Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar

CONTENTS

PART I
	PAGE
Preface	iii
List of Illustrations	xv
CHAPTER I
Introduction	1
CHAPTER II
THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE
Reasons for devoting a chapter to the Palaeolithic Age	13
Tertiary Man	13
The Ice Age	14
Continental Britain	19
The relation of palaeolithic man to the Ice Age	22
‘Eolithic’ man?	25
The environment of palaeolithic man in Britain	30
Whence did he come?	30
Chronological puzzles	31
Palaeolithic skeletons	33
Palaeolithic artists	35
Range of the palaeolithic hunters in Britain	35
Where their tools have been found	36
Inhabited caves	37
Cave implements and river-drift implements	38
Divers forms of tools	41
Palaeolithic workshops	42
Handles	44
Uses of tools	45
Culture of the palaeolithic inhabitants of Britain	45
Religion	49
Totemism	51
Was the domestication of animals a result of totemism?	55
Magic	57
Was there a ‘hiatus’ between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Age?	59
CHAPTER III
THE NEOLITHIC AGE
The early neolithic immigrants	62
The origins of British civilization were neolithic	63
Geography of neolithic Britain	64
Who were the later neolithic invaders?	64
Evidence from dolmens	65
Relics of the neolithic population: their settlements	67
Flint mines and implement factories	69
Difficulty of determining age of stone implements	71
Indefiniteness of the prehistoric ‘Ages’	72
Stone implements	73
The two main divisions of flint implement	73
How flint implements were made	73
Celts	75
Campaign against the Morini	305
Its failure leaves Caesar’s base not quite secure	305
Caesar determines to sail from the Portus Itius (Boulogne)	306
He attempts to obtain information about Britain from Gallic traders	307
Gaius Volusenus sent to reconnoitre the opposite coast	308
Envoys from British tribes sent to Caesar to promise submission	308
He commissions Commius to return with them and gain over tribes	309
Volusenus’s voyage of reconnaissance	309
Kentishmen prepare for resistance	312
Certain clans of the Morini spontaneously promise to submit	312
Caesar’s expeditionary force	313
Sabinus and Cotta sent to punish the recalcitrant Morini and the Menapii	314
Caesar’s voyage	314
His cavalry transports fail to put to sea in time	314
He anchors off the Dover cliffs	315
Late in the afternoon he sails on to Walmer—Deal	316
The landing vigorously resisted	316
Caesar’s victory indecisive owing to want of cavalry	317
The Romans encamp	317
British chiefs sue for peace	318
The cavalry transports dispersed by a gale	318
Caesar’s fleet partially wrecked	319
The British chiefs prepare to renew hostilities	320
Caesar labours to retrieve the disaster	320
The 7th legion surprised and attacked while cutting corn	321
Military operations suspended owing to bad weather	322
The Britons, attempting to rush Caesar’s camp, are defeated with heavy loss	323
Caesar compelled by the approach of the equinox to return to Gaul	323
Causes of his partial failure	323
Two transports fail to make the Portus Itius: the troops whom they carried attacked by the Morini	324
Punishment of the Morini and Menapii	324
Thanksgiving service at Rome for Caesar’s success	325
CHAPTER VII
CAESAR’S SECOND INVASION OF BRITAIN
Caesar builds a fleet for a second expedition	326
Mandubracius flees from Britain and takes refuge with Caesar	327
Caesar winters in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum	327
His correspondence with Cicero	327
Cicero’s hopes and fears about the second British expedition	329
Caesar returns to Gaul	329
He is obliged to march to the country of the Treveri	330
Returning to the Portus Itius, he finds fleet and army assembled	331
The theory that Caesar landed opposite Walmer and Deal	644
XII.	The theory that Caesar landed at Richborough or Sandwich	662
The Credibility of Caesar’s Narrative of his Invasions of Britain		666
The Disembarkation of the Romans in 55 B.C.		673
The Site of Caesar’s Camp in 55, and of his Naval Camp in 54 B.C.		673
The War-Chariots of the Britons		674
The Operations of the Britons during the last few Days of Caesar’s First Expedition		677
Where did Caesar encounter the Britons on the Morning after his Second Landing in Britain?		678
Caesar’s earlier Operations in 54 B.C. (B. G., v. 9-11)		685
Caesar’s Second Combat with the Britons in 54 B.C.		688
The Combat between Trebonius and the Britons		692
Where did Caesar cross the Thames?		692
Caesar’s Passage of the Thames		698
The Site of Cassivellaunus’s Stronghold		699
Did Londinium exist in Caesar’s Time?		703
The Julian Calendar and the Chronology of Caesar’s Invasions of Britain		706
Topographical Notes		735
Addenda		739
Index		743
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE		PAGE
1	Harpoon-head (Kent’s Cavern)	43
2	Flint flake (Reculver)	43
3	‘Tongue-shaped’ implement (Biddenham, Bedfordshire)	43
4	Oval implement (Dartford Heath)	43
5	Rough-hewn celt (Mildenhall, Suffolk)	75
6	Polished celt (Coton, Cambridgeshire)	75
7	Hafted celt (Solway Moss)	76
8	Chisel (Burwell, Cambridgeshire)	77
9	Double-edged axe-head (Hunmanby, Yorkshire)	78
10	Flint knife (Saffron Walden)	79
11	Curved blade (Fimber, Yorkshire)	80
12	Leaf-shaped arrow-head (Yorkshire Wolds)	81
13	Lozenge-shaped arrow-head (Yorkshire Wolds)	81
14	Triangular arrow-head (Amotherby, Yorkshire)	81
15	Barbed arrow-head (Rudstone)	81
16	Ground-plan of chambered barrow (Uley)	104
17	Horned cairn of Get	106
18	Flat bronze celt (East Riding of Yorkshire)	142
19	Flanged bronze celt (Norfolk)	142
20	Flanged bronze celt with sto [The maps of South-Eastern Britain and East Kent, like all maps of Ancient Britain, are inevitably inexact; but the errors are unimportant. The Dover cliffs, for instance, have lost by erosion, but one cannot say how much (see pages 528-30); nor is it possible to indicate the exact nature of the slight change which the coast has undergone between Sandown Castle and Walmer Castle (pages 521-5). Again, I have not attempted to delineate the coast west of Pevensey or west or north of Reculver precisely as it was in 55 B.C., because, even if such an attempt had been successful, nothing would have been gained for the purpose of this book. As far as possible, however, the maps represent the conclusions reached in the article on the configuration of the coast of Kent in the time of Caesar. The outline of Richborough harbour and of the estuary between Thanet and the mainland is intended to show approximately the high-water mark of spring tides. At low tide the channel was very narrow (page 519).] Clyx.com