0.06 to 0.13 56.0 14.3 .625 122.5 rise. 0.58 to 1.02 56.7 14.3 .625 1.45 to 1.52 57.5 13.8 .633 117.0 3.15 to 3.22 57.1 14.2 .625 4.27 to 4.34 59.5 10.5 .708 4.36 to 4.43 4.45 to 4.52 4.56 to 5.09 62.7 4.8 .855 Sunset cloudless. 5.12 to 5.18 62.2 6.5 .810 —————————————————————————————————
C.—JANUARY 2, 1851. Watch slow 3 minutes mean time. Tem. Act. Hour Act. Act. Reduced Barom. Air ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 10.02 to 10.09 19.2 71.0 15.8592 64.5 10.20 to 10.24 22.6 79.0 16.9048 29.861 65.6 p.m. 0.03 to 0.10 24.7 89.2 16.6972 29.858 69.0 0.22 to 0.25 25.9 95.5 18.6796 70.7 2.04 to 2.08 23.3 91.5 15.4479 71.2 2.10 to 2.14 23.8 93.0 15.6128 —————————————————————————————————
Black Hour D.P. Diff. Sat. Bulb ————————————————————————————————— a.m. 10.02 to 10.09 60.6 3.9 .878 116.0 Low, dense fog at 10.20 to 10.24 61.4 4.2 .872 sunrise, clear at p.m. 0.03 to 0.10 59.3 9.7 .728 119.0 9 a.m. 0.22 to 0.25 57.5 3.2 .650 Hills hazy and 2.04 to 2.08 61.0 10.2 .718 112.0 horizon grey. 2.10 to 2.14 —————————————————————————————————
APPENDIX L.
TABLE OF ELEVATIONS.
In the following tables I have given the elevations of 300 places, chiefly computed from barometric data. For the computations such observations alone were selected as were comparable with contemporaneous ones taken at the Calcutta Observatory, or as could, by interpolation, be reduced to these, with considerable accuracy: the Calcutta temperatures have been assumed as those of the level of the sea, and eighteen feet have been added for the height of the Calcutta Observatory above the sea. I have introduced two standards of comparison where attainable; namely, 1. A few trigonometrical data, chiefly of positions around Dorjiling, measured by Lieutenant-Colonel Waugh, the Surveyor-General, also a few measured by Mr. Muller and myself, in which we can put full confidence: and, 2. A number of elevations in Sikkim and East Nepal, computed by simultaneous barometer observations, taken by Mr. Muller at Dorjiling. As the Dorjiling barometer was in bad repair, I do not place so much confidence in these comparisons as in those with Calcutta. The coincidence, however, between the mean of all the elevations computed by each method is very remarkable; the difference amounting to only thirty feet in ninety-three elevations; the excess being in favour of those worked by Dorjiling. As the Dorjiling observations were generally taken at night, or early in the morning, when the temperature is below the mean of the day, this excess in the resulting elevations would appear to prove, that the temperature correction derived from assuming the Calcutta observations to correspond with eighteen feet above the level of the sea at Sikkim, has not practically given rise to much error.
I have not added the boiling-point observations, which afford a further means of testing the accuracy of the barometric computations; and which will be found in section J of this Appendix.
The elevation of Jillapahar is given as computed by observations taken in different months, and at different hours of the day; from which there will be seen, that owing to the low temperature of sunrise in the one case, and of January and October in the others, the result for these times is always lowest.
Moat of the computations have been made by means of Oltmann's tables, as drawn up by Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau, and printed at the Magnetic Observatory, Simla; very many were worked also by Bessell's tables in Taylor's "Scientific Memoirs," which, however, I found to give rather too high a result on the averages; and I have therefore rejected most of them, except in cases of great elevation and of remarkable humidity or dryness, when the mean saturation point is an element that should not be disregarded in the computation. To these the letter B is prefixed. By far the majority of these elevations are not capable of verification within a few feet; many of them being of villages, which occupy several hundred feet of a hill slope: in such cases the introduction of the refinement of the humidity correction was not worth the while.
SERIES I.—Elevations on the Grand Trunk-road. February, 1848.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet ——————————————————————————————————- 1 Burdwan 93 2 Gyra 630 3 Fitcoree 860 2 Tofe Choney 912 4 Maddaobund 1230 1 Paras-nath saddle B.4231 2 ,, cast peak 4215 1 ,, flagstaff 4428 1 ,, lower limit of Clematis and Berberis 3162 1 Doomree 996 1 Highest point on grand trunk-road 1446 4 Belcuppee 1219 1 Hill 236th mile-stone 1361 3 Burree 1169 1 Hill 243rd mile-stone 1339 3 Chorparun 1322 3 Dunwah 625 1 Bahra 479 1 284th mile-stone 474 2 Sheergotty 460 4 Muddunpore 402 1 312th mile-stone 365 3 Naurungabad 337 4 Baroon (on Soane) 344 4 Dearse 332 ——————————————————————————————————-
SERIES II.—Elevations in the Soane Valley. March, 1848.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet ——————————————————————————————————- 3 Tilotho 395 6 Akbarpore 403 2 Rotas palace 1489 4 Tura 453 3 Soane-pore 462 6 Kosdera 445 4 Panchadurma 492 1 Bed of Soane above Panchadurma 482 3 Pepura 587 1 Bed of Soane river 400 9 Chahuchee 490 4 Hirrah 531 4 Kotah 541 4 Kunch 561 7 Sulkun 684 ——————————————————————————————————-
SERIES III.—Elevations on the Kymore Hills. March, 1848.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet ——————————————————————————————————- 2 Roump 1090 9 Shahgunj 1102 1 Amoee 818 1 Goorawul 905 9 Mirzapore (on the Ganges) 362 ——————————————————————————————————-
SERIES IV.—Elevations near Dorjiling. 1848 to 1850.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet ——————————————————————————————————- Jillapahar (Mr. Hodgson's house) 9 ,, sunrise 7301 110 ,, 9.50 p.m. 7443 104 ,, noon 7457 99 ,, 2.40 p.m. 7477 93 ,, 4 p.m. 7447 37 ,, sunset 7447 ———- ———- Sum 452 Mean 7429 ======= Ditto by Monthly observations. ======= 27 January 7400 84 February 7445 37 March 7517 7 April 7582 83 July 7412 74 August 7421 95 September 7454 18 October 7351 ———- ———- Sum 434 Mean 7448 ======= ======= 103 The Dale (Mr. Muller's) B.6957 ,, by trigonometry 6952 16 Superintendent's house B.6932 ,, by trigonometry 6932 38 Colinton (Mr. Muller's) B.7179 25 Leebong B.5993 ,, by trigonometry 6021* 2 Summit of Jillapahar B.7896 2 Smith's hotel 6872 7 Monastery hill below the Dale B. 214.1 The Dale by barometer 6952 ———- 7166 Monastery hill by trigonometry 7165.3 ======= 1 Ging (measured from Dale) B.5156 12 Guard-house at Great Rungeet B.1864 2 Bed of Great Rungeet at cane-bridge 818 5 Guard-house at Little Rungeet 1672 8 Sinchul top 8655 ,, by trigonometry 8607 4 Saddle of road over shoulder of Sinchul 7412 4 Senadah (Pacheem) bungalow 7258 1 Pacheem village 3855 13 Kursiong bungalow B.4813 13 Punkabaree 1815 2 Rungniok village B.4565 2 Tonglo, summit B.10.078 ,, ,, by trigonometry 10.079.4 13 ,, Saddle below summit B.10.008 1 ,, Rocks on ascent of B.8148 4 Source of Balasun 7436 ,, by Dorjiling 7451 8 Goong ridge 7441 —————————————————————————————————— * To summit of chimney, which may be assumed to be 30 feet above where the barometer was hung.
SERIES V.—Elevations in East Nepal, October to December, 1848.
No. By By of Calcutta Dorjiling Obs. Name of Locality Barometer Barometer ——————————————————————————————————- Feet Feet 1 Source of Myong river 4,798 7 Myong valley, camp in 4,345 4,345 7 Myong valley 3,801 3,763 5 Purmiokzong 4,507 4,535 2 Shoulder of Nanki 7,216 1 ,, Shepherds' hut on do. 8,999 3 Summit of Nanki 9,994 10,045 8 ,, Camp on Nanki 9,315 9,324 3 Jummanoo 4,320 4,404 5 Sulloobong 5,244 5,311 4 Bheti village 4,683 4 Sakkiazong village 5,804 5,847 3 Camp on ridge of mountain 8,315 8,391 1 Peak on Sakkiazong 9,356 9,289 3 Makarumbi 5,444 5,525 3 Pemmi river 2,149 2,262 3 Tambur river at junction with Pemmi 1,289 1,487 1 Camp on Tambur, Nov. 13 1,418 1,496 3 ,, Nov. 14 1,600 2 Chintam village 3,404 8 Mywa Guola 2,079 2,185 3 Tambur river, Nov. 18 2,515 2,574 3 ,, Nov. 19 3,113 3,289 3 Taptiatok village 4,207 4,359 2 Loontoong village 5,615 5,738 2 Tambur river, Nov. 23 8,066 8,096 10 Wallanchoon village 10,384 10,389 6 Tuquoroma 12,889 12,999 1 Wallanchoon pass B.16,764 16,748 1 Foot of pass-road 13,501 13,518 4 Yangma Guola 9,236 9,322 2 Base of great moraine 12,098 12,199 2 Top of moraine above ditto B. 679 9 Yangma village camp B.13,516 13,488 1 Lake bed in valley 15,186 1 Upper ditto (Pabuk) B.16,038 4 Yangma valley camp, Dec. 2 10,997 11,001 1 Kambachen pass B.15,770 3 Camp below ditto 11,643 11,611 1 Kambachen village 11,378 2 Camp in valley 11,454 11,514 1 Choonjerma pass B.15,259 4 Camp below ditto 13,289 13,287 1 Yalloong river-terrace 10,449 4 Camp side of valley 10,080 10,035 3 Yankatang village 5,530 5,598 1 Saddle on road south of Khabili 5,746 8 Khabang village 5,495 5,515 1 Spur of Sidingbah, crossed Nov. 19 6,057 5,980 3 Yangyading village 4,082 4,145 4 Sablakoo 4,635 4,718 7 Iwa river, Dec. 12 3,747 3,818 2 ,, Dec. 13 6,134 6,184 4 Singalelah, camp on 9,263 9,328 1 Islumbo pass 10,388 ——————————————————————————————————
SERIES VI.— Elevations in Sikkim, December, 1848, and January, 1849.
No. By By of Calcutta Dorjiling Obs. Name of Locality Barometer Barometer ——————————————————————————————————- Feet Feet 4 Kulhait valley, camp in 6,406 6,374 6 Lingcham village 4,892 4,848 5 Bed of Great Rungeet, December 20 1,805 1,874 6 Lingdam village, December 21 5,552 5,556 6 Nampok village 4,354 4,501 7 Bhomsong 1,556 1,533 8 Mainom top Tr.10,702 B.10,613 1 Neon-gong Goompa 5,225 1 Pass from Teesta to Rungeet 6,824 6 Lingdam village 5,349 5,401 1 Great Rungeet below Tassiding 2,030 Tassiding tamples 4,840 5 Sunnook, camp on 3,955 4,018 1 Bed of Ratong 2,481 1 Pemiongchi temple 7,083 10 Camp at Pemiongchi village 6,551 6,616 9 Tchonpong village 4,952 5,003 1 Bed of Rungbi river 3,165 9 Camp on Ratong river 3,100 3,242 1 Doobdi Goompa 6,493 6,451 22 Yoksun 5,600 5,635 7 Dumpook 6,646 6,710 15 Buckim 8,625 8,693 7 Mon Lepcha top 13,090 13,045 21 Jongri B.13,170 13,184 1 Ratong below Mon Lepcha 7,069 7,217 1 ,, below Yoksun 3,729 3,851 1 Catsuperri lake 6,068 6,009 1 ,, temple 6,493 6,476 4 Tengling village 5,295 5,219 5 Rungbee river bed 3,230 3,350 5 Changachelling temple 6,805 6,850 5 Kulhait river 3,075 3,243 1 Saddle of Hee hill 7,289 6 Camp on Hee hill 6,609 6,744 ——————————————————————————————————
SERIES VII.—Elevations in the Sikkim Terai and Plains of India, Gangetic Delta and Jheels.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet —————————————————————————————————- 3 Siligoree Bungalow 302 12 Titalya 326 3 Sahibgunj (west of Titalya) 231 4 Bhatgong 225 4 Thakya-gunj 284 4 Bhojepore 404 5 Rummai 293 5 Rangamally 262 5 Belakoba 368 1 Mela-meli 337 6 Kishengunj 131 43 Mahanuddy river between Kishengunj and Maldah 153 24 ,, ,, Maldah and Rampore Bauleah 98 12 Rampore (Mr. Bell's) 130 13 Dacca (Mr. Atherton's) 72 54 Jheels, Dacca and Pundua *-.003 33 Megna river (June 1st-6th) +.008 13 Soormah (June 9th) +.048 4 Pundua (June 10th and 11th) +.018 3 ,, (Sept. 7th) -.016 5 ,, (Nov. 16th and 17th) -0.66 —————————————————————————————————- * The observations marked thus * are the differences in inches between the readings of my barometer at the station, and that at the Calcutta observatory, which is 18 feet above the sea-level.
SERIES VII— Elevations in Sikkim, May to December, 1849.
No. By By of Calcutta Dorjiling Obs. Name of Locality Barometer Barometer ——————————————————————————————————- Feet Feet 2 Mik, on Tendong 3,912 4 Namtchi, camp on spur 5,608 1 Tendong summit B.8,671 2 Temi, Teesta valley 4,771 Tr.8,663 4 Nampok, Teesta valley B.5,138 8 Lingmo, Teesta Valley B.2,861 5,033 4 Lingtam spur, Teesta valley B.4,743 2,838 4 Gorh, ,, B.4,061 4,867 2 Bling-bong, ,, B.2,657 4,195 8 Linga village, ,, B.2,724 2,711 10 Singtam, May 14 to 16 B.4,435 2,839 16 Singtam (higher on hill) Oct. 30 to Nov. 2 B.4,575 5 Niong 3,954 2 Namgah 4,229 7 Chakoong 4,371 4,443 27 Choongtam, May 5,245 5,284 37 Choongtam, August 5,247 5,297 4 Dholep, Lachen 6,120 6,145 4 Dengha, Lachen 6,337 6,399 3 Latong, Lachen 6,471 6,310 8 Kampo Samdong 7,315 7,344 1 Chateng 8,819 8,695 1 Chateng, lower on spur 8,493 8,343 33 Lamteng village 8,900 8,867 53 Zemu Samdong 9,026 8,926 1 Snow bed across Zemu river 9,828 4 Camp on banks of Zemu 10,223 10,271 74 Junction on Thlonok and Zemu 10,864 10,828 47 Camp on banks of Zemu river 12,064 12,074 1 Zemu river, June 13 12,422 1 Zemu river, higher up, June 13 13,281 2 Yeunga (Lachen valley) 10,196 43 Tallum Samdong 11,540 11,424 20 Tungu, July 12,779 12,723 30 Tungu, October 12,799 12,747 1 Palung plains 15,697 3 Sitong 15,372 2 Kongra Lama pass 15,745 15,642 5 Yeumtso (in Tibet) 16,808 2 Bhomtso (in Tibet) 18,590 6 Cholamoo lakes (in Tibet) 16,900 2 Donkia pass, October 18,589 2 Donkia pass, September 18,387 56 Momay Samdong 15,362 15,069 Measured from Momay 1 Donkia, September 13 16,876 17,079 1 Kinchinjhow, September 14 17,495 17,656 1 Sebolah pass 17,604 17,567 1 South shoulder of Donkia, September 20 18,257 18,357 1 Mountain north of Momay, September 17 B.17,394 1 West shoulder of Donkia mountain, Sept. 26 B.18,510
The following were measured trigonometrically. Forked Donkia mountain Tr.20,870 Kinchinjhow mountain Tr.22,750 Tomo-chamo, east top of Kinchinjhow Tr.21,000 Thlonok mount, Peak on Tr.20,000 Chango-khang mountain Tr.20,600 Tukcham mountain, from Dorjiling Tr.19,472 Chomiomo mountain Tr.22,700 Summit of Donkia (from Donkia pass and Bhomtso) Tr.22,650 Tunkra Mountain, from Dorjiling Tr.18,250 By Dorjiling Barometer 48 Yeumtong 11,933 11,839 7 Yeumtong, October 11,951 By Yeumtong Barometer 2 Snow bed above Yeumtong B.15,971 16,000 3 Punying B.11,299 By Dorjiling Barometer 51 Lachoong village, August B. 8,712 8,474 12 Lachoong village, October B. 8,705 8 Lacheepia B.15,293 15,231 2 Tunkra pass B.16,083 3 Rock on ascent to ditto B.13,078 13,144 4 Keadom B. 6,609 3 Tukcham village B. 3,849 5 Rinkpo village B. 6,008 7 Laghep B.10,423 1 Phieungoong B.12,422 3 Barfonchen B.11,233 1 Chola pass B.14,925 3 Chumanako B.12,590 17 Phadong B. 5,946 3 Tumloong, Nov. 3rd and 4th B. 5,368 105 Higher on hill, Nov. 16th to Dec. 9th B. 5,976 1 Yankoong B. 3,867 2 Tikbotang B. 3,763 3 Camp, Dec. 11th B. 2,952 12 Serriomsa B. 2,820 11 Dikkeeling B. 4,952 2 Singdong B. 2,116 3 Katong ghat, Teesta B. 735 5 Namten B. 4,483 6 Cheadam B. 4,653 —————————————————————————————————-
SERIES IX.—Khasia Mountains, June to November, 1850.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet —————————————————————————————————- 36 Churra (Mr. Inglis's) 4,069 167 Churra bungalow opposite church, August 4,193 102 Churra bungalow opposite church, Oct., Nov. 4,258 25 Kala-panee bungalow 5,302 63 Moflong 6,062 1 Chillong hill 6,662 9 Syong bungalow 5,725 1 Hill south of ditto 6,050 32 Myrung bungalow, July 5,647 6 Myrung bungalow, Sept. 5,709 9 Chela 80 63 Nunklow 4,688 6 Noukreem 5,601 10 Mooshye 4,863 35 Pomrang 5,143 12 Amwee 4,105 9 Joowye 4,387 3 Nurtiung 4,178 —————————————————————————————————-
SERIES X.—Soormah, Silhet, Megna, Chittagong, etc.
No. of Elevation Obs. Name of Locality Feet —————————————————————————————————- 27 Silhet (Mr. Stainforth's) 133 38 Soormah river, between Silhet and Megna 46 36 Silchar 116 24 Megna river +.020* 12 Noacolly (Dr. Baker's) -.039 10 Noacolly on voyage to Chittagong .000** 72 Chittagong (Mr. Sconce's) 191 8 Chittagong flagstaff-hill at south head of harbour 151 2 Seetakoond hill 1,136 16 Seetakoond bungalow -.069* 3 Hat-Hazaree -.039 12 Hattiah -.049 4 Sidhee -.039 17 Chittagong to Megna -.014** 10 Eastern Sunderbunds +.002 —————————————————————————————————- * Difference between barometer at station and Calcutta barometer. ** The observations were taken only when the boat was high and dry, and above the mean level of the waters.
Abies, Brunoniana, i. 206, 209, 272, 274, 342; ii. 25, 32, 44, 108; Smithiana, ii. 25, 32, 45; Webbiana, i. 191, 272, 307, 342; ii. 44, 108. Abrus precatorius (note), i. 16. Acacia Arabica, i. 60, 80; Catechu, i. 31, 52, 393, 395; Serissa, i. 193. Acarus, ii. 173. Aconitum, Himalayan, ii. 108; palmatum, i. 168; Napellus, i. 168; variegatum (note), ii. 107. Acorns, abundance of, i. 373. Acorus Calamusa, i. 286. Actinolites, ii. 146. Adamia cyanea, i. 112. Adenanthera pavonina, ii. 328. AEgle Marmelos, i. 25, 50, (note) i. 16. Agates, i. 33, 91. Ailurua ochraceus, ii. 108. Akshobya, image of, i. 322. Alligator, i. 51, 54; droppings of in river banks, ii. 251. Alluvium, Gangetic, i. 88, 379. Alsophila gigantea, i. 110, 142; (note), ii. 13. spinulosa (note), ii. 13. Amber used in Sikkim, ii. 194. Ameletia Indica, i. 386. American plants in Himalaya, ii. 39. Amherstia, ii. 245. Amlah, Sikkim, ii. 192; examination by, ii. 211. Amulet, Tibetan, i. 166. Amwee, ii. 315. Andromeda, ii. 22, 39; fastigiata, i. 343. Andropogon acicularis, i. 385; muricatus, i. 42. Animals at Tungu, ii. 92. Antelope, ii. 132. Antilope Hodgsoni, ii. 157. Ants' hills, white, i. 20. Aponogeton, i. 62. Apoplexy, symptoms of at great elevations, ii. 178. Apple, crab, ii. 32; wild, i. 205; ii. 148. Aquilaria Agallocha, ii. 328. Aralia used for fodder, i. 359; pith yielding rice-paper, i. 359. Ararat, Mount, ii. 3. Areca gracilis, ii. 10 (note), i. 143. Arenaria rupifraga, ii. 89. Argemone Mexicana, i. 30. Arisoema, i. 49. Aristolochia saccata, ii. 6. Arrat, name of Lepchas, i. 127. Arrow-root, i. 93. Artemisia, headache produced by, ii. 20; Indica (note), ii. 20. Arums, food prepared from, ii. 49; poisoning by, ii. 75. Arun river, i. 224; ii. 124, 143; sources of, ii. 167. Asarum, ii. 48. Assam valley, view of, ii. 290. Ass, wild, ii. 172. (See Equus Hemionus and Kiang). Astragalus, used for making paper, ii. 162; Tibetan (note), ii. 165. Atmosphere, dry, i. 65; transparency of, ii. 127, 169. Atmospheric vapours, strata of, i. 188, 310. Attar of roses, i. 78. Aucuba, i. 126; ii. 39. Aurora Borealis, i. 37; Appendix, p. 384.
B
Baghoda, i. 26. Baikant-pore, i. 393. Bails, or Thuggee stations, i. 68. Baisarbatti terrace, i. 401. Baker, Dr., ii. 339. Balanites, i. 25. Balanophora, ii. 19, 47; cups made from, i. 132; knots caused by, i. 133. Balasun river, i. 110, 402. Bamboo, dwarf, i. 126; eatable grain of, i. 313; flowering of, i. 155, 158; kinds of in Khasia, ii. 268; kinds and uses of in Sikkim, i. 155, 158; planted, i. 386. Bambusa stricta, i 30. Bananas, wild, i. 20, 143; scarlet-fruited, ii. 319. Ban, or Lepcha knife, i. 130. Banyan tree, i. 18; of Calcutta gardens, ii. 246. Barnes, Mr., i. 95; Mr. Charles, i. 114. Barometer, accident to, ii. 139; observations on Jheela, ii, 258. Baroon on Soane river, i. 35. Bassia butyracea, i. 151; latifolia, i. 16. Bath, hot, at Bhomsong, i. 305; at Momay, ii. 133; at Yeumtong, ii. 117. Beadle, Lieut., i. 26. Beaumontia, i. 401. Bee, alpine, ii. 68; boring, i. 374; leaf-cutting, i. 46. Beejaghur, i. 56. Bees'-nests, i. 201; ii. 16. Begonia, alpine, ii. 108. Behar, hills of, i. 32. Belcuppee, i. 28. Bellows, Himalayan, ii 82; of Khasia, ii. 310; of leaves, i. 53. Benares, i. 71; observatory at, i. 74. Berberis Asiatica (note), i. 24; concinna, ii. 198; insignis, i. 364. Betel-pepper, i. 99; ii. 327. Bhaugulpore, i. 90; gardens at, i. 91. Bhel fruit, i. 50. Bhomsong, i. 297; ii. 8; temperature of soil at, i. 305. Bhomtso, ii. 124, 164, 174; elevation, temperature etc., at, ii. 175. Bhotan, called Dhurma country (note), i. 136; 366 (note). Bhotanese (note), i. 136; ii. 232. Bhotan Himalaya, i. 153; ii. 165, 298. Bhoteeas, i. 205, 215. Bhote (note), i. 136. Bignonia Indicta, i. 16. Bijooas, or Lepcha priests, i. 135. Bikh poison, i. 168; ii. 108. Bind hills, i. 64. Birds at Momay, ii. 131; of Khasia, ii. 305; of Terai, i. 399. Black-rock of Colonel Waugh (note), ii. 18. Blocks, granite, ii. 293, 310; split, i. 201; syenite, ii. 303. Boat on Ganges, i. 70. Boga-panee, ii. 287, 308. Bombax, i. 26. Boodhist banners, i. 144; monuments, i. 147; temple, i. 77; worship, i. 174, 324; worship introduced into Sikkim, i. 127. Borassus, i. 39. Bore, or tidal-wave, ii. 343. Bor-panee, ii. 301, 318. Borrera, ii. 165, 173. Borr (Pandanus), i. 300; ii. 9. Boswellia thurifera, i. 29, 39. Botrichium Virginicum, i. 293. Boulders in river-beds, i. 288; of gneiss on Jongri, i. 353; on Mon Lepcha, i. 342. Bowringia, ii. 313. Bread, Tibetan, i. 297. Breccia, modern formation of, i. 200. Bridge, at Amwee, ii. 315; living, ii. 268; of canes, i. 149; ii. 21. Buceros, i. 187. Buchanania, i. 26. Bucklandia, ii. 185. Buckwheat, cultivated at Jigatzi, ii. 171; wild, ii. 31. Bufo scabra, ii. 96. Bugs, flying, i. 81. Burdwan, i. 6; coal-fields, i. 8. Burkutta river, i. 28. Burrampooter, altered course of, ii. 253, 346; old bed of, ii. 256; Tibetan, see Yaru-tsampu; view of from Khasia, ii. 300, 301. Butea frondosa, i. 9, 52, 381, 392. Butter, churning, ii. 77, 87; ornaments made of, ii. 88. Butterflies, painted lady, ii. 33; at various elevations, ii. 26, 65, 98, 132; tropical, i. 152.
C
Cachar, ii. 326; rain-fall at, ii. 334. Coesalpinia paniculata, i. 25. Cajana, i. 13. Calami, species of in Himalaya, i. 143. Calamus, ii. 10. Calcutta, journey to, ii. 242. Callitriche verna? (note), ii. 96. Calotropis, i. 30, 86; C. arborea, i. 72; temperature of, i. 36. Caltha palustris (note), ii. 77; scaposa (note), ii. 77. Camels, i. 61; at Lhassa, ii. 172. Campbell, Dr., joins me in Terai, i. 376; meet at Bhomsong, i. 297; at Choongtam, ii. 146; seizure of, ii. 202; sent as Superintendent of Dorjiling, i. 117; treatment of as prisoner, ii. 205. Cane bridge at Choongtam, ii. 21; at Lachoong, ii 101; over Great Rungeet, i. 149. Canoes of Teesta, i. 392, 396; of Tambur, i. 194; swamped, ii. 335. Capparis acuminata, i. 38. Cardamine hirsuta, i. 230. Cardiopteris, ii. 334. Carex Moorcroftii, ii. 155. Carissa carandas, i. 14, 31. Carroway, ii. 66. Carthancus, i. 80. Caryota urens, i. 143. Cascades of Khasia, ii. 270; of Mamloo, ii. 278. Cassia fistula, i. 393. Casuarina (note), ii. 346. Catechu, collecting, i. 52. Cathcartia, ii. 198. Catsuperri, i. 362; lake, i. 363; temples, i. 365. Cave, Lieut., garden at Churra, ii. 284. Cedrela Toona, i. 144, 193; ii. 18. Cedrus Libami (note), i. 257. Central India, hills of, i. 32. Cervus Wallichii, antlers of, ii. 214. Chachoo river, ii. 84. Chahuchee, i. 51. Chait, description of, i. 324; (note), i. 158. Chakoong, ii. 18, 188. Chamaerops Khasiana, ii. 279. Chameleon, i. 205. Changachelling, i. 368. Chango-khang, ii. 84, 133, 141. Chattuc, ii. 262, 309, 337. Chaulmoogra (See Took), i. 151. Cheadam, ii. 234. Cheer-pine, i. 182. Chela, ii. 306. Chepanga, ii. 15. Cherry, alpine wild, ii. 145. Cheytoong, Lepcha boy, ii. 184. Chillong hill, ii. 290. Chinese plants in Khasia, ii. 318; in Sikkim, i. 126; ii. 39. Chingtam, i. 196. Chirring (red rose), ii. 63. Chiru. See Tchiru, ii. 157. Chittagong, ii. 345; leave, ii. 353. Chokli-bi (Smilacina), ii. 48. Chola, i. 123; summit of pass, ii. 199; view of from Donkia, ii. 127. Cholamoo lake, ii. 124, 157, 176. Chomachoo river, i. 225; ii. 125. Chomiomo, ii. 80, 94, 165. Choombi, ii. 110. Choongtam, ii. 21, 98, 145, 185; insects at, ii. 98; vegetation of, ii. 24. Choonjerma pass, i. 264. Chumulari, i. 125, 185; ii. 110; discussion on, ii. 166; view of from Khasia, ii. 300. Chunar, i. 71. Chung (Limboos), i. 187. Churra-poonji, ii. 272; rain-fall at, ii. 282; table-land of, ii. 277; temperature of, ii. 284. Cicada, i. 107, 127; ii. 305; upper limit of, ii. 96. Cicer arietinum, i. 80. Cinnamomum, i. 162. Cinnamon of Khasia, ii. 309. Cirrhopetalum (note), ii. 10. Clay of Sikkim, i. 155; Appendix, 383. Clematis nutans (note), i. 24. Clerodendron, i. 387. Climbers, bleeding of, ii. 350; of Sikkim, i. 163. Coal, of Burdwan, i. 8; Churra, ii. 278, 285, 303; Terai, i. 403. Cobra, mountain, ii. 20. Cochlospermum, i. 53. Cocks, Sikkim, i. 314. Coelogyne, i. 110; Wallichii, i. 166; ii. 311. Coffee, cultivation of, at Chittagong, ii. 347; at Bhaugulpore, i. 93. Coix, cultivation of, ii. 289. Coles, i. 55, 91. Colgong, i. 94. Colvile, Sir J., i. 5. Comb of Lepchas, ii. 194; of Mechis, i. 408. Conch shells, in Boodhist temples, i. 174, 312; cut at Dacca, ii. 254. Conduits of bamboo, i. 144. Confervae of hot springs, i. 28; Appendix, 375. Conglomerate, ii. 19, 165, 176, 177, 402, 403. Coniferae, Himalayan, i. 256. Conocarpus latifolius (note), i. 16. Cooch-Behar, i. 384. Cooches, i. 384. Cookies, ii. 330. Corbett, Dr., i. 82. Cornelians, i. 33. Cornwallis, Lord, mausoleum of, i. 78. Corpses, disposal of in Sikkim and Tibet, i. 287. Cosi river, i. 96. Cowage plant, i. 12. Cows, Sikkim, i. 314; ii. 150. Crab, fresh-water, ii. 7. Cranes, i. 392; (note) ii. 161. Crawfurdia, ii. 145. Crows, red-legged, ii. 37. Cruciferae, rarity of in Himalaya, i. 113. Cryptogramma crispa, i. 262; ii. 68, 72. Crystals in gneiss, ii. 138. Cupressus funebris, i. 315, 317, 336. Cups, Tibetan, i. 132. Currants, wild, i. 148. Currents, ascending, i. 374. Curruckpore hills, i. 87. Cuttack forests, ii. 340. Cycas pectinata, i. 151, 382; ii. 30; (note), i. 143; trees in Calcutta Garden, ii. 247. Cyclops, figure resembling (note), ii. 195. Cynodon Dactylon, i. 385. Cypress funereal, i. 315, 317, 336. Cypripedium, ii. 68, 322.
D
Dacca, ii. 254. Dacoits, i. 65. Dalbergia Sissoo, i. 101. Dallisary river, ii. 256. Damooda valley, i. 7. Dandelion, ii. 66. Daphne, paper from, ii. 162. See Paper. Date-palm, i. 34, 88; dwarf, ii. 300. Datura seed, poisoning by, i. 65. Davis, Mr. C. E., i. 41. Decaisnea, new edible fruit, ii. 198. Deer, barking, i. 399. Delphinium glaciale, i. 269; ii. 95. Demons, exorcisement of, ii. 114. Dendrobium densiflorum, ii. 19; Farmeri, etc., ii. 323; nobile, ii. 19; Pierardi, i. 103. Dentaria (a pot-herb), ii. 47. Denudation of Himalaya, i. 308; of Khasia, ii. 324. Deodar (note), i. 256. Dewan, Sikkim, i. 117; ii. 97; arrival at Tumloong, ii. 217; conferences with, ii. 221, 225; dinner with, ii. 231; disgrace of, ii. 241; hostility to British, i. 117; house of, i. 304. Dhal, i. 13. Dhamersala, i. 222. Dhob grass, i. 385. Dhurma country, name for Bhotan, (note), i. 366; people (note), i. 136; rajah, i. 136; seal of, i. 372. Digarchi, ii. 125. See Jigatzi. Dijong (name of Sikkim), i. 127. Dilivaria ilicifolia, ii. 347. Dillenia, i. 393, 395. Dinapore, i. 82. Dingcham, ii. 87, 169. Dingpun, at Chola, ii. 200, 201; Tibetan, ii. 160; Tinli, ii. 204. Diospyros embryopteris, i. 392; fruit, ii. 64. Dipterocarpi, ii. 345; D. turbinatus, ii. 348. Diseases attributed in Tibet to elements, ii. 178. Djigatzi, ii. 125. See Jigatzi. Dog, loss of, ii. 100; Tibetan, i. 204; wild, i. 43. Do-mani stone, i. 294. Donkia, i. 123; ii. 126; ascent of, ii. 178; forked, ii. 120; pass, ii. 123, 179; temperature of, ii. 129; tops of, ii. 137. Doobdi temples, i. 336. Dookpa, Boodhist sect (note), i. 366. Doomree, i. 25. Dorje, i. 173. Dorjiling, i. 113; ceded to British, i. 116; climate, i. 119, 120; elevation of, i. 115; leave, ii. 248; origin of, i. 115; prospects of, ii. 248; threat of sacking, ii. 214; trade at, i. 118. Duabanga grandiflora, i. 401. Dunkotah (East Nepal), i. 190. Dunwah pass, i. 30. Dust-storm, i. 51, 81. Dye, yellow, ii. 41.
E
Eagle-wood, ii. 328. Earthquake, Chittagong, ii. 349; Noacolly, ii. 342; Titalya, i. 376. Edgeworthia Gardneri, i. 205, 333; ii. 10, 162. Efflorescence of nitrate of lime, i. 43; of soda, i. 13. Eggs of water-fowl in Tibet, ii. 161. Ek-powa Ghat, i. 59. Elaeagnus, i. 205. Eleocharis palustris (note), ii. 96. Elephants, at Teshoo Loombo, ii. 172; bogged, ii. 333; discomforts of riding, i. 400; geologising with, i. 10; path of, i. 108; purchase of, i. 381; wild, ii. 302. Eleusine coracana, i. 133. Enkianthus, i. 108. Ephedra, ii. 84, 155. Ephemera at 17,000 feet, ii. 141. Epipactis, ii. 66. Equinoctial gales, ii. 144. Equus Hemionus, ii. 172. Eranoboas (note) i. 36, 90. Erigeron alpinus (note), ii. 164. Ervum lens, i. 13. Erythrina, ii. 18. Euphorbia ligulata, i. 46; pentagona, i. 82; neriifolia, i. 46, 82; tereticaulis, i. 46. European plants in Himalaya, ii. 38. Euryale ferox, ii. 255; seeds of, in peat, ii. 341.
F
Fair, 161; at Titalya, i. 118. Falconer, Dr., house of, ii. 243. Falconeria, ii. 353. Falkland Islands, quartz blocks of, (note), ii. 179. Fan-Palm, ii. 279. Fear, distressing symptoms of, ii. 220. Felle, Mr., i. 55. Felspar, concretions of, i. 406. Fenny river, mouth of, ii. 343. Ferns, eatable, i. 293; European, ii. 68, 72. Feronia elephantum, i. 25, 50, (note), i. 16. Festuca ovina, ii. 123, (note) ii. 164. Fever, recurrence of at elevations, ii. 183. Ficus elastica, i. 102; infectoria, i. 26. Figs, i. 157. Fire, grasses destroyed by, i. 385; in forests, i. 146. Fire-wood, Sikkim, ii. 151. Fish, dried, ii. 309; Tibet (note), ii. 183. Fishing basket of Mechis, i. 404. Flame, perpetual, ii. 352. Flood, tradition of, i. 127; ii. 3. Florican, i. 55, 381. Forests of Sikkim, i. 165. Fossil plants of coal, i. 8; of Khasia, ii. 325; of Terai, i. 403. Frogs, Sikkim, i. 165. Fruits of Sikkim, i. 159; ii. 182. Funaria hygrometrica, ii. 19. Fungi, European, ii. 73.
G
Ganges, fall of, i. 71; scenery of, i. 79. Gangetic delta, ii. 340; head of, ii. 252. Gangtok Kajee, ii. 229. Gardeners, native, i. 93. Gardens, Bhaugulpore, i. 91; Burdwan, i. 6; Calcutta Botanic, i. 3, ii. 244; Lieutenants Raban and Cave's, ii. 284; Sir Lawrence Peel's, i. 2. Garnets, amorphous, (note) ii. 123; sand of, i. 80, 371. Garrows, ii. 272. Gaultheria, ii. 22, 182. Gelookpa, Boodhist sect. (note) i. 366. Geology of Choongtam, ii. 27; Khasia mountains, ii. 323; outer Himalaya, i. 406, Paras-nath, i. 32. Geranium, ii. 19. Ghassa mountains, (note) ii. 166. Ghazeepore, i. 78. Giantchi, ii. 168, (note) ii. 131. Glaciers of Chango-khang, ii. 115; Donkia, ii. 136; Himalaya, ii. 57; Kambachen, i. 260; Kinchinjhow, ii. 134, 180; Lachen Valley, ii. 78; Yangma Valley, i. 246. Glory, ornament resembling, ii. 86; round deities' heads, ii. 195. Gnaphalium luteo-album, i. 80. Gnarem Mountain, ii. 18. Gneiss, characters of, (note) ii. 128; cleavage of, ii. 91; flexures of, i. 406. Gnow, (wild sheep), ii. 132. Goa, (antelope), ii. 157. Goats, poisoned by Rhododendrons, ii. 150; shawl-wool, ii. 88. Godowns, opium, i. 83. Goitre, i. 134. Goliath beetles, ii. 98. Goomchen, (tail-less rat), ii. 156. Goong ridge, i. 180. Gordonia Wallichii, i. 102, 157. Gorh, ii. 10; Lama of, ii. 11. Goruck-nath, figure of, ii. 195, (note) i. 323. Gossamer spiders, i. 81, Goughia, ii. 33. Gram, i. 13. Grand trunk-road, i. 10, 11. Granite, blocks of, ii. 310; cleavage planes of (note), i. 345; of Kinechinjhow (note), ii. 287, (note), ii. 128; phenomena of, i. 308. Grant, Dr., i. 90; Mr. J. W., report on Dorjiling, i. 116, Grapes, cultivation of, i. 92; wild in Sikkim, ii. 187. Grasses, absence of on outer Himalaya, i. 113; gigantic, i. 385. Gravel terraces and beds in Terai, i. 378, 380, 382, 401. Great Rungeet river, cross, i. 287; excursion to, i. 142. Greenstone of Khasia, ii. 287. Griffith, Dr., i. 3; (note) ii. 40, 244. Grislea tomentosa, (note) i. 16. Grouse, Himalayan, ii. 113. Grove, sacred in Khasia, ii. 319. Guatteria longifolia, i. 82. Gubroo, i. 345. Guitar, Tibetan, i. 304. Gum arabic, i. 60; of Cochlospermum, i. 53; of Olibanum, i. 29. Gunpowder, manufacture of, i. 9. Guobah of Wallanchoon, i. 217, 230. Gurjun trees, ii. 345, 348. Gyrophora, ii. 130.
H
Hailstorm, i. 405. Halo, i. 69; seen from Donkia, ii. 129. Hamamelis chinensis, ii. 318. Hamilton, Mr. C., i. 65. Hardwickia binata, i. 50, 54. Hares, Terai, i. 399; Tibetan, ii. 157. Harrum-mo, (wild tribe), ii. 14. Hattiah island, removal of land from, ii. 353. Haze on plains, i. 374, 375. Hee hill, i. 371. Helicteres Asoca (note), i. 16. Helwingia, i. 126. Herbert, Major, report on Dorjiling, i. 116. Hierochloe, ii. 115. Himalaya, distant view of, i. 96; vegetation and scenery of outer, i. 108; view of from Khasia, ii. 287, 289, 297. Hippophae, ii. 43. Hodgsonia, i. 395; ii. 7; heteroclita, ii. 350. Hodgson, Mr., i. 122; join in Terai, i. 376; view from house, i, 123. Holigarna, varnish from, ii. 330. Hollyhock, ii. 105. Honey poisoned by Rhododendron flowers, i. 201; preservation of bodies in, ii. 276; seekers, ii. 16. Hooli festival, i. 73, 389. Hopkins, Mr., on elevation of mountains, i. 326. Hornbills, i. 187. Hornets, ii. 26. Horse-chestnut, Indian, i. 394. Horse, wild, ii. 172. Hot-springs, boy passes night in, ii. 184; of Momay, ii. 133, 180; Seetakoond, i. 88; Soorujkoond, i. 27; Yeumtong, ii. 116. House, Lama's, i. 317; Tibetan, at Yangma, i. 242; Wallanchoon, i. 211. Houttynia, ii. 7. Hydnocarpus, ii. 7. Hydropeltis (note), ii. 318.
I
Ice, accumulation of, ii. 47; action of, i. 353 (note), ii. 121; transport of plants in, ii. 247. Imperata cylindrica, i. 385. India-rubber tree, i. 102; ii. 13. Indo-Chinese races, i. 140. Infusoria at 17,000 feet, ii. 123. Inglis, Mr. H., ii. 265. Insects at 4000 feet, ii. 18; Choongtam (5000 feet), ii. 26; Dorjiling (note), ii. 98; Lamteng (8000 feet), ii. 37; Momay (15,300 feet), ii. 132; Tallum (12,000 feet), ii. 68; Tunga (13,000 feet), ii. 93; Zemu river (12,000 feet) ii. 59; Zemu Samdong (9000 feet), ii. 65. Iron forges, chime of hammers, ii. 296; sand, ii. 310; smelting of, in Khasia, ii. 310; stone, i. 401. Irvine, Dr., i. 82. Islumbo pass, i. 280. Ivy, ii. 32.
J
Jaws, i. 18, 90. Japanese plants in Sikkim, i. 126; ii. 39. Jarool (Lagerstroemia), ii. 327. Jasper rocks, i. 50. Jatamansi, i. 217. Jeelpigoree, i. 384; rajah of, i. 389. Jerked meat, i. 214; ii. 183. Jews' harp, Tibetan, i. 338; ii. 219. Jhansi-jeung, see Giantchi, ii. 168. Jheels, ii. 256, 309; brown waters of, ii. 263. Jigatzi (note), ii. 125, 171; temperature of, ii. 171. Job's tears, cultivation of, ii. 289. Jongri, i. 349. Joowye, ii. 316. Jos, image of, at Yangma, i. 236. Jummul river, ii. 253. Juncus bufonius, i. 80, 230. Jung Bahadoor, ii. 239, 243. Juniper, black, sketch of, ii. 55. Juniperus recurva, ii. 28, 45. Junnoo mountain, i. 123, 258, 264. Jyntea hills, ii. 314.
K
Kadsura, ii. 6. Kajee, i. 182. Kala-panee, ii. 285. Kambachen, or Nango pass, i. 250; top of, i. 253; village, i. 257. Kambajong, ii. 125. Kanglachem pass, i. 246. Kanglanamo pass, i. 271, 341, 350. Katior-pot (Hodgsonia), ii. 7. Katong-ghat, ii. 233. Kaysing Mendong (note), i. 286, 332. Keadom, ii. 101. Kenroop-bi (Dentaria), ii. 47. Khabili valley, i. 278. Khamba mountains, ii. 167. Khasia, climate of, ii. 282; geology of, ii. 323; leave, ii. 323; people of, ii. 273. Khawa river, i. 193. Khutrow (Abies Smithiana), ii. 25. Kiang, ii. 172. Kiang-lah mountains, ii. 124, 167. Kidnapping, i. 341. Kinchinjhow, ii. 41, 80, 84, 140; glacier of, ii. 134, 180. Kinchinjunga, i. 344; circuit of, i. 381; view of from Bhomtso, ii. 165; from Choongtam, ii. 14, 188; from Donkia pass, ii. 126; from Dorjiling, i. 123; from Sebolah, ii. 142; from Thlonok, ii. 50. Kishengunj, i. 98; ii. 249. Kollong rock, ii. 293. Kongra Lama, ii. 155; pass, ii. 80. Kosturah (musk-deer), i. 269. Kubra, i. 123, 272. Kulhait river, i. 281, 370; valley, i. 282. Kumpa Lepchas i. 137; Rong, i. 137. Kunker, i. 12, 29, 50, 89, 94: Kursiong, i. 109, 110, 405. Kurziuk, i. 284. Kuskus, i. 42. Kymore hills, geology of, i. 32; sandstone of, i. 39.
L
Lac, i. 9. Lacheepia, ii. 112. Lachen-Lachoong river, ii. 14, 186. Lachen Phipun, ii. 22, 43, 149; conduct of, ii. 61; tent of, ii. 78. Lachen river, ii. 30; length of, and inclination of bed, ii. 176. Lachoong Phipun, ii. 105; valley, headstreams of, ii. 120; village, ii. 103; revisited, ii. 183. Lagerstroemia grandiflora, i. 401. Reginae, ii. 327. Laghep, ii. 197. Lagomys badius, ii. 156. Lagopus Tibetanus, i. 93. Lailang-kot, ii. 286. Lake-beds in Yangma valley, i. 232, 234, 238, 244. Lakes caused by moraines, ii. 119. Lamas, arrival of at Tumloong, ii. 224; dance of, i. 228; music of, i. 313; ii. 218; Pemiongchi, ii. 225; of Sikkim, i. 290; of Simonbong, i. 174; worship of, i. 365; ii. 178. Lamteng, ii. 34, 96, 148. Landslips, ii. 16, 20, 97, 115. Larch Himalayan, i. 255; sketch of, ii. 55. Larix Griffithii, i. 255; ii. 44. Lassoo Kajee, ii. 2. Laurels, i. 162. Lautour, Mr., ii. 345. Leaf-insect, ii. 305. Lebanon, Cedar of, i. 256. Lecidea geographica, i. 221, 352; ii. 130; oreina, ii. 179. Leebong, i. 143. Leeches, i. 107, 167; ii. 17; upper limit of, ii. 54. Leguminosae, absence of in Himalaya, i. 112. Lelyp, i. 205. Lemma minor, i. 306. Lemon-bushes, wild, ii. 233. Lepchas, i. 127; diseases of, i. 134; dress and ornaments of, i. 130; ii. 194; food of, i. 132; music of, i. 133; peaceable character of, i. 128, 136. Lepus hispidus, i. 399; oiostolus, ii. 158. Leucas, a weed in fields, i. 383. Leuculia gratissima, i. 193, 276; Pinceana, ii. 286. Leycesteria, i. 206. Lhassa (note), ii. 168; notices of, i. 299; ii. 27, 172. Lichens, Arctic, i. 352; ii. 130, 165, 179. Licuala peltata (note), i. 143. Lignite, i. 403. Liklo mountain, ii. 50. Lilium giganteum (note), ii. 33. Little Rungeet, cross, i. 157, 175; guardhouse at, i. 371; source of, i. 181. Limboos, i. 137; language of, i. 138. Lime, deposit of, i. 407; ii. 97; nitrate of, i. 43. Limestone, at Rotas, i. 40; nummulite, ii. 266, 346; of Churra, ii. 278; spheres of, i. 55; Tibetan, ii. 177. Lime-tuff, impression of leaves on, i. 44. Limosella aquatica, i. 230. Linaria ramosissima, i. 42. Lingcham, i. 281, 313; Kajee of, i. 282, 284, 371. Lingo cane-bridge, ii. 12. Linum trigynum (note), i. 16. Lister, Colonel, ii. 329. Lizard, i 37; ticks on, i. 37. Lohar-ghur, i. 402. Luminous wood, ii. 151. Lushington, Mr., sent to Dorjiling, ii. 227. Lycopodium clavatum, ii. 19. Lyellia crispa, ii. 19. Lymnaea Hookeri, ii. 156.
M
Machoo valley, ii. 109. Maddaobund, i. 18. Magnolia, Campbellii, i. 125, 166; excelsa, i. 125; distribution of (note), i. 166. Magras, aborigines of Sikkim, i. 139. Mahaldaram, i. 111. Mahanuddy river, i. 98, 375; ii. 250. Mahaser, a kind of carp, i. 398. Mahowa, i. 16, 63. Maidan (term as applied to Tibet), ii. 170. Mainom mountain camp on, i. 307; summit of, i. 310. Maitrya, the coming Boodh, i. 357. Maize, hermaphrodite, i. 157; roasted, ii. 78. Malayan plants in Himalaya, ii. 39. Maldah, ii. 250. Mamloo, village and waterfalls of, ii. 278. Mango, blossoming, i. 61. Mani, or praying-cylinder, i. 135, 172, 211; turned by water, i. 206. Mantis of Khasia, ii. 305. Marlea, ii. 33. Marmot, i. 93; head and feet of, ii. 106. Martins' nest, spiders in, i. 46. May-fly at 17,000 feet, ii. 141. M'Lelland, Dr., i. 3. Mealum-ma (nettle), ii. 189, 336. Mechi fisherman, i. 404; river, i. 383; tribe, i.101, 140. Meconopsis, i. 81; ii. 281; Nepalensis, ii. 53. Meepo, i. 198; house of, ii. 194; joined by, ii. 11; wife of, ii. 193. Megna, altered course of, ii. 341; navigation of, ii. 338. Melastoma, ii. 18. Mendicant, Tibetan, ii. 189. Mendong, i. 211, 332; Kaysing (note), i. 286. Menziesia, ii. 113. Mesua ferrea, ii. 328. Midsummer, weather at, ii. 59. Mirzapore, i. 64. Moflong, ii. 288. Momay Samdong, arrival at, ii. 118; climate of, ii. 143; second visit to, ii. 180. Monastic establishments of Sikkim, i. 367. Monghyr, i. 87. Monkeys, i. 278; ii. 37. Mon Lepcha, i. 342. Monotropa, ii. 19. Monuments of Khasia, ii. 319. Moormis, i. 139. Mooshye, ii. 314. Moosmai, ii. 268. Moraines, ancient, at Lachoong, ii. 104; at Tallum, ii. 67; at Yangma, i. 231, 246; extensive, ii. 118; indicating changes of climate, i. 380. Morung of Nepal, i. 378, 382. Mountains, deceptive appearance of, ii. 127. Moss of puff-ball, ii. 13. Mudar (Calotropis), i. 86. Muddunpore, i. 35. Mugs at Chittagong, ii. 345. Mulberry, wild, i. 151. Mules, Tibetan (note), ii. 228. Mungeesa Peak, i. 55. Munnipore dance, ii. 331; frontier, ii. 334; (note), ii. 329. Murraya exotica, i. 44. Murwa beer, i. 133, 175, 285, 291; grain, i. 133. Mushroom, eatable, ii. 47. Musk-deer, i. 209; ii. 37. Muslin, Dacca, ii. 254. Mutton, dried saddles of, ii. 183. Myong valley (East Nepal), i. 181. Myrung, ii. 292. Mywa Guola, i. 137; sunk thermometer at, i. 198.
N
Nagas, ii. 332. Nageesa (Mesua ferrea), ii. 320. Namten, ii. 223. Nango mountain i. 236; or Kambachen pass, i. 250. Nanki mountain, i. 183. Napleton Major, i. 92. Nardostachys Jatamansi, i. 217; (note), ii. 164. Nauclea cordifolia, i. 26; parvifolia, i. 26. Neongong temple, i. 311. Nepal, East, journey to, i. 178. Nepalese Himalaya, i. 125, Nepenthes, ii. 315. Nettles, i. 157; gigantic, i. 182; ii. 188. Nightingales, i. 332. Nimbus of the ancients (note), ii. 195. Ningma, Boodhist sect (note), i. 366. Nipa fruticans, i. 1; ii. 355. Nishung, or Moormis, i. 139. Noacolly, ii. 339; extension of land at, ii. 341. Nonkreem, ii. 310. Nummulites of Khaaia limestone, ii. 325. Nunklow, ii. 300. Nunnery at Tumloong, ii. 191. Nursing, i. 124, 347. Nurtiung, ii. 318. Nut, Himalayan, ii. 114. Nutmegs, wild, ii. 353. Nymphaea pygmaea, ii. 312.
0
Oaks, i. 109; distribution of in India (note), ii. 336; Sikkim, i. 157; upper limit of, ii. 114. Observatory at Benares, i. 74. Oil of Bassia butyracea, i. 151; of B. latifolia, i. 16; Kuskus, i. 42; mustard, linseed, and rape, i. 13; uggur, ii. 328; wood, ii. 348. Olax scandens, i. 31. Olibanum, Indian, i. 29. Olivine (note), ii. 123. Omerkuntuk, i. 32. Onglau (mushroom), ii. 47. Opium, East Indian, cultivation and manufacture of, i. 83; quality of, i. 85. Opuntia, i. 205. Orchideae, growth of in Khasia, ii. 321; of Khasia, ii. 281. Orobanche, Himalayan, i. 262; Indica, i. 16. Ortolan, i. 98. Otters, i. 198. Ovis Ammon, i. 244; ii. 132; skulls of, i. 249. Oxalis sensitiva, i. 102. Oxytropis Chiliophylla (note), ii. 164.
P
Pacheem, i. 111; vegetation of, 112. Painom river, ii. 167. Palibothra, i. 90. Palms, distribution of in Sikkim, i. 143; fan, i. 29; of Khasia, ii. 267. Palung plains, ii. 84, 152; view of from Sebolah, ii. 142. Pandanus, i. 300; ii. 9. Papaw, ii. 350. Paper, manufactory at Dunkotah, i. 190; of Astragalus, ii. 162; of Daphne and Edgeworthia, i. 205, 303; ii. 162; of Tibet, ii. 162. Papilio Machaon, ii. 65; (note), ii. 68. Paras-nath, i. 12, 32; geology of, i. 32; summit of, i. 21. Paris, ii. 18. Parochetus communis, ii. 50. Patchouli plant, ii. 314. Patna, i. 82. Pawn, i. 99. Peaches, Sikkim, i. 158; cultivation of, ii. 185. Peacock wild, i. 30. Peat at Calcutta, ii. 341. Pea-violet, ii. 309. Peel, Sir L., garden of, i. 2. Peepsa, i. 157. Pelicans, mode of feeding, i. 80. Pemberton, Capt., treatment of his embassy in Bhotan (note), ii. 202. Pemiongchi temple, i. 327. Pemmi river (East Nepal), i. 192. Pepper, Betel, i. 99. Perry Mr., i. 98. Peuka-thlo, ii. 81. Phadong Goompa, ii. 192; confinement at, ii. 209. Phari, ii. 110. Pheasant (Kalidge), i. 255; horned, ii. 37. Phedangbos (Limboo priests), i. 138. Phenzong Goompa, ii. 192. Phieungoong, i. 332; ii. 198. Phipun, Lachen, ii. 22, 149; of Lachoong, ii. 105. Phoenix acaulis, i. 145; (note), i. 143, 400; dwarf, i. 22, 382; paludosa, i. 1; ii. 355; sylvestris, i. 88. Phosphorescent wood, ii. 151. Photinia, ii. 22. Phud (Tibet mendicant), ii. 186. Phyllanthus emblica, i. 273; (note), i. 16. Picrorhiza, i. 272. Pigeons, ii. 37. Pines, gigantic, ii. 108; Himalayan, i. 256; ii. 44, 198; rarity of in Sikkim, i. 169. Pinguicula, ii. 40. _Panus excelsa, ii. 45, 105; Khasiana, ii. 282, 288, 301; longifolia, i. 145, 182, 278, 280; ii. 3, 45. Piptanthus Nepalensis, ii. 5. Pitcher-plant, ii. 315. Plantago leaves, used to dress wounds, ii. 75. Plantain, scarlet-fruited, ii. 309; wild, i. 143. Plants, English, on Soane river, i. 45; English, on Ganges, i. 80; temperature of, i. 36; of English genera in Terai (note), i. 398. Plectocomia, i. 143. Plumbago, i. 407; ii. 46. Poa annua, i. 118, 221; laxa, ii. 123 Poa (fibre of Boemeria), i. 157. Podocarpus neriifolia (note), i. 256. Podostemon (note), ii. 314. Poisoners, i. 65. Poisoning of goats by rhododendrons, ii. 150; of Bhoteeas by arum-roots, ii. 75. Polygonum cymosum, ii. 31. Polypodium proliferum, i. 50. Pomrang, ii. 313. Pony, Tibetan, i. 118; ii. 75; (note), ii. 131. Poppy, cultivation of, i. 31; ii. 352. Porcupine, i. 205. Potamogeton natans, i. 306. Potatos, culture of in East Nepal, i. 259; Khasia, ii. 277; Sikkim, i. 158. Pothos, ii. 18. Praong (bamboo), i. 158, 313. Primula petiolaris, i. 306; Sikkimensis, ii. 77. Prinsepia (note), ii. 102, 291. Procapra picticaudata, ii. 157. Prunella, ii. 132; vulgaris, ii. 66. Prunus, used for fodder, i. 359. Pteris aquilina, ii. 19; (note), ii. 53. Pullop-bi (Polygonum), ii. 31. Pulse accelerated at great elevations, ii. 131, 142. Pundim mountain, i. 345; cliff of, i. 346. Pundua, ii. 264. Punkabaree, i. 102, 374, 403. Purnea, i. 97. Pyrola, ii. 43.
Q
Quartz-beds folded, i. 406; blocks in Falkland Islands (note), ii. 179. Quercus semecarpifolia, i. 187. Quoits, i. 338.
R
Raban, Lieut., ii 333; garden of at Churra, ii. 84. Radiation, powerful in valleys, i. 209. Rageu (deer), ii. 98. Rain-fall at Churra, ii. 282; at Noacolly, ii. 340; diminution of at Rotas, i. 43; in Sikkim (Appendix), 412; Silchar, ii. 334. Rajah, Sikkim, audience of, i. 302; poverty of, i. 303; (note), ii. 216; presents from, ii. 64; punishment of, ii. 246; residence of, ii. 191, 217. Raj-ghat i. 44. Rajmahal hills, i. 95. Raklang pass, i. 292. Ramchoo lake (of Turner), ii. 143, 167. Rampore Bauleah, ii. 251. Ranee of Sikkim, presents from, ii. 227. Rangamally, i. 393. Ranunculus aquatilis, ii. 156; hyperboreus (note), ii. 112; sceleratus, i. 45, 80. Ratong river, i. 358. Rat, tail-less, ii. 156. Red snow, absence of in Himalaya, ii. 117. Release from confinement, ii. 237. Reptiles of Khasia, ii. 305; of Sikkim, ii. 25. Rhododendrons, i. 166, 167; alpine, i. 220; ii. 58; anthopogon, i. 220, 349; arboreum, i. 126, 200, 274, 275, 276; ii. 125; argenteum, i. 116, 358; ii. 6; Aucklandii, ii. 25; barbatum, i. 166, 274; campylocarpum, i. 261; Dalhousiae, i. 126, 162; ii. 25; distribution of at Chola (note), ii. 197; Edgeworthii, ii. 25; Falconeri, i. 272, 274, 307; flowering of at different elevations, ii. 181; formosum, ii. 301; Hodgsoni, i. 250, 274; leaves curled by cold, ii. 199; nivale, ii. 89, 155; of Churra, ii. 282; poisoning of goats by, ii. 150; setosum, i. 220, 349; superb at Choongtam, ii. 186. Rhubarb, gigantic, ii. 58; used as tobacco, ii. 152. Rice-paper plant (note), i. 359. Rice, Sikkim, i. 155; upper limit of cultivation, ii. 105. Ringpo, ii. 196. Ripple-mark on sandstone, i. 43, 63. Rivers, diurnal rise and fall of, ii. 69; of West Bengal, i. 33; temperature of, ii. 60; velocity of, ii. 99. Rocks, absence of scratched in Sikkim, ii. 120; falling, ii. 57; moutonneed, ii. 136; moved by frosts, etc., ii. 179; retention of heat by, i. 222; strike of in Tibet, ii. 177. Rong (name of Lepchas), i. 127. Rosa involucrata, ii. 250; macrophylla, ii. 43; sericea, i. 168. Rose Gangetic, (Rosa involucrata), ii. 255; gardens, i. 78; large-flowered, ii. 43. Rotas-ghur, i. 40; palace, i. 42. Rottlera tinctoria, i. 315. Rummai, i. 394. Ryott valley, ii. 190.
S
Saddle, Tibetan, i. 296. Sakkya, invocation of, i. 229; Sing, i. 321; Thoba, i. 331. Sakkyazong, i. 186, ii. 66. Sal, i. 21. Salix tetrasperma, i. 400; Babylonica, ii. 32. Salmonidae, distribution of in Asia, (note) ii. 183. Salt, country in Tibet, ii. 124; monopoly of by Indian Government, ii. 339. Salvinia, ii. 338. Sandal-wood, red, ii. 328. Sandstone of Kala-panee, ii. 286; of Khasia, ii. 267; of Kymore hills, i. 39; of Terai, i. 379, 402; slabs of, 160. Sara (crane) breeding in Tibet (note), ii. 161. Sar-natb, i. 77. Satpura range, i. 32. Satyrium Nepalense (note), ii. 102. Saussurea, bladder-headed, ii. 109; gossypina, i. 225. Saxifraga, arctic, i. 81; ciliaris, ii. 280; (note) ii. 100. Scirpus triquetra (note), ii. 96. Scitamineae, ii. 18. Sconce, Mr., ii. 345. Scorpions, i. 53. Scratched rocks, absence of in Sikkim, ii. 120. Seal of Bhotan Rajah, i. 372. Seasons of vegetation in Sikkim, ii. 182. Sebolah pass, ii. 141. Seetakoond bungalow and hill, ii. 352; hot springs of, i. 88; perpetual flame at, ii. 352. Sepoys, Lepcha and Tibetan, ii. 235. Shahgunj, i. 60. Shales, carbonaceous in Terai, i. 403. Sheep, breeding of, ii. 150; feeding on rhododendron leaves, i. 261; grazed at 16,000 feet, ii. 89; at 18,000 feet, ii. 170; Tibetan, i. 272; wild, i. 243, ii. 132. Sheergotty, i. 31. Shell-lac, i. 9. Shells, ii. 7; alpine, ii. 156. Shepherd's purse, i. 221. Shigatzi (see Jigatzi). Shooting, prejudice against, ii. 40. Showa (stag) antlers of, ii. 214. Shrubs, northern limits of, ii. 118. Siberian plants in Himalaya, ii, 38, 66, 63, 74. Sidingbah (note), i. 274, 276. Sikkim, climate of, i. 160; Rajah, i. 116, 298; vegetation, i. 168; Dewan, i. 298. Silchar, ii. 328. Silhet, ii. 326, 335; leave, ii. 337. Siligoree, i. 375, 399. Silok-foke, Lama of, ii. 4. Simonbong temple, i. 172. Simulium, i. 157. Sinchul, ascent of, i. 124, 125; plants of, i. 125. Singdong, ii. 223. Singtam Soubah, ii. 15; at Chola, ii. 201; dismissal of, ii. 210; illness of, ii. 72; joined by, ii. 64. Singtam village, ii. 14. Sissoo, i. 395. Sitong, ii. 153. Skimmia, i. 126; laureola, i. 167. Sleeman, Major, reports on Thuggee, i. 67. Slopes, inclination of in Sikkim, i. 327. Smilacina (a pot-herb), ii. 48. Snake-king, image of, i. 369, (note) i. 328. Snakes, ii. 25, 305. Snow, perpetual ii. 116, 128, 169; phenomena of (note), i. 252; shades, i. 357; storms, i. 355. Snowy Himalaya, views of from Tonglo i. 184; very deceptive appearance of, i. 124. Soane, i. 35; cross, i. 38, 45, 53; elevation of bed, i. 46; mouth of, i. 82; pebbles, i. 33, 91; plants in bed of, i 45. Soda, sesqui-carbonate of, i. 13; effloresced, ii. 157. Soil, temperature of, i. 35, 36, 45, 158, 170, 186, 219, 247; at Bhomsong, i. 305. Songboom, i. 361. Soormah river, ii. 261; basin of, ii. 256. Soorujkoond, hot-springs of, i. 27. Sound, produced by boulders in rivers, ii. 48; transmission of, i. 253. Sparganium ramosum (note), ii. 96. Sphaerostema, ii. 33. Sphynx atropos, i. 46. Spiders in martins' nests, i. 46, Spondias mangifera, i. 82. Squirrels, i. 46. Stainforth, Mr., house at Pomrang, ii. 313; at Silhet, ii. 335. Sterculia foetida, i. 39. Stick lac, i. 9. Sticks, warming (note), ii. 154. Stipa, ii. 132. Stauntonia, i. 112. Strawberry of the plains, i. 395; alpine, ii. 108. Struthiopteris, ii. 68. Strychnos potatorum, i. 50. Stylidium, ii. 336. Styloceras ratna, i. 399. Sulkun, i. 56. Sultangunj, rocks of, i. 90. Sundeep island, deposit of silt on, ii. 342. Sunderbunds, ii. 354; compared with Jheels, ii. 260; vegetation of, ii. 340. Sunipia (note), ii. 10. Sunnook, i. 317. Sunrise, false, i. 63. Sunset, false, i. 63; in Tibet, ii. 173. Suspension bridge, iron, i. 199. Syenite, blocks of, ii. 302. Symplocos, dye from, ii. 41. Syong, ii. 291.
T
Taktoong river, ii. 32. Talauma Hodgsoni, i. 162. Taldangah, i. 12. Tallum Samdong, ii. 67, 96. Tamarind tree, i. 17. Tamarisk, i. 392. Tambur river, i. 194; elevation and slope of bed, i. 200. Tanks, plants in, i. 62; movements of water in, ii. 342. Taptiatok (E. Nepal), i. 204. Tassichooding temples, i. 257. Tassiding, i. 289, 315; temples, i. 319; foundation, i, 325. Tchebu Lama, i. 302; ii. 5, 193; house and chapel of, ii. 194. Tchiru (antelope), ii. 157. Tchuka (rhubarb), ii. 58. Tea, buttered, ii. 78; brick, i. 297; made of Photinia, etc., ii. 22; Tibetan, ii. 78. Teal, English, ii. 158. Tea-plants, i. 5; cultivation of in Sikkim, i. 144; cut by hail at Dorjiling, i. 408; at Myrung, ii. 92; Chittagong, ii. 347. Teelas, ii. 262, 327. Teesta river, at Bhomsong, i. 297; exit from mountains, i. 396; in plains, i. 392; junction with Great Rungeet, i. 154; signification of, i. 398; temperature of, i. 397; ii. 60. Teeta (febrifuge), i. 272. Temples of Catsuperri, i. 365; Changachelling, i. 368; Choongtam, ii. 21; Doobdi, i. 366; Neongong, i. 311; Pemiongchi,i. 327; Phadong, ii. 192; Simonbong, i. 172; Tassichooding, i. 257; Tassiding, i. 319; Wallanchoon, i. 228; Yangma, i. 235; various, i. 313; mode of building, i. 311; worship in, i. 812, 365; ii. 178. Tendong, i. 127; ii. 3.; summit of, ii. 6. Terai, i. 100, 104; definition of, i. 377; excursion to, i. 373; meteorology of, i. 384; of Khasia, ii. 266; seizure of, ii. 240; vegetation of, i. 101. Terraces, at Baisarbatti, i. 401; junction of Zemu and Thlonok, ii. 53; Momay, ii. 119; Yalloong, i. 270; Yangma, i. 234, 242. Terya, ii. 226. Teshoo Loombo (note), ii. 171. Tetrao-perdrix nivicola, ii. 113. Thalictrum, i. 19; alpinum, ii. 115; glyphocarpum (note), i. 24. Thermometer, black bulb, i. 15; boiling-point, ii. 113, 153, Appendix, 453; lost, ii. 184; minimum left on Donkia pass, ii. 129; sunk, i. 198; Appendix, 441, 451. Thigh-bone, trumpet of, i. 173, 314. Thlaspi arvense, ii. 68. Thlonok river, ii. 47. Thomson, Dr., joined by, ii. 238. Thugs, river, i. 67; suppression of, i. 65. Tibet, animals of, ii. 93, 157, 173; enter, ii. 155; inhospitality of climate, i. 299; snow-line, elevation of in, ii. 128, 175. Tibetans, i. 262; blackening faces of women, ii. 172; camp of, ii. 85; charm-box, i. 270; child's coral, ii. 87; churns, ii. 77; cups, i. 212; diet, i. 212; Dingpun, ii. 160; dogs, i. 204; drunk, i. 230; guitar, i. 304; headdresses, ii. 86; hospitality, ii. 94; household, i. 212; houses, ii. 67; pipe, i. 212; salute, i. 203; sepoys, ii. 160, 200, 235; tea, i. 212; ii. 78; tents, ii. 77. Ticks, i. 166, 279; ii. 79. Tidal-wave, ii. 343. Tide in Bay of Bengal, ii. 340; in Sunderbunds, ii. 354. Tiger hunt, i. 56. Tikbotang, ii. 228. Tingri, ii. 169. Titalya, i. 100, 376. Toad, Javanese, ii. 96. Tobacco, Chinese, ii. 232; made from rhubarb, ii. 152. Toddy-palm, i. 34, 39, 88. Tofe Choney, i. 16. Tomo-chamo mountain, ii. 122. Tong (arum-roots prepared for food), ii. 49; collection and preparation of, ii. 65. Tonglo, i. 158; camp on, i. 183; elevation of, i. 171; excursion to, i. 155; summit of, i. 167; temperature of, i. 170; vegetation of, i. 167. Took (Hydnocarpus), ii. 7. (See Chaulmoogra). Toon (Cedrela), i. 193, 312. Tourmalines, i. 224; ii. 27. Toys, children's in Sikkim, i. 338. Travelling equipment, i. 179. Tree-fern, i. 110; ii. 13; in Silhek, ii. 336.
END OF VOLUME II OF HIMALAYAN JOURNALS.
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