"How can the firemen climb up there?"

The question may well be asked; for the tall New York houses seem to reach to the sky.

"Ordinary ladders won't do."

"I guess not," replies the New Yorker. "Why, as far back as 1885, fourteen out of every hundred buildings were too high to be scaled that way. We build tall here."

"Then, how about the fire-escape?" asks the Englishman.

"Wa'll, iron ladders or steps are permanently fixed to some of the top windows. But the firemen bring their hook-and-ladder; that is a most valuable contrivance."

Pursuing his enquiries, the Englishman would find that a hook-and-ladder consisted, briefly, of a strong pole, with steps projecting on either side, and a long and stout hook at the top. The fireman can crash this hook through a window, and hang the pole firmly over the window-sill; the hook, of course, plunging right through into the room.

Climbing up this pole, with another length in his hand, the fireman can hang the second length into the window next above, and so on, up to the very top of the building. He has also a hook in his belt, which he can fasten to the ladder, when necessary, to steady and secure himself. In fact, a well-trained and courageous fireman can climb up the tallest structures by these appliances.

These hooked poles are made of various lengths, ranging from about 10 to 20 feet and more. Some single ladders and extensions reach to over 80 feet; but it will be seen at once that a succession of, say, ten- or twelve-feet hooked-pole ladders can be easily handled to reach from floor to floor, and that, used by an active and well-trained fireman, it can become a most important appliance for saving life.

St. Louis appears to have been the pioneer city in the use of this apparatus; but New York and other corporations have followed suit. Since 1883 every candidate for the New York Fire Department must undergo a course of instruction in the use of this and other appliances, and the thorough learning in this work renders them better men for their ordinary duties.

The ladders are wheeled to the fire on a truck 50 feet long, and called a "hook-and-ladder truck." It carries ladders of different lengths, and also conveys pickaxes, shovels, battering-rams, fire-extinguishers, life-lines, etc., and tools for pushing open heavy doors. The majority of the ladders are placed on rollers, and can be removed at once without disturbing those resting above them.

AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.

To some extent, therefore, we might say that the hook-and-ladder truck with its various appliances answers to the horsed escape of the London Brigade; but, while London firemen make use of the escape as a point of vantage whence they can discharge water on the fire, the Americans largely adopt the water-tower. Indeed, they appear to regard this apparatus as indispensable for high business buildings. Briefly, it consists of lengths of pipe, which can be quickly jointed together, the lengths being carried on a van, and varying from about 30 to 50 feet. When jointed, they can rapidly be raised to an upright position, the topmost length having a flexible pipe and nozzle for the discharge of the jet of water. This pipe can be turned in any direction by means of a wire rope descending below, and the tower can be revolved by simple apparatus-gearing. The whole appliance is so arranged that it can be controlled by one man when in action. The water is supplied by a hose fastened to the bottom of the tower.

AMERICAN FIRE-LADDERS.

As in England, hydrants are largely used in the States, and the steam fire-engine is also, of course, a very important appliance. The average American steam fire-engine generally weighs about three tons, with water in boiler and men in their seats on the machine. The water in the boiler is kept at steaming-point by a pipe full of steam passing through it, or boiling water is supplied from a stationary boiler, so that on arriving at a fire a working-pressure is obtained. The steam-heating pipe, however, is capable of being instantly disconnected at the sound of the fire-alarm.

The alarm, moreover, is so arranged that the first beat of the gong draws a bolt fastening the horse's halter to the stall. The animals rush to their posts, the firemen slide down poles from the upper stories to the lower, through holes in the floors made for the purpose, and, every one smartly doing his duty, the horses are harnessed, and the engine or apparatus-van is fully ready to start through the open doors before the gong has finished striking—unless it be a very brief alarm.

Four snaps harness the horses.

The animals stand on the ground-floor by the sidewalls, facing the wheels of the engines and trucks. The harness is hung over the pole-shaft exactly above the place where the horses will stand, the traces being fastened to the truck; the hinged collar is snapped round the animal's neck, the shaft-chain is fastened with a snap, and two snaps fix the reins. One shake of the reins by the coachman detaches the harness from the suspenders, and away fly the horses.

Arriving at the fire, the engine is attached to the nearest hydrant, and the delivery-hose is led off to the burning building. The hydrant is probably of the upright kind, standing up above the roadway level, though some cities use the hydrant below-ground, and covered with an iron plate.

But, the water obtained and the engine ready, the method of attacking the fire at close quarters and inside the edifice is adopted if practicable; and, to accomplish this purpose, the firemen have to fight through blinding and suffocating smoke. For hours they may struggle, well-nigh choked and scorched, though scarce a flash of flame may be visible. To reach the seat of fire, doors are broken down, and even iron shutters opened; while hose is led upstairs, or down into cellars, in order to quench the flames at their source.

Sometimes, however, on arrival at a fire, the chiefs realize that the conflagration has gained such hold that the firemen's efforts will be most usefully directed to prevent it from spreading. When the water has done its work, the fireman can usually turn it off by a relief-valve without recourse to the engineer, the complete control thus gained tending to prevent unnecessary damage by water.

The American fire-brigades—or departments, as they are called—may be broadly divided into two classes: those of great cities, consisting of a paid staff of officers and men, devoting all their time to the service; and, secondly, those of smaller places, consisting of a staff of unpaid volunteers, pursuing their usual daily avocations, but agreeing to respond to fire-alarms;—these men, though unpaid, are generally exempt from service as jurymen and militiamen, and sometimes are permitted a slight abatement of taxation. Some brigades, again, consist partly of fully-paid firemen, and partly of volunteers.

Many of these organizations are not only charged with the extinguishment of fires, but also with the regulation of the storage and sale of combustibles, and in some cities with the supervision of building construction. It is claimed that this arrangement has led to a much more economical and efficient administration of this department; and undoubtedly the fire-brigade has a very lively interest in the security and stability of buildings. The firemen's efforts to improve them rank as valuable precautions and preventives of fire.

It is also claimed that some of the American fire departments, as, for instance, that of New York, are among the best in the world, and their engines superior in size and capacity and greater in number than those of other lands. On the other hand, the laws regulating the prevention of fires are said to have been less stringent than those obtaining in some other countries.

The terrible fire in New York in 1835, when the loss reached three million pounds, led to the development of the fire-service and of apparatus; and prizes were offered for designs for steam fire-engines. Cincinnati appears to have taken the lead at first; but the New York Fire Department is now regarded as one of the most perfect. It is under the control of three commissioners, whom the mayor appoints; and it has substantially a military organization.

The paid brigades are usually divided into companies, varying from six to twelve individuals, including both officers and men. A company may be supplied with a steam fire-engine and tender for hose, or with a chemical fire-engine, such being called "engine companies"; or with a hook-and-ladder truck and horses, called "hook-and-ladder companies"; or with hose-cart only and horses, called "hose companies." A hose-cart will carry nearly a thousand feet of hose, as well as tools for use at fires and half a dozen firemen; while some of them also convey short scaling-ladders.

A water-tower is sometimes placed with an engine or a hook-and-ladder company; and, again, these two companies are occasionally brigaded together. Further, many cities are arranged into company districts, the captain of each company taking general control over all material, and the enforcement of the laws connected with his department. In some cities, the companies are combined into battalions under a chief of battalion, the highest officer commanding the whole being known as the chief of the department, or may be rejoicing in the imposing title of the Fire-Marshal.

Some of the larger cities have shown their wisdom in appointing their firemen for life, including the highest officers, dismissal only taking place on misconduct; but in others the baneful practice is followed of dismissing at least the chief officials after a change in local politics—a plan which does not conduce to great efficiency and discipline. New York has abandoned this policy since 1867.

In arranging sites for the fire companies, the principle pursued is to distribute small companies with different appliances over as wide an area as possible, instead of concentrating men and appliances at certain central points. By thus placing companies separately, it is believed that a larger area is served in the same time than by concentrating them together. On the occurrence of large fires, when many companies are called out, distant companies are called from various points, like reserves, to take the places of some of those in action, to meet calls that may arise in the same districts; while at some stations, or company houses, the men are divided into two sections with duplicate apparatus, so that, while one responds instantly to the first call, the second at once prepares to answer any subsequent alarm.

Among the apparatus used is the jumping-sheet, designed as a last attempt to save life; circular rope nets some 15 feet in diameter being carried on the tenders and trucks in New York; while their canvas sheets have rope handles. Light chemical fire-engines are also largely used in small places and in the suburbs of large cities, the lightness of the machine being, no doubt, a great recommendation. An efficient pattern is the double-tank engine, one tank of which can be replenished while the other is being discharged. The tanks contain a mixture producing carbonic acid gas, which is a great foe to fire. The gas is absorbed by water, and as it expands causes a great pressure, sufficient to force the fluid through hose, and throw it a distance of about a hundred and fifty feet. When the water reaches the flames, the gas held in solution is liberated by the heat and chokes the fire. The mixture will not freeze, even when the temperature falls to zero; it is thus always ready. The machine is light, and contains its own propulsive force for the water; so that we cannot wonder it is widely adopted.

Similar apparatus throws hydrochloric acid and ammoniacal gases, but opinions differ as to their utility; for though efficient fire-quenchers, yet a small portion only of the gas appears to be carried by the fluid and actually reaches the flames.

Another piece of apparatus is a hose-hoister. For using hose on very high buildings, and also, indeed, for hoisting ladders to great heights, a simple appliance has been devised, consisting essentially of a couple of rollers in a frame; the rope, of course, runs over the rollers to hoist the hose, but the frame is shaped to adjust itself to the coping or cornice of the wall.

For cities on rivers, fire-boats are in use, some being fitted with twin-screw propellers, and the crew being sometimes berthed on shore; while, lastly, as in England, the fire-alarm telegraph forms a marked feature of the American system. The alarms are fitted with keyless doors, and the telephone is also largely in use. When, however, the keyless door of the alarm is opened by its handle, a gong sounds on the spot, attracting attention, and preventing, it is intended, wrongful interference with the alarm. When the door is opened, the call for the fire company is then sent.

As for the horses, they are regularly trained in New York. They are accepted on trial at the dealer's risk, and placed in a training-stable; here they grow accustomed to the startling clang of the alarm-gong, to the use of the harness, and to being driven in an engine or ladder-truck.

Passing through these trials satisfactorily, the animal is promoted to service in a company; and if, after a time, a good report is forthcoming as to activity, intelligence, etc., it is bought in and placed on the regular staff. Then it is given a registered number, which is stamped in lead, and worn round the creature's neck. A record is kept of each horse, the average term of service working out at about six years.

Some horses are so highly trained that they will stand in their stalls unfastened; others are simply tethered by a halter-strap, a bolt in the stall-side holding a ring in the strap. It is this bolt which is withdrawn by the first beat of the fire-alarm, instantly releasing the horse.

Fire-horses often develop heart disease, as a result of the excitement of their work, and sudden deaths sometimes occur. When beginning to show signs of varying powers or of unfitness for their exciting duties, the horses are sold out of the service, being still useful for many other purposes.

It was of one such that Will Carleton wrote in stirring verse. The old fire-horse was sold to a worthy milkman, and instead of the exciting business of rushing to fires came the useful occupation of taking around milk.

But one day the old horse heard the exciting cry it knew so well. The rush of the fire-horses sounded near; the engine rattled past. The influence was too strong. Regardless of the milk, the old fire-horse started forward; his eye gleamed with the old excitement; no effort could restrain him, and he swept along to the fire, with the lumbering milkcart behind. Over fell the cans; the milk splashed all over the streets; but on and on tore the steed, until he actually came in front of the fire-horses, and kept the lead. Then, when he reached the fire, he halted, moped, and presently fell in the street, and died. He was game to the last.

This glance at the American fire departments indicates the great excellence which many of them have reached. The remarkable efficiency is found both in organization and in appliances, and it no doubt invites comparison with British fire-brigades. If so, Britain has nothing to fear. Such comparison, if superficial, is little worth; and if exhaustive, would consider all the varying circumstances of each country, and would discover great merit on both sides.

Thus, the immense height of the American edifices, no doubt, renders the hook-and-ladder a most valuable appliance; but buildings in Britain, under the present Acts, are not likely to tower so high; and the improved fire-escapes so deftly handled by British firemen yield as good, or even better, results for the work they have to do. The question of the chemical fire-engine is for experts and experience to decide; and whether, with its fumes and its gases, it is really superior under all circumstances, and whether it will ever supersede the water-engine for all purposes, the twentieth century may reveal.

We conclude that absolute superiority cannot be claimed by any one country. The truth is, that the means of fighting fire have been developed to very great excellence in many places; and when we consider the high courage and efficient training of the men, and the valuable improvements and great usefulness of the various engines and appliances employed, we may truly regard this immense development as one of the wonders of the modern world.

THE END.

Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.