William Herbert Hobbs

Abrasion, beneath glaciers, 275.

Abyssinia, fissure eruptions in, 101.

Accordance, of tributary valleys, 162.

Adiabatic refrigeration, in relation to glaciers, 262.

Adolescence, in cycle of erosion, 169.

Advancing hemicycle of glaciation, 263-266.

Advective zone, of atmosphere, 270.

Aftershocks, of earthquakes, 83.

Agassiz, glacial lake, 325-328.

Agassiz, Louis, cited, 339, 400.

Age, of strata, 38, 52.

Aggradation, 162.

Aktian deposits, 36.

Alaskan coast, map of, 79.

Albs, 376.

Alden, W. C., cited, 316, 318, 319.

AlgÆ, growth of, in hot springs, 194.

“Alkali” in deserts, 201.

Alluvial bench, 214.

Alluvial cone, 213.

Alluvial-dam lakes, 423.

Alluvial fan, 213.

Alpine glaciers, 383, 386.

Alterations of minerals, 27.

Altitude, of different parts of lithosphere, 18.

American Falls, future extinction of, 357.

Amphiboles, 459.

Amphitheaters, formed on drift sites, 369.

Amundsen, R., cited, 23.

Analysis, of folds, 54.

Anderson, Tempest, cited, 146, 147.

Andersson, J. G., cited, 157, 295.

Andesite, 463.

Angular unconformity, 53.

Antarctica, 154, 281.

Antarctic protuberance, 17.

Antarctic shelf ice, 289, 290.

Anticlinal folds, 42.

Anticlines, 42;

tension in, 45.

Anticyclone, glacial, 284.

Ants, factor in rock decomposition, 156.

Apron, alluvial, 213.

Aprons, outwash, 280, 281.

Arbenz, P., cited, 195.

Arches, of folded strata, 42;

sea, 233, 234.

Architecture, of fractured earth superstructure, 55.

Arctic depression, 17.

Areal geological map, 62.

ArÊtes, 373.

Arldt, Theodore, cited, 11, 19, 438.

Arnold, Ralph, cited, 157.

Arrangement of oceans and continents, 10.

Artesian wells, 190, 191, 196.

Ash, volcanic, 122.

Askja, eruption of, in 1875, 101.

Assmann, R., cited, 294.

Astronomical vs. geodetic observations, 12.

Atlantis, North, 16.

Atmosphere, compressibility of, 8.

Attack, of the weather, 149.

Atwood, W. W., cited, 7, 160, 298, 300, 313, 372.

Axial plane, of folds, 42.

Axis, of folds, 42.

Azurite, 453.

Bacteria, part taken in weathering, 156.

“Bad Lands”, control of relief in, 223, 224.

“Bad Land” topography, 214.

Bajir, 216.

Balance, between degradation and aggradation, 161.

Bandai-san, dissection of, 141.

Barchans, 211.

Barrancoes, 139.

Barrell, J., cited, 221, 447.

Barrier beaches, 240;

sections of, 242;

uplifted, 249, 250.

Barrier lakes, 420.

Barriers, 240;

mountain, in relation to glaciers, 262.

Bars, 240.

Basal conglomerate, 37, 53.

Basalt, 463;

faulted blocks of, 58;

of Hawaii, 105.

Base level, 159.

Basin-range lakes, 402, 403.

Basin Range structure, 440.

Basins, flat bottomed, separating dunes, 216;

of exudation, 272;

of sedimentation, earlier, 38.

Bastin, E. S., cited, 210.

Batholites, 143.

“Bath tubs”, 395.

Beach pebbles, 239.

Beach sand, 206, 238.

Beaches, remaining from ice-dam lakes, 410;

shingle, 239;

storm, 240;

uplifted, “feathering out” of, 344.

Bedded structure of rocks, 31.

Beede, J. W., cited, 195.

“Bee-hive” mountains, 380, 381.

Belgica expedition, 289.

Belt of sea which divides land masses, 11.

Berghaus, H., cited, 424.

Bergschrund, 370.

Berson, A., cited, 294.

Berthaut, General, cited, 7.

“Bird-foot” delta, 167.

“Biscuit cutting” effect of glacial sculpture, 372.

Blackwelder, E., cited, 318.

Block mountains, 446.

Blocks, orographic, 58.

Bocchi, 125.

Bog, floating, 429.

Bogs, of peat, 429, 430.

Bonney, T. G., cited, 146.

Borax deposits, in deserts, 201.

Border drainage, about glaciers, 316, 320, 321.

Border lakes, 399, 414.

Bosses, 143.

“Bottoms”, from entrenched meanders, 173.

“Bowlder clay”, 310.

“Bowlder pavement”, 237.

Bowlders, faceted, 310;

glacial, 298;

“soled”, 276, 310;

thrown up during earthquakes, 69.

Bowlder trains, 306.

Bowman, Isaiah, cited, 179.

Box caÑons, 214.

Braided streams, 280.

Branner, J. C., cited, 6, 91.

“Bread-crust” lava projectiles, 119.

Breakers, 232.

Breccia, fault, 60.

Bridges, nature of damage to, during earthquakes, 75, 76.

Brigham, A. P., cited, 424.

BrÖgger, W. C., cited, 66.

Bruce, W. S., cited, 290, 382, 399, 414.

Bryant, H. G., cited, 289.

Buckley, E. R., cited, 433, 434.

Built terraces, 235.

Bunsen, cited, 192.

Burns, G. P., cited, 434.

Burton, W. K., cited, 92.

Buttes, 216.

Bysmalite, 442, 447.

Calcareous ooze, 36.

Calcareous sinter, 184.

Calcareous tufa, 464.

Calcite, 455.

Caldera, 405, of composite volcanic cones, 126.

Camiguin volcano, birth of, 96, 97.

Campbell, M. R., cited, 178.

CaÑons, 160;

box, 214.

Capri, blue grotto of, 257, 258.

Capture, river, 175, 176, 179.

Carbonization, 151.

Cascade Mountains, fissure eruptions of, 102.

Cascade stairway, 376.

Caspian Depression, 14.

Cauliflower cloud, 130.

Caverns, galleries directed by joints, 182;

of limestone, 182, 195;

refuge of predatory animals, 185.

Caves, sea, 234.

Cellular structure, of lava domes, 112.

Centers of dispersion, of North American Pleistocene glaciers, 298.

Centrosphere, 8.

Cerussite, 455.

Chaix, A., cited, 195.

Chaix, E., cited, 195.

Chalcopyrite, 453.

Challenger expedition, 38, 96, 97, 293.

Chamberlin, T. C., cited, 29, 156, 191, 196, 205, 221, 222, 293, 295, 318, 319, 337, 339.

Character profiles, coast, due to uplift or depression, 259;

composite, 229;

directly due to volcanic agencies, 145, 146;

from stream erosion in humid climates, 177;

of arid lands, 220;

of shore features, 243;

referable to continental glaciers, 318;

referable to mountain glaciers, 379.

“Checkerboard topography”, 226.

Chemical sediments, 34.

Chicago outlet, 331.

Chimneys, in “driftless area”, 300.

Chimneys, shore feature, 234.

China, loess of, 207.

Chlorite, 458.

Chlorite schist, 465.

Cicatrice, from dissection of volcanoes, 142.

Cinder cones, 105;

corrugations upon, 138;

diameter of crater in relation to violence of explosions, 123;

grander eruptions of, 117;

profiles of, 123;

secondary, 111.

Cinder eruptions, artificially simulated, 122.

Cirques, 371;

life history of, 371;

subordinate, 371.

Cities, destruction of, by drifting sand, 218.

Clastic rocks, 30.

Clay slate, 466.

Cleavage, mineral, 27, 450;

rock, 44.

Clefts, volcanic, in Iceland, 99.

Cliffs, notched, 233.

Climatic conditions, in relation to mountain sculpture, 443.

Clinometer, 48.

Cloudbursts, in deserts, 201, 212.

Cloud zones, 268, 269, 294.

Coals, 466.

Coast, Dalmatian, grottoes of, 258.

Coast, elevation of, during earthquakes, 80;

submergences of, during earthquakes, 80.

Coastal plains, 246;

belted, 247.

Coast lines, even, 246;

indicative of uplift or submergence, 245, 246;

ragged, 246.

Coast records, 245.

Coasts, Atlantic and Pacific contrasted, 438;

embayed, 251.

Coast terraces, 80, 250, 241;

uplift, effect of, on sediments, 38.

Coats Land, shelf ice of, 290.

Cobalt, in meteorites, 23.

Cobb, Collier, cited, 179.

Coigns, of earth’s tetrahedral figure, 15.

Coleman, A. P., cited, 318.

Colk lakes, 408, 409.

Colks, scape, 277.

Collet, L. W., cited, 39.

Colorado desert, 74.

Color, of minerals, 450.

Cols, 374;

origin of in cirque intersection, 372.

Comb ridges, 373.

Compass, geologist’s, 47, 48.

Competent layer, 42;

in relation to lava reservoirs, 144.

Composite cones, caldera of, 126, 127.

Composite groups of joints, 57.

Composite volcanic cones, 105.

Composition of earth, 29.

Composition of the earth’s core, 21.

Compression of a district during earthquakes, 76.

Cones, alluvial, 213;

cinder, 105;

composite volcanic, 105.

Conformable series, 51.

Conglomerate, 34, 463;

basal, 37, 53.

Constructional topography, 309.

Construction of buildings, in earthquake regions, 89-91.

Continental glacier, behind rampart, 281;

in Victoria Land, 280-285;

of Antarctica, literature of, 295;

of Greenland, 271;

of Greenland, melting on margin of, 278;

of Greenland, literature, 295.

Continental glaciers, contrasted with mountain glaciers, 266-268;

defined, 266-267;

of “ice age”, 297;

of ice age, cross section of, 302;

nourishment of, 283, 286, 295;

profiles of, 267.

Continental platform, 19.

Continental shelves, 18, 19;

origin, 232.

Continents, arrangement of, 10;

development of, 14;

increase in area of, through wave action, 241;

past history of, 14.

Contortions of the strata, 40.

Contours, of topographic maps, 62.

Contraction of earth’s surface, during earthquakes, 74.

Contrary movements upon coasts, 254, 257.

Convective zone, of atmosphere, 270.

Conway, W. M., cited, 294.

Copernicus, cited, 10.

Copper glance, 455.

Coquina, 35.

Cornish, Vaughan, cited, 211, 222, 244.

Corrasion, 162.

Corrosion, of rocks, 156.

CoulÉe lakes, 406.

Coves, 233, 234.

Cracks, earthquake, 74.

Crater, evolution of form of, 128.

Crater lakes, 405, 406.

Craterlets, 84;

sections of, 85.

Craters, mechanics of explosions in, 115.

Crater, volcanic, 95.

Credner, G. R., cited, 179.

Crescentic levee lakes, 416, 417.

Crestline, of an anticline, 42.

Crevasse, marginal, on mountain glaciers, 370.

Crevasses, in connection with river cut-offs, 164;

on glaciers, 391.

Cross, Whitman, cited, 216, 441, 447.

Cross-bedded structure, 37.

“Crystal cellars”, 27.

Crystal form, of minerals, 449.

Crystals, behavior under special treatment, 24, 25;

essential nature of, 23;

forms of, 454, 457;

individuality of, 24;

mutilated, later growth of, 26;

symmetry of form of, 23.

Crustal shortening, 42.

Cuestas, 246, 247;

south of Lake Ontario, 361, 362.

Cut and built terrace, on steep shore of loose materials, 237.

Cut-offs, of meanders, 164.

Cut rock terraces, 235.

Cuvier, cited, 199.

Cvijic, J., cited, 195.

Cycle of glaciation, 263, 294.

Cycles, of glaciation, Pleistocene, 297;

of stream meanders, 163.

Dana, J. D., cited, 6, 104, 106, 109, 111, 146, 147.

Dana, E. S., cited, 29.

Daly, R. A., cited, 447.

Dante, cited, 9.

Darton, N. H., cited, 179.

Darwin, Charles, cited, 199, 322, 323, 339.

DaubrÉe, A., cited, 54.

David, T. W. E., cited, 23.

Davis, C. A., cited, 434.

Davis, W. M., cited, 7, 178, 179, 221, 247, 276, 317-319, 378, 382.

Deceptive unconformity, 53.

Decomposition, 149, 156;

mechanical results of, 150.

DÉbris cones, 395.

Deep sea deposits, 36, 38.

Deflation, 204.

Deforestation, in relation to agriculture, 156;

of Karst region, 188;

relation to erosion, 157.

Degeneration, 149.

De Geer, G., cited, 351, 366, 410.

Degradation, 161, 162.

Dekkan, fissure eruptions of, 101.

Delebecque, A., cited, 424.

De Lorenzo, cited, 125, 132.

Delta, “Bird-foot”, 167;

bottom-set beds, 167;

dry, 213;

of Mississippi River, rate of growth of, 168.

Delta deposits, manner of growth of, 167.

Delta lakes, 419, 420.

Delta region, of a river, 35.

Deltas, abnormal, below outlets of lakes, 431;

in relation to agriculture, 166;

in relation to population, 166;

lake, 428;

of rivers, 165, 166, 179;

sections of, 168.

Dendritic glaciers, 383, 385, 386.

Deniston, cited, 121.

Deposition, in zones about desert, 216, 217.

Deposits, aktian, 36;

chemical, 34;

continental, 37;

deep sea, 36, 38;

delta, manner of growth of, 167;

fluviatile, 35;

fluvio-glacial, 31, 310;

in valley vacated by glacier, 398;

glacial, 31;

lacustrine, 35, 217;

littoral, 36;

marine, 35;

mechanical, 34;

organic, 34;

salt, 217;

shoal water, 26;

sinter, 184;

terrigenous, 36.

Derangement of water flow, during earthquakes, 83, 84.

Derwies, V. de, cited, 447.

Descent of ground water, 180.

Desert, due to deforestation, 156;

erosion in, 214, 222;

law of, 197.

Desert lakes, 423.

Desert landscapes, features in, 209.

Desert rains, 212.

Desert rocks, red color of, 222.

Desert varnish, 201, 222.

Deserts, former shore lines in, 198;

self-registering gauge of past climates, 198.

Destructional topography, 309.

Detection of plunging folds, 49, 50.

Detonations, during Vulcanian eruptions, 131.

Device, to simulate building of cinder cones, 122.

Diabase, 462.

Diagram, to illustrate formation of lava reservoirs, 143.

Diagrams for comparison of fold types, 42;

to show the effect of spheroidal weathering, 150.

Diamonds, in the drift, 307.

Diffission, 204.

Dikes, hollow, 140;

in China, 167;

in Holland, 166;

from volcanic dissection, 140.

Diller, J. S., cited, 39, 425.

“Diluvium”, 305.

Dimples, on margin of continental glaciers, 272.

Dip, 46.

Dirt cones, 396.

Disintegration, 156;

of rocks in deserts, 202;

through root expansion, 154;

through tree growth, 154, 155.

Dislocations, marginal, about deserts, 212.

Dispersion of the drift, 304-309, 319.

Displacement, total, on faults, 59.

Dissection of volcanoes, 139.

Distributaries, on alluvial fans, 213, 220.

Divides, 170;

migration of, 175.

Dolines, of Karst region, 187, 422.

Dolomite, 465.

Dolomites, 203, 228, 445.

Domed mountains of uplift, 441.

Dome structure, of granite masses, 152, 157.

Domes, lava, 105.

Dovetailing, of sea and land, 11, 17.

Drainage, changes of, due to glaciation, 336-338;

haphazard, of glaciated area, 301;

interference of glaciers with, 320;

of glaciers, 397;

reversals of, due to glaciation, 337, 338;

trellis, 175.

Drainage lines, control of, by fractures, 224.

Drainage networks, controlled by fractures, 225, 226;

repeating pattern in, 225.

Drake, Sir Francis, circumnavigation of the globe, 10.

Dreikanten, 205.

Driblet cones, 104, 125;

of Kilauea, 107.

“Drift”, 305.

Drift, assorted, 309;

dispersion of, 304-309;

englacial, 277, 278;

unassorted, 309.

“Driftless area”, 300, 313, 318.

Driftless area, map of, 298.

Drift sites, 368, 369.

Drowned rivers, 251.

Drumlins, 311, 316, 317, 399.

Dry deltas, 213.

Drygalski, E. von, cited, 273, 279, 295, 296.

Dry weathering, in deserts, 201.

Dune, war with oasis, 216.

Dune lakes, 421.

Dunes, 222;

forms of, 210, 211;

in relation to obstructions, 209, 210;

stopped by vegetation, 211;

wandering, 209, 211.

Dust, carried out of desert, 206, 222;

volcanic, 122.

Dust wells, 395.

Dutton, C. E., cited, 85, 92, 178, 200, 222, 447.

Earlier figures of the earth, 14.

Earth, a magnet, 23;

composition of, 20;

oblateness of, 10;

rigidity of, 20, 21, 29;

scale of its elevations, 10, 11;

theories of origin of, 20, 29;

surface shell, chemical constitution of, 23;

surface shell, response to load, 340.

Earth features, shaped by running water, 169.

Earth figure, evolution of ideas concerning, 9.

Earthquake cracks, 74.

Earthquake fountains, 190.

Earthquake lakes, 404.

Earthquake, of Alaska, 1899, 72, 77, 79, 80, 81;

of Assam, 1897, 72, 77;

of California, 1906, 70, 72, 73, 74, 90, 91;

of Casamicciola, 1883, 87;

of Costa Rica, 1910, 68;

of India, 1819, 84;

of Jamaica, 1692, 80;

of Jamaica, 1907, 80;

of Japan, 1891, 72, 75;

of lower Mississippi Valley, 1811, 83;

of Messina, 1908, 68;

of Owens Valley, California, 1872, 73, 77, 78, 79;

of Servia, 1904, 84;

of South Carolina, 1886, 85.

Earthquake shocks, heavy over loose foundations, 88.

Earthquakes, aftershocks of, 83;

associated with growing mountains, 86;

changes in earth’s surface during, 71;

connected with lines of fracture, 86;

descriptive reports upon, 92;

due to adjustments between blocks of shell, 78, 79;

faults and fissures, 71;

focused at fault intersections, 87;

fountains during, 83, 86;

localized at corners of earth blocks, 87;

manifestations of changes in level, 68;

nature of shocks, 67;

of Ischia, localization of, 87;

shown by coast terraces, 250;

special lines of heavy shock, 86;

in unstable areas of earth’s crust, 86;

wave motions of, 68;

zones in distribution of, 86.

Earth relief, repeating patterns in, 223.

Eckert, cited, 188.

Effect of contraction upon a spherical body, 13.

Egg-spinning demonstration of earth rigidity, 20.

“Elevation-crater” theory of volcanoes, 95, 139.

Embankments, shore, 240.

Embayed coasts, 251.

Emerson, B. K., cited, 19.

End moraines, 394.

Engell, M. C., cited, 296.

Englacial dÉbris, 393.

Englacial drift, 277, 278.

Entonnoirs, 182.

Entrenchment of meanders, 172, 173, 179.

Eolian sand, 206.

Eolian sediments, 30.

Erosional unconformity, 53.

Erosion cycle, 159.

Erosion, effect of, in adding curves to landscape, 65;

glacial, in contrast with normal weathering, 377;

in desert, 214;

shadow, 206;

stream, as modified by resistant rocks, 174.

“Erratic blocks”, 304.

Eruptions, Strombolian, 117;

Vulcanian, 117, 125.

Escarpments, from faults, 59.

Eskers, 311, 315, 316, 363.

Estes, L. A., cited, 93.

Estuaries, 251.

Etna, eruption of 1669, 122.

Evolution, doctrine of, in connection with fossils, 38.

Evolution of ideas concerning the earth’s figure, 9.

Exfoliation, 151, 203.

Expanded foot glaciers, 383, 385.

Experiment, to illustrate relation of earthquake shocks to foundations, 88.

Experiments, on fracture and flow, 40, 41;

for demonstration of earthquakes, 81, 82.

Exposures, rock, 46.

Extrusive rocks, 463.

Fairbanks, H. W., cited, 155, 170, 174, 201, 205, 214, 224, 248, 249, 250, 260, 302, 375, 406, 413, 429.

Fairchild, H. L., cited, 339.

Falls, “Bridal veil”, 378.

Falls, ribbon, 378.

Fan, alluvial, 213.

Farrington, O. C., cited, 29.

Fault, drag upon, 60.

Fault breccia, 60.

Fault topography, 65.

Faults, 58, 440;

during earthquakes, 71;

earthquake, change in throw upon, 76, 77, 78;

earthquake, disappear in loose materials, 73;

earthquake, of small displacements, 74;

earthquake, plan of, 76, 78;

illusory nature of, 59;

methods of detecting, 59;

post-glacial, 74;

relation of escarpments to, 60;

shown by changes in strike and dip, 61;

shown by offsets, 61.

Feldspars, 456.

Fenneman, N. M., cited, 424, 425.

Festoons of mountain arcs, 435, 436.

Field ice, 286.

Field map, geological, 62, 63.

Figure of the earth, the, 8.

Figures, earlier, of the earth, 14;

earth, evolution of, 15.

Figure toward which the earth is tending, 12.

“Fire girdle” of the Pacific, 98.

Firn, 369.

Fissure eruptions, of volcanoes, 101.

Fissures, during earthquakes, 71;

earthquake, 74;

in connection with volcanoes, 99-101.

Fissure springs, 61, 190, 195.

Fjords, 290, 340.

“Float copper”, 305.

Flooded portions of continents, 18.

Flood plain, 178;

manner of grading of, 162.

Floors of hydrosphere and atmosphere, 18.

Flow, experiments on, 41;

zone of, 40.

Flow texture, of extrusive rocks, 33.

Fluviatile deposits, 35.

Fluvio-glacial deposits, 31.

Fluxion texture, of extrusive rocks, 33.

Folds, analysis of, 54;

comparison of shapes of, 44;

mutilated, restoration of, 45;

pitching, 43;

secondary, 44;

shapes of, 43.

Fold topography, 65.

Forbes, J. D., cited, 294.

Fore-set beds, 167.

Forest, destruction of, in relation to agriculture, 156.

Formation of lava reservoirs, 143.

Formations, measurement of thickness of, 48, 49.

Fort Snelling, on Warren River, 327, 331.

Fosses, glacial, 281, 314;

in connection with peat bogs, 430.

Fracture control, of drainage lines, 224.

Fracture, experiments on, 41;

of minerals, 450;

zone of, 40, 46.

Fractures, in rocks, shown by rectilinear lines on map, 65;

system of, 55.

Free, E. E., cited, 222.

Free waves, 232.

Fretted upland, 372, 373.

Frost, prying work of, 152.

Frost action, 223.

Frost snow, 285.

Fuller, M. L., cited, 157, 195.

Fumeroles, 97.

Gabbro, 462.

Gabled faÇade, in desert landscapes, 221, 443.

Galenite, 453.

Gannett, Henry, cited, 178, 386.

Gaps, water, 176;

wind, 176.

Garnet, 459.

Gautier, E. F., cited, 221.

Geikie, A., cited, 6, 7, 148, 178, 244, 318.

Geikie, James, cited, 6, 318.

Geoid, departure from spherical surface of, 10.

Geological map, 46, 54;

areal, 62, 63;

base of, 61;

field, 62, 63.

Geological section, 46, 47.

Geology, defined, 1.

Geyserite, 194.

Geysers, 191-194;

effect of plugging with sod, 193;

in relation to drainage lines, 191;

soaping of, 194.

Geysir, 192.

Gilbert, G. K., cited, 93, 148, 157, 178, 179, 198, 221, 224, 240, 244, 294, 344, 345, 347, 350, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 362, 366, 370, 381, 434, 446, 447.

GjÁs, volcano fissures in Iceland, 99.

Glacial anticyclone, 284.

Glacial deposits, 30, 31.

Glacial fringe, of Grant Land, 285.

Glacial Lake Agassiz, 325-328, 339.

Glacial lakes, at close of ice age, 320;

of St. Lawrence Valley, 329.

Glaciated regions, aspects of, 302;

characteristics of, 301;

contrasted with nonglaciated, 299, 309.

Glaciation, conditions essential to, 261;

cycle of, 263;

Permo-Carboniferous, 298.

Glaciations, following changes in earth’s figure, 15;

previous to “ice age”, literature of, 318.

Glacier broom, over continental ice, 285.

Glacier cornices, 397.

Glacier deposits, upon its bed, 390.

Glacier drainage, 397.

Glacier flow, 390, 400;

data from accidents to Alpinists, 392.

Glacier gravings, 301, 319;

multiple records, 304.

Glacier lobe lakes, 411.

Glacier milk, 398.

Glacier mills, 278.

Glacier pavement, 276.

Glaciers, birth of, 369;

crevasses on, 391;

dendritic, 383, 385, 386;

grinding tools of, 276;

horseshoe, 383, 386, 387;

inherited basin, 387-389;

initiation of, 262;

in relation to wind direction, 262;

main types of, 266;

mountain, cross sections of, 394;

mountain, expanded-foot type, 264;

mountain, land sculpture by, 367;

mountain, successive stages, 383;

nivation, 387;

nourishment of, 268-270;

piedmont, 383, 384;

radiating, 383, 386;

sensitiveness to temperature changes, 263;

sÉracs, 391;

surface features of, 390;

tide water, 290, 386.

Glacier stars, 395.

Glacier tables, 395.

Glacier types, successive, during waning glaciation, 383.

Glacier wells, 278.

Glassy texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Glen Roy, 322, 339.

Glint, 409.

Glint lakes, 408, 409.

Gneiss, 465.

Gneiss banding, 31.

Goethe, cited on volcano structure, 139.

Gold, E., cited, 294.

Goldthwait, J. W., cited, 259, 320, 341, 345, 351.

Gondwana Land, 16.

Gorges, through rock bars, 378.

Grabau, A. W., cited, 361, 366.

Grading of flood plain, 162.

Grand CaÑon of the Colorado, 146, 169, 174, 215, 443.

Grand River outlet, 333.

Granite, 462;

dome structure in, 152, 157.

Granite domes, 221.

Granitic texture, of igneous rocks, 33.

Grats, 373.

Gravel, kame, 310.

“Gravel piedmont”, 214.

Great Basin, 190, 198, 439.

Great Lakes, probable future of, 347, 348;

submergence of certain shores of, 349, 350.

Great Ross Barrier, 282.

Great Salt Lake, 199;

fluctuations of level of, 198.

Green, W. Lowthian, cited, 19.

Gregory, J. W., cited, 11, 19, 439, 446.

Grooved upland, 372, 373.

Gross, H., cited, 294.

Grossman, cited, 268.

Grottoes, sea, colors of, 258.

Ground water, 180;

descent of, in relation to joints, 181.

Ground water lakes, 424.

Grund, A., cited, 195.

Gullies, early stages of, 160.

Gulliver, F. P., cited, 244, 319.

Gullying process, started by deforestation, 156.

Gypsum, 455.

Hade, on faults, 59.

Hague, Arnold, cited, 196.

Halemaumau, Kilauea, 107, 108.

Hamilton, Sir William, cited, 128.

Hanging valleys, 378.

Hardness, of minerals, 451.

Harwood, W. A., cited, 294.

Haug, E., cited, 7, 133, 211.

Haughton, Samuel, cited, 56.

Hawaii, lava domes of, 105;

lava surfaces of, 113;

map of, 106;

section through, 106.

Hayes, C. W., cited, 156.

Headlands, notched, 341.

Heave, of faults, 59.

Hebrews, conception of the universe, 9.

Hedin, Sven, cited, 221.

Heilprin, A., cited, 148.

Heim, A., cited, 54.

Heligoland, 236.

Helland, A., cited, 99.

Hematite, 452.

Hemicycles, of glaciation, 263, 264.

Herculaneum, buried beneath mud flows, 139.

Hess, H., cited, 267, 272, 294, 393, 400.

High plains, 435;

origin of, 219.

Hilgard, E., cited, 222.

Hinge lines, of uptilt, 344-347.

Hitchcock, C. H., cited, 106, 147, 434.

Hobson, B., cited, 120.

Hogarth, William, cited, 170.

Hogarthian line of beauty, in landscapes, 170-171.

“Hog backs”, 442.

Holmes, W. H., cited, 441.

Horns, 374.

Horseshoe glaciers, 383, 386, 387.

Hot springs, 191;

colors in, due to algÆ, 194.

Hovey, E. O., cited, 136, 137, 148.

Hovey, H. C., cited, 183, 195.

Howchin, W., cited, 298.

Howe, E., cited, 140.

Howell, cited, 325.

Hudson River, narrows of, 174.

Hudsonian channel, 252.

Hummocks, on pack ice, 286.

Humphrey, R. L., cited, 90, 93.

Humphreys, cited, 404.

Humus, in relation to weathering, 156.

Huntington, Ellsworth, cited, 216, 217, 221, 222.

Hus, H. T. A. de L., cited, 183.

Hydration, 151.

Hydrosphere, 8.

Hypothesis, the value of, 6;

Laplacian, of the universe, 20.

Icebergs, 296;

Antarctic, 292, 293;

Antarctic, formation of, 292;

blue, 292;

manner of formation of, 291, 292;

northern, 291.

Ice caps, profiles of, 267, 268;

sculpture, 380.

Ice-dammed lakes, 321, 323, 410, 411;

in St. Lawrence Valley, 339;

of Scottish glens, 322.

Ice floes, 287.

Iceland, fissure eruptions of, 102.

Ice pyramids, 395.

Ice ramparts, 431-434;

manner of formation of, 433.

Igneous rocks, 30;

textures of, 32.

Imlay outlet, 332.

Inbreak, of lava surface, 107.

Incised topography, 301.

Inherited basin glacier, 387-389.

Interlobate moraines, 314.

Inter-pluvial periods, 198.

Intricate pattern of river etchings, 158.

Intrusive rocks, 32, 462.

Islands, land-tied, 241;

steep rocky, due to submergence, 252.

Isobases, 347.

Isoclinal folds, 42.

Isothermal zone of atmosphere, 270.

Jagger, T. A., Jr., cited, 148.

Jamieson, T. F., cited, 221, 322, 339.

Jeannette exploring expedition, 287, 295.

Jensen, H. I., cited, 110, 113, 147.

Johnson, D. W., cited, 7, 148.

Johnson, W. D., cited, 77, 213, 219, 220, 222, 370, 381.

Johnston-Lavis, H. J., cited, 87, 131, 132, 134, 138, 147, 148.

Joint blocks, in Niagara limestone, 353.

Joint plane, seat of frost action, 370.

Joints, 56;

effect on surface features, 57;

closed during earthquakes, 76;

composite nature of, 58;

composite groups of, 57;

disorderly, 57;

displacements upon, 58;

master, 56;

space intervals of, 58;

sets of, 55;

system of, 55.

Joint series, combinations of, 56.

Joint systems, 66.

Jorullo, birth of, 96.

Judd, John W., cited, 116, 118, 139, 148.

Julien, A. A., 156.

Jura Mountains, 46.

Kame gravel, 310.

Kames, 311, 314.

KammerbÜhl, 139.

Karrenfelder, 188.

Karst, characters of, 186-187;

once forested, 188.

Karst conditions, 195.

Karst lakes, 422.

Katavothren, 188.

Katzer, F., cited, 195.

Kearney, Th. H., cited, 222.

Kelvin, Lord, cited, 20, 29.

“Kettle moraines”, 311-314.

“Kettles” on moraines, 312.

Kikuchi, Y., cited, 148.

Kilauea, 101, 106;

draining of lava in crater of, 108;

eruption of 1840, 109, 111, 112;

lava movements in, 106, 107;

moving platform in crater, 107;

range in height of lava in, 107.

King, F. H., cited, 157, 195.

Knebel, W. von, cited, 185, 195, 258, 260.

“Knob and basin” topography, 314.

Knott, C. G., cited, 92.

Kopisch, August, cited, 258.

KotÔ, B., cited, 92.

Krakatoa, dissected by eruption, 142.

Krakatoa, eruption of 1883, 141, 142.

Kuppen, 105.

Kurische Nehrung, wandering dunes of, 210.

Laboratory apparatus, for simulation of cinder eruptions, 122.

Laboratory models, for study of geological maps, 63.

Laccolites, 143, 441, 442, 447.

Lacroix, A., cited, 148.

Lacustrine deposits, 35.

Lake Agassiz, glacial, 325-328.

Lake Algonquin, 334, 342.

Lake Arkona, 332, 333.

Lake basins, study of, 401.

Lake Bonneville, 199.

Lake Chicago, 330, 332, 333.

Lake Eulalie, draining of, during earthquake, 83.

Lake Iroquois, 334, 335.

Lake Maumee, 330, 331, 332, 345.

Lake Ojibway, glacial, 338.

Lake stages, in St. Lawrence Valley, 336.

Lake Warren, 333, 334.

Lake Whittlesey, 332, 333.

Lakes, alluvial dam, 423;

as regulators of air temperature, 431;

as regulators of river flow, 431;

as settling basins, 426-428;

barrier, 420;

basin range, 402, 403;

become extinct through wave action, 428;

border, 399, 414;

classification of, 424;

colk, 408, 409;

continental glaciation, 424;

coulÉe, 406;

crater, 405, 406;

crescentic, 329, 330;

crescentic levee, 416, 417;

currents in, 431;

delta, 419, 420;

desert, 424;

drained by cutting down of outlet, 428;

dune, 421;

drained during earthquakes, explanation of, 83;

earthquake, 404;

ephemeral existence of, 426;

extinction by peat growth, 429-430;

extinction of, in desert regions, 430;

fresh water, 401;

glacier lobe, 411;

glint, 408, 409;

ground water, 424;

ice dam, 410, 411;

intramorainal, about continental glaciers, 279, 280;

karst, 422;

landslide, 414;

morainal, 315, 406, 407;

mountain glaciation, 424;

newland, 401, 402;

ox-bow, 165, 415;

pit, 315, 407, 408;

playa, 422;

raft, 417, 418;

rift-valley, 403, 404;

river, 424;

rock basin, 376, 377, 400, 412;

rock basin about continental glaciers, 279;

rÔle of, in economy of nature, 430;

saline, 401;

salines, 423;

saucer, 415, 416;

seasonal, 189, 422;

side delta, 326, 327, 418, 419;

sink, 421;

strand, 424;

tectonic, 424;

valley moraine, 400, 413;

volcanic, 424;

“wall”, 432.

Laki, eruption in 1783, 99.

Laminated structure, of rocks, 31.

Lamplugh, G. W., cited, 225.

Land, growth of, from volcanic outflow, 113, 114;

sliced during earthquake, 80;

uptilt of, at close of ice age, 340.

Land areas, concentration of, in northern hemisphere, 11.

Land sculpture, by mountain glaciers, 367;

in relation to climatic conditions, 443;

referable to ice caps, 380.

Land shields, 15.

Landslide lakes, 414.

Land-tied islands, 241.

Lane, A. C., cited, 148.

Lankester, E. Ray, cited, 260.

La Noe, G. de, cited, 7.

Lapilli, 119, 122.

Laplacian hypothesis of the universe, 20.

Lateral moraines, 393.

Lateral movements, deep seated, during earthquakes, 81.

Lava, 32;

block, 113;

composition and properties of, 103;

discharging from tunnel, 111;

fluidity of basic, 103;

movements, in caldron of Kilauea, 107;

probable origin from shale, 144;

ropy, 113;

viscosity of siliceous, 103.

Lava domes, probable structure of walls of, 112;

slopes of, 103, 104, 105.

Lava projectiles, pear-shaped type, 121.

Lava reservoirs, formation of, 143.

Lava streams, appearance of, 133, 134.

Lava surface, 113, 124.

Law of the desert, 197.

Lawson, A. C., cited, 92, 260, 351.

Leads, in pack ice, 286.

Le Conte, Joseph, cited, 6.

Leffingwell crater, California, 104.

Levees, 166.

Leverett, Frank, cited, 6, 104, 166, 312, 318, 321, 330, 332, 333, 334, 337, 339, 344, 345.

Lewiston escarpment, at Niagara, shaping of, 360-362.

Libbey, W., cited, 274.

Life histories, of rivers, 158.

Light figure, from surface of crystal, 25.

Lightning, in connection with volcanic eruptions, 130.

Limbs of faults, 59;

of folds, 43.

Limestone, 464;

origin of, 36;

sinks, 182.

Limestone, caverns of, 182.

Limonite, 452.

Linck, G., cited, 122.

Lindenkohl, A., cited, 260.

Lineaments, 87, 226, 227.

Line of beauty, Hogarthian, in landscapes, 170, 171.

Lithodomus, borings of, in records of oscillation, 254.

Lithosphere, a complex of interlocking crystals, 25;

and its envelopes, 8.

Littoral deposits, 36.

Loess, 35, 207;

erosion of, 208.

LoessmÄnnchen, 208.

Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 7.

Luray caverns, Virginia, 186.

Luster, of minerals, 450.

Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 7, 96, 146, 199, 259, 260, 304.

Maare, 405.

McGee, W. J., cited, 157, 259.

Mackinac Island, records of uplift of, 341-344.

Madison, Wisconsin, 233, 237, 241, 317, 434.

Magellan, circumnavigation of globe, 9.

Magma, defined, 30.

Magnetism, of minerals, 451.

Magnetite, 452.

Malachite, 453.

Mamelons, 105.

Mammoth Cave, 182, 183.

Mantle, rock, 155.

Map, contour, nature of, 467;

of Armorican mountains, 438;

of barrier beaches, 242-243;

of bowlder train from Iron Hill, 306;

of cirques and niches, in Bighorn Mountains, 371;

of coast lines, 246;

geological, 54, 61;

geological, method of preparing, 46, 63;

of continental divide in Colorado, 377;

of continental glacier in Victoria Land, 282;

of Dalager’s nunataks, 277;

of expanded foot glaciers, 264;

of front of Green Bay lobe, 317;

of glacial features, Southern Finland, 315;

of glacial Lake Agassiz, 325, 326, 328;

of glaciated area, Europe, 299;

of glaciated area, North America, 298;

of ice ramparts on Lake Mendota, 434;

of inner Sandusky Bay, 350;

of Kilauea and neighboring slopes, 109;

of Lake Chicago and later Lake Maumee, 332;

of Lake Maumee, 330;

of Lakes Whittlesey and Saginaw, 333;

of lava outflows on Vesuvius, 1906, 131;

of lava streams on Mauna Loa, 126;

of marginal moraines, 312;

of mountain arcs of Eastern Asia, 438;

of mountain arc of Sewestan, 436;

of North Polar regions, 288;

of part of “fire girdle” of the Pacific, 98;

of Scottish glens, 322-324;

of Volcano, 118;

of volcano belts, 98;

of Warren River, 326, 327;

topographical, 61;

topographical, preparation of, 467, 468;

topographical, verification of, 469;

to show dispersion of diamonds in Lake region, 308;

to show dispersion of peculiar rocks, 305;

to show distribution of existing glaciers, 263;

to show formation of shore features, 238;

to show glaciated areas of Pleistocene period, 297;

to show reciprocal relation of land and sea, 11.

Marble, 466.

Margerie, Emm. de, cited, 7, 54.

Marginal moraines, 278-280, 311-314.

Marine clays, as marks of uplift, 253.

Marine deposits, 35.

MÄrjelen Lake, 329, 411.

Marks, of origin of rocks, 30;

of uplift, on coasts, 245.

Marr, John E., cited, 7, 445.

Martel, E. A., cited, 181, 187, 195.

Martin, Lawrence, cited, 77, 92, 260, 280, 351.

Martonne, E. de, cited, 7, 195, 222, 382.

Massive structure, of rocks, 31.

Master joints, 56.

Matavanu, eruption in 1906, 110, 113, 147.

Mat of vegetation, shield to lithosphere, 155.

Matthes, F. E., cited, 7, 371, 381.

Maturity, of upland, 170.

Mauna Loa, 106;

eruptions of, 109.

Meander scars, 165.

Meanders, entrenchment of, 172, 173, 179;

stream, 163;

stream, undermining by, 164.

Measurement of thickness, of formations, 48, 49.

Mechanical sediments, 34.

Medial moraines, 393;

from nunataks, 274.

Mediterranean seas, 14.

Melting, selective, on glacier surface, 394.

Melville, G. W., cited, 289.

Mercalli, G., cited, 89, 117, 119, 147.

Merrill, George P., cited, 156.

Mesa, 215, 216;

origin of, 112.

Metamorphic rocks, 30, 31, 465.

Meteorites, compared with earth, 22;

composition of, 21, 23.

Mica, 458.

Mica schist, 465.

Michailovitch, J., cited, 84.

Microscopical petrography, 27.

Migration, of divides, 175.

Mill, H. R., cited, 424.

Mills, glacier, 398.

Milne, John, cited, 75, 92, 93.

Mineral fragments, possibility of growth of, 24.

Minerals, alterations of, 27, 28;

common, properties of, 452-461;

of economic importance, 452-456;

important as rock makers, 456-461;

properties of, 26, 27;

quick determination of, 449.

Mississippi River, 167.

Mitchell, G. E., cited, 157.

Moats, about nunataks, 273, 274.

Models, laboratory, for study of geological maps, 63.

Mojsisovics von MojsvÁr, E., cited, 228.

Mokuaweoweo, crater of, 106.

“Mole-hill” effect, after earthquakes, 73.

Molten rock, rise to earth’s surface, 94.

Monadnocks, 172.

Monte Nuovo, 96.

Monte Somma, caldera of, 127.

Montessus de Ballore, de F., cited, 92, 93.

Monti Rossi, crystal rain from, 122;

parasitic cones of, 125.

Mont PelÉ, post-eruption stage of, 135-138;

spine of, 136, 137, 138.

Moore, W. H., cited, 294.

Morainal lakes, 315, 406, 407.

Moraines, interlobate, 314;

lateral, 393;

marginal, 278-280;

medial, 393;

medial, from nunataks, 274;

of mountain glaciers, 393, 394;

recessional, 399;

surface, 277;

terminal, 311-314, 394;

water-laid, 330.

Moreno, F. P., cited, 235.

Moseley, E. L., cited, 350, 351.

Moselle River, with entrenched meanders, 173.

Motive power, of rivers, 158.

Moulins, 398.

Mountain arcs, festoons of, 435, 436;

theories of origin of, 436, 437.

Mountain glaciation lakes, 424.

Mountain glaciers, contrasted with continental glaciers, 266-268;

defined, 266-268;

dendritic, 383, 385, 386;

expanded-foot type, 264;

horseshoe, 383, 386, 387;

land sculpture by, 367;

marks of, 400;

piedmont, 383, 384;

profiles of, 267;

radiating, 383, 386;

studies of special districts, 294;

summary of types of, 389.

Mountain ramparts, about continental glaciers, 271.

Mountains, battlement type, 228, 445;

block type, 439;

carved from plateaux, 442;

of circumvallation, 442, 445;

defined, 435;

domed, of uplift, 441;

erosional, 445;

evidence for occupation by mountain glaciers, 400;

genetical, 445;

largely shaped by erosion, 435;

of outflow and upheap, 440;

origin and forms of, 435;

truncated at coast lines, 438.

Mt. Etna, 125, 126.

Mt. Vesuvius, 94;

appearance of, from Naples at night, 129;

ash curtain, during eruption, 132;

ash-fall over, 1906, 133;

“cauliflower” cloud over, 133;

changed appearance after eruption of 1906, 132;

eruption of 79 A.D., 97;

eruption of 1872, 124;

eruption of 1906, 127-137;

history of, 97;

lavas of, 32.

Mud cones, 84;

aligned upon a fissure, 84.

Mud-crack structure, 37.

Mud, flocculent calcareous, of Florida, 36.

Mud flows, which destroyed Herculaneum, 139.

Mud veneer, from eruption of Taal, 121.

Muir, John, cited, 7.

Munthe, H., cited, 313, 351, 410.

Murray, Sir John, cited, 39, 293.

“Mushroom rocks”, 205.

Nansen, F., cited, 17, 260, 271, 272, 287, 295.

Narrows, river, 174, 327.

Natural Bridge, near Lexington, Virginia, 184.

Natural bridges, 184.

Natural sand blast, 204.

Nature of materials in the lithosphere, 20.

Necks, volcanic, 140.

Nephelite, 459.

Neumayr, Melchior, cited, 7, 146, 195, 196, 222, 425.

NÉvÉ, 369.

Newborn glacier, 387.

Newland, 159, 247.

Newland lakes, 401, 402.

New Madrid earthquake, 83.

New River, of Cumberland plateau, 173.

Niagara Falls, 352-366;

episodes in history of, 362-365;

the clock of recent geological time, 364.

Niagara gorge, 352-366;

drilling of, 353, 355;

episodes in history of, in connection with glacial lakes, 364;

plan and section of, 355;

rate of recession of, 356.

Niches, 371;

beneath snowdrift sites, 368, 369.

Nickel, in meteorites, 23.

Nieves penitentes, 397.

Nipissing Great Lakes, 335, 342.

Nipissing outlet, 335, 336.

Nippur, sand mounds over, 218.

Nivation, 368.

Nivation glacier, 387.

Noble, F. H., cited, 147.

NordenskiÖld, Otto, cited, 154, 157, 295.

North Atlantis, 16.

North Bay outlet, 335.

Northwest Highlands of Scotland, thrusts of, 45.

Norway, repeating patterns of, 229.

Notched cliffs, 233;

elevated, 248.

Nourishment of continental glaciers, 295.

Nunataks, 272, 274, 277.

Nussbaum, F., cited, 161.

Oasis, 216.

Oblateness, of the earth, 10.

Observational geology vs. speculative philosophy, 5.

Obsidian, 463.

Obsidian Cliff, 33.

Ocean of Tethys, 16.

Oceanic platform, 19.

Oceans, arrangement of, 10.

Oldham, R. D., cited, 72, 76, 92.

Oldland, 159, 247.

Olivine, 461.

Omori, F., cited, 147.

OÖlite, 464.

OÖlitic limestone, 464.

Ooze, calcareous, 36;

composition of, 39.

Optical mineralogy, 27.

Order of deposition, during marine transgression, 37.

Order of superposition, of strata, 52.

Organic sediments, 34.

Orgeln, 182.

Orleans, Duc d’, cited, 286.

Orographic blocks, 58.

Osar, 311, 315, 316.

Oscillations of movement, on coasts, 253.

Outcrop blocks, for study of maps, 63.

Outcroppings, 46.

Outlets, from continental glaciers, 271;

of glacial lakes, 326, 327.

Outwash plains, 280, 281, 311, 313, 314, 399, 408.

Overthrust, 45.

Owens Valley, California, map of earthquake faults in, 78.

“Ox-bow”, of river, 165.

Ox-bow lakes, 165, 415.

Pack, drift of, 287;

the, 286.

Pack ice, 286.

Pagination, of the earth record, 38.

Pahoehoe type of lava surface, 113.

Pan form of deserts, 197.

Panum crater, caldera of, 126.

“Parallel roads”, of Scottish glens, 322-325, 328, 339.

Partially dissected upland, 160.

Passarge, S., cited, 221, 222.

“Paternoster lakes”, 376.

Pattern, of river etchings, 158.

Patterns, repeating, 223.

Pavement, bowlder, 237;

glacier, 276;

tessellated from soil flow, 154.

Pavlow, A. P., cited, 108.

Peale, A. C., cited, 195, 196.

Peary, R. E., cited, 17, 283, 289, 295, 296.

Peat, 465;

formation of, 429, 430.

Peat bogs, 429.

“PelÉ’s Hair”, 107.

PelÉ, spine of, 148.

Penck, A., cited, 294, 399, 414.

Peneplain, 171, 179.

“Penitents”, 397.

“Perched bowlders”, 306.

Peridotite, 462.

Periods, interpluvial, 198;

pluvial, 198.

Peripheral granulation, 31.

Perret, F. A., cited, 148.

Philippi, E., cited, 295.

Phillips, John, cited, 56.

Physiographic models, preparation, of, 470.

Piedmont glaciers, 383, 384.

Pino, 119, 130.

Pipes, volcanic, 140.

Piracy, river, 175, 176.

Pirsson, L. V., cited, 39, 447.

Pitch, 43.

Pitching folds, 43.

Pit lakes, 315, 407, 408.

Pitted plains, 314, 407, 408.

Pittier, H., cited, 405.

Plains, flood, 178;

coastal, 246;

outwash, 280, 281;

pitted, 314, 407, 408.

Platform, continental, 18, 19;

oceanic, 18, 19.

Playa lakes, 422.

Playfair, Sir John, cited, 178.

Plucking, beneath glaciers, 275.

Plugs, volcanic, 140.

Plunge and flow structure, 37.

Plunging folds, 43;

detection of, 49, 50.

Pluvial periods, 198.

Pocket rocks, in desert, 200, 201, 202.

Poles, wind, of the earth, 263;

earlier, 297.

Poljen, 189, 422.

Pompeii, destruction of, 97;

volcanic materials over, 122.

Ponores, 188.

Porphyritic texture, of certain igneous rocks, 32.

Portals, in mountain rampart, surrounding continental glaciers, 271.

Potato shape, of earth, 7.

Pourquoi-Pas expedition, 289.

Powell, J. W., cited, 178, 439, 446.

Pratt, W. E., cited, 147.

Precipitation, in relation to glaciation, 261.

Pressure ridges, on pack ice, 286.

Prinz, cited, 14, 19, 54, 133, 148.

Processes by which rocks are formed, 30.

Profile, cut by waves on steep rocky shore, 236.

Profiles, character, 177, 318;

character, directly due to volcanic agencies, 145, 146;

character, coast, due to uplift or depression, 259;

character, of arid lands, 220;

character, of shore features, 243;

character, referable to mountain glaciers, 379;

of cinder cones, 123.

Projectiles, lava, “bread-crust” type, 119;

volcanic, 121.

Prying work of frost, 152.

“Pudding stone”, 463.

Pumiceous texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Pumpelly, Raphael, cited, 222.

Pumpelly, R. W., cited, 212.

Puys, 105.

Puys of Auvergne, 124.

Pyrite, 452.

Pyrolusite, 456.

Pyroxenes, 458.

Quartz, 458.

Quartzite, 466.

Quebradas, 75.

Rabot, C., cited, 424.

Radiating glaciers, 383, 386.

Raft lakes, 417, 418.

Rafts, log, in Red River, 418.

Railway tracks, buckled, during earthquakes, 75.

Rain erosion, 214.

Rainfall, infrequent in deserts, 197.

Raised beaches, 326, 328.

Ramparts, ice, 431-434.

Randspalte, 370.

Rapids, in Rhine gorge, 169.

Rapilli, 122.

Rath, G. vom, cited, 147.

Reaction rims, about minerals, 28.

Receding hemicycle of glaciation, 264.

Recessional moraines, 399.

Reciprocal relation, of land and sea, map to show, 11.

RÉclus, E., cited, 147.

Records, of rise or fall of land, 245.

Red clay, of the deep sea, 39.

Red color, of desert rocks, 202.

Reid, H. F., cited, 294, 296, 400.

Rejuvenated rivers, 173, 174.

Relief forms, carved by waves, 213.

Relief patterns, dividing lines of, 226.

Repeating patterns, in earth relief, 223;

composite, 227.

Reservoirs, of lava, local, 95.

Residual rocks, 30.

Resistant rocks, in relation to erosion, 174.

Rhine, gorge of, 169.

Rhyolite, 463.

Ribbon falls, 378.

Richter, E., cited, 294.

Richtofen, Freiherr von, cited, 207, 222.

“Ridge roads”, 328.

Riegel, 377.

Rifting, in eroded mountains, 444.

Rift-valley lakes, 403, 404.

Rift valleys, 440.

Rigidity of the earth, 20, 29.

Ripple markings, 36.

River, zone of the dwindling, 213.

River capture, 175.

River deltas, 179.

River etchings, intricate pattern of, 158.

River lakes, 424.

River narrows, 174, 327.

River networks, in relation to precipitation, 161;

in relation to rock architecture, 161;

meshes of, 161.

Rivers, braided, 280;

cross sections of, in successive stages, 172;

drowned, 251, 340;

early aspects of, 159;

life begun in uplift, 159;

life histories of, 158;

motive power of, 158;

rejuvenated, 173, 174;

submerged channels of, 252;

swollen during melting of continental glaciers, 320;

tributary, accordant, 377;

young, 159, 160.

River terraces, 165, 178.

River valley, longitudinal section of, 161.

Roches moutonnÉes, 276, 301, 367.

Rock bars, 377;

cut through by gorges, 378.

Rock basin lakes, 376, 377, 400, 412.

Rock cleavage, 44.

“Rock glaciers”, 153.

“Rocking stones”, 306.

Rock mantle, 155;

relation to topography, 156.

Rock pedestals, 381.

Rock terraces, 215.

Rocks, clastic, 30;

corrosion of, 156;

description of some common, 462-466;

extrusive, 32, 463;

igneous, 30;

igneous, textures of, 32;

igneous, massive structure of, 31;

intrusive, 32, 462, 463;

laminated structure of, 31;

marks of origin of, 30;

metamorphic, 30, 31, 465;

residual, 30;

sedimentary, 30;

sedimentary, of chemical precipitation, 464;

sedimentary, of mechanical origin, 463;

sedimentary, of organic origin, 464;

sedimentary, rounded grains of, 31;

volcanic, 32.

Ross Barrier, 282.

Rudolph, E., cited, 92.

Rudski, M. P., cited, 19.

Russell, I. C., cited, 126, 147, 148, 175, 178, 222, 293, 294, 296, 381, 384, 414, 424, 425.

St. Anthony Falls, recession of, 327, 354.

St. David’s gorge, near Niagara, 352, 359, 360, 363.

St. Goars, on Rhine, 169.

Saint Martin, cited, 436.

St. Paul’s rocks, a dissected volcano, 141.

Salients, of newly incised upland, 169.

Salines, 423.

Salisbury, R. D., cited, 156, 160, 205, 222, 293, 295, 298, 300, 305, 313, 318, 319, 339, 424.

Salton sink, 420.

Sand, beach, 206;

eolian, 206;

volcanic, 122.

Sand blast, natural, 204.

Sand cones, 84.

“Sand devils”, 209.

Sandstone, 464.

Sand storms, 209.

Santa Catalina, 239, 257.

Sapper, K., cited, 111, 147, 148.

Sarasin, P. and F., cited, 248.

Sardeson, F. W., cited, 327, 339.

Saucer lakes, 415, 416.

Sawa Lake, of Persian desert, 199.

Scaling, 151.

Scape colks, 277.

Scars, from dissection of volcanoes, 142;

meander, 165.

Schist, chlorite, 465;

mica, 465;

sericite, 465;

talc, 465.

Schistosity, 31.

Schrader, cited, 436.

Schratten, 188.

Scidmore, E. R., cited, 70.

Scoriaceous texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Scott, I. D., cited, 411, 470.

Scott, R. F., cited, 282, 295.

Scott, W. B., cited, 6, 60, 72, 259, 274, 375.

“Scree”, 152.

Scrope, P., cited, 96, 124, 146.

Sea caves, 234;

elevated, 248.

Sea coves, 233.

Sea ice, 286, 292.

Seaquakes, 69;

distribution of, 70;

downward movement of sea floor during, 81;

number and magnitude of, 81.

Seasonal lakes, 189, 422.

Section, geological, 46, 47;

across mountain wall about desert, 212.

Sederholm, J. J., cited, 315.

Sedimentary rocks, 30;

of chemical precipitation, 464;

of mechanical origin, 463;

of organic origin, 464.

Seismic sea wave, 69;

Japan, 1896, 70.

Seismotectonic lines, 87.

Sekiya, S., cited, 141, 148.

SÉracs, 391.

Serapeum, at Pozzuoli, 254.

Sericite schist, 465.

Series, conformable, 51;

unconformable, 51.

Serpentine, 460.

Shackleton, Sir Ernest, cited, 17, 282, 283, 292, 295.

Shadow erosion, 206.

Shadow weathering, 203.

Shale, 464.

Shaler, N. S., cited, 7, 157, 244, 306, 317, 319.

Shapes of rock folds, 43.

Shaw, E. W., cited, 425.

Shearing, in folds, 45.

“Sheep backs”, 276.

Shelf, continental, 18, 19.

Shelf ice, 281, 282, 283;

Antarctic, 289, 290;

of ice age, 317.

Sherzer, W. H., cited, 294.

Shields, of lithosphere, 436.

Shingle, 239.

Shoal water deposits, 36.

Shore current, work of, 237, 238.

Shore lines, elevated, 340;

migration of landward with uplift, 251.

Side delta lakes, 418, 419.

Siderite, 456.

Sieberg, A., cited, 92.

Sieger, R., cited, 259.

Siliceous lava, viscous, 103.

Siliceous sinter, 194.

Sills, 142.

Sinclair, W. J., cited, 152.

Sink lakes, 421.

Sinks, in limestone, 182.

Sinter, calcareous, 184;

siliceous, 194.

Sinter columns, formation of, 185.

Sinter deposits, 184.

SjÖgren, Otto, cited, 225.

SkaptÁr fissure in Iceland, 99.

Skyline, straight, of mature upland, 170.

Slate, clay, 466.

Slichter, C. S., cited, 195.

Slickensides, on fault, 60.

Smith, George Otis, cited, 173.

Smithsonite, 456.

“Smoke” of volcanoes, nature of, 128.

Smyth, C. H., Jr., cited, 157.

Snake river, Idaho, lava plains of, 102.

Snickers Gap, 177.

Snow, B. W., cited, 193.

Snowbergs, 292, 293.

Snowdrift sites, 368.

Snow line, 261.

Soil flow, 153, 157.

Soil striping, 154.

Solfatara condition of volcanoes, 97.

Solger, F., cited, 222.

Solifluxion, 153, 157.

Sonklar, cited, 386.

Spallanzani, cited, 115.

Spatter cones, 104.

Speculative philosophy vs. observational geology, 5.

Spencer, J. W., cited, 260, 344, 350, 353, 366.

Spethmann, H., cited, 267.

Sphalerite, 453.

Spherulites, 33.

Spherulitic texture, of igneous rocks, 33.

Sphinx, erosion by natural sand blast, 205.

Spits, 240.

Spitzbergen, 154.

Springs, fissure, 190, 195;

surface, 181;

thermal, 190.

Stability, not the order of nature, 4.

Stacks, 233;

elevated, 249, 343.

Stage of adolescence, 169, 170.

Stairway, cascade, 376.

Stalactites, growth of, 184.

Stalagmites, formation of, 185.

Staurolite, 460.

Steppes, 215.

Still river, of Connecticut, history of, 338.

Stone, G. H., cited, 253, 260, 315, 319.

“Stone ginger”, 208.

“Stone lattice”, 205, 206.

“Stone rivers”, 153.

Strahan, A., cited, 318.

Strand lakes, 424.

Strata, conformable, 51;

contortions of, 40.

Straths, 428.

Streak, of minerals, 451.

Stream capture, 179.

Stream, meandering, cross section of, 163;

braided, 280;

intermittent, 180.

Stream velocity, determined by gradient, 158.

Strike, 46.

Striped ground, 154.

Strokr, 193.

Strombolian eruptions, 117.

Stromboli, cinder cone of, 115;

excentric crater of, 115;

explanation of eruptions in, 116, 117.

Structure, cross-bedded, 37.

Submerged channels, of rivers, 252.

Submergence of land, during earthquakes, 80.

Suess, E., cited, 19, 142, 259, 277, 425, 436, 437, 438, 446.

Suffioni, arrangement on faults, 87.

Supan, A., 420, 424.

Surface moraines, 277.

Surface springs, 181.

“Swallow holes”, 182, 422.

Swamp lands, drained during earthquakes, 83.

Sweinfurth, G., cited, 222.

Syenite, 462.

Symbols, T., to express strike and dip, 48.

Synclinal folds, 42.

Synclines, 42.

System of fractures, 55.

Taal volcano, double explosive eruption of 1911, 120, 121.

Table mountains, origin of, 112.

Takyr, 216.

Talc, 460.

Talc schist, 465.

Talmage, J. E., cited, 221.

Talus, 152, 153, 215.

Tangier-Smith, W. S., cited, 260.

Tarr, R. S., cited, 77, 92, 233, 260, 295, 301.

Taylor, F. B., cited, 259, 330, 339, 342, 343, 346, 350, 355, 366.

Tectonic lakes, 424.

Temperature, diurnal changes of, in deserts, 202.

Temple of Jupiter Serapis, oscillations of level of, 254, 255.

Terminal moraine, of Pleistocene glaciations, 298, 299.

Terminal moraines, of mountain glaciers, 394.

Terraced valleys, 320, 321.

Terraces, built, 235;

coast, 80, 235, 341;

river, 165, 178, 320, 321;

rock, 215.

Terra Rossa, of Karst region, 188.

Tessellated pavement, from soil flow, 154.

Tethys, ocean of, 16.

Tetrahedron, reciprocal relations of antipodal parts, 13;

truncated, toward which earth is tending, 12.

Tetrahedrons, twin, 16.

Thaw water, soil flow in presence of, 153.

Theory, evolved from working hypothesis, 6;

mixture with observation, on maps, 63.

Thermal springs, 190.

Thickness of formations, 65.

Thompson, Bertha, cited, 155.

Thomson and Tait, cited, 29.

Thomson, Wyville, cited, 296.

Thoroddsen, Th., cited, 103, 123, 147, 267.

Throw, on faults, 59.

Thrusts, 45.

“Tidal waves”, 70.

Tides, effect on a fluid earth, 20.

Tidewater glaciers, 290, 386.

Till, 31, 310.

Tillite, 31.

Till plains, 311.

Tinds, 380, 381.

Tivoli, travertine of, 184.

Tombolas, 241.

Tongues, ice, on margin of continental glaciers, 272.

Topographic maps, 61;

preparation of, 467.

Topography, built up, 301;

constructional, 309;

destructional, 309;

fault, 65;

fold, 65;

incised, 301;

knob and basin, 314.

Top-set beds, 167.

Tourmaline, 460.

Tower, W. S., cited, 178.

Trachyte, 463.

Transgression, of the sea, 37.

Transparency, of minerals, 451.

Travertine, 184, 464.

Trees, how affected by advancing lava, 133;

undermined on stream meanders, 164.

“Trellis drainage”, 175.

Troughline, of a syncline, 42.

Trunk channels of descending water, 181.

Tsunamis, 70.

T symbols, to express strike and dip, 48.

Tufa, calcareous, 464.

Tunnels, lava, 111, 112, 125.

Twin tetrahedrons, 16.

Tyndall, John, cited, 192, 196.

Udden, J. A., cited, 222.

Unconformable series, 51.

Unconformity, 65;

episodes in history of, 52;

meaning of, 51.

Underfolding, of earth’s shell, 437.

Underground water, 180.

Undertow, 236.

Unstable erosion remnants, in “driftless area”, 300.

Upham, Warren, cited, 325, 327, 339, 344, 350.

Upland, fretted, 372, 373;

grooved, 372, 373;

maturely dissected, 170;

mature, unfavorable to commercial development, 171;

newly incised, 169;

partially dissected, 160;

progressive investment of, by cirques, 374.

Uplift, marks of, on coasts, 245;

sudden, of coasts, 247.

Upraised cliffs, 249.

Uptilt, in basin of Lake Agassiz, 350;

of glaciated area, evidence that it continues, 348-350;

of glaciated area, supposed nature of, 344-347.

U-shaped valleys, 374.

Usu-san (New Mountain), birth of, 96.

Valley moraine lakes, 400, 413.

Valleys, hanging, 378;

of V-form, 172;

U-shaped, 374.

Valley trains, 311, 399.

Van Hise, C. R., cited, 54.

Varnish, desert, 201.

Veatch, A. C., cited, 418, 425.

Verbeek, R. D. M., cited, 100, 142, 147, 148.

Vesicular texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Victoria Falls, 225.

Vincentius of Beauvais, cited, 9.

Volcanic ash, 122.

“Volcanic bombs”, 121.

Volcanic dust, 122.

Volcanic eruptions, during changes in earth’s figure, 15.

Volcanic lakes, 424.

Volcanic mountains, of ejected materials, 115;

of exudation, 94.

Volcanic necks, 140.

Volcanic pipes, 140.

Volcanic plugs, 139, 140.

Volcanic projectiles, 121.

Volcanic rocks, 32.

Volcanic sand, 122.

Volcano belts, of the earth, 98.

Volcano, definition of, 95.

Volcano, eruption in 1888, 118, 120, 147;

history of, 118, 119.

Volcanoes, active, 97;

arrangement over fissures, 99;

birth of, 96;

cone-producing period of, 127;

convulsive eruptions of, 105;

crater-producing period of, 128;

dissection of, 139, 148;

dormant, 97;

early views concerning, 95;

“elevation-crater” theory of, 95;

explosive eruptions of, 105;

extinct, 97;

fissure eruptions of, 101;

location at fissure intersections, 100;

map of, in Java, 100;

migration of vent along fissure, 101, 124;

misconceptions concerning, 94;

mud flows after eruptions, 138;

of Gulf of Guinea, 101;

regarded as retaining walls, 124, 125;

relation to mountain ranges, 144;

sequence of events within chimney of, during eruption, 134, 135;

solfataric activity of, 97;

three types of, 105.

V-shaped valley, 172.

Vulcanello, 119.

Vulcanian eruptions, 117, 125.

Waltershausen, S. von, cited, 148.

Walther, Johannes, cited, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 211, 215, 221.

Wandering dunes, 209.

Warren river, 416.

“Washes”, 213.

Water, derangement of flow during earthquakes, 83;

ground, 180;

percolating, rÔle of, 149;

running, earth features shaped by, 169;

shot up in sheets during earthquake, 83;

thaw, soil flow in presence of, 153.

Water gaps, 176.

Water pipes, buckled in ground, during earthquakes, 75.

Water table, 180;

extreme depth of, 201, 203.

Water wave, effect of breaking on shore, 233;

free, 232;

motion of, 231.

Watson, T. L., cited, 259.

Wave, water, the motion of, 231.

Wave base, 232.

Wave length, 231.

Weathering, carbonization, 151;

chemical, 149;

chemical agents of, 149;

dry, 201;

exfoliation, 151;

frost action, 152;

hydration, 151;

in relation to climate, 150;

internal, in deserts, 201;

mechanical, 149;

of lithosphere surface, 29;

shadow, 203;

spheroidal, 150, 151;

two contrasted processes of, 149.

Wed (Wadi), 212, 213, 214.

Weed, W. H., cited, 196, 441, 447.

West Indies, seismotectonic lines of, 88.

Wheeler, W. H., cited, 244.

Whirlpool basin, at Niagara, 359;

excavation of, 360.

Whitbeck, R. H., cited, 319.

White, David, cited, 318.

Willis, Bailey, cited, 45, 54, 157, 260, 318.

Winchell, N. H., cited, 354.

Wind, in relation to location of glaciers, 377;

in relation to mountain glaciers, 367.

Wind distribution of snow, 367.

Wind gaps, 176.

Windkanten, 205.

Wind poles, of the earth, 263;

of earth, earlier, 297.

Wintergreen Flats, site of captured fall, 358.

Wisconsin diamonds, 307, 308.

Woodworth, J. B., cited, 74, 351.

Worcester, Dean C., cited, 96.

Working hypothesis, 6.

Workman, Fanny Bullock, cited, 294.

Workman, W. H., cited, 294.

Wright, F. E., cited, 351.

Yellowstone National Park, 33, 191, 193, 194.

Yosemite Valley, 59, 152.

Young rivers, 159, 160.

Zahn, G. W. von, cited, 244.

Zigzag ranges, due to plunging folds, 51.

Zittel, K. v., cited, 19.

Zone of diverse displacement, 439.

Zone of flow, 40, 143.

Zone of fracture, 40, 46.

Zones, of deposition, surrounding desert, 216, 217;

upper and lower cloud, 268, 269.

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