1Bourne, Spain in America (Am. Nation, III), 31; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 40.

2Andrews, Colonial Self-Government (Am. Nation, V), chap. v.

3Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, chaps. iv–viii.

4Cf. Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolution (Am. Nation, VIII), chap. i.

5Ibid., 229.

6Cf. Hart, Foundations of Am. Foreign Policy, 18.

7McLaughlin, Confederation and Constitution (Am. Nation, X). chaps. vii, viii.

8Texts in Am. Hist. Leaflets, No. 32.

9Federalist (Lodge ed.), No. 14.

10Cf. Channing, Jeffersonian System (Am. Nation, XII), chap. v.

11Garrison, Westward Extension (Am. Nation, XVII), chap. v.

12Ibid., chap. xi.

13Ibid., chap. vii.

14Turner, New West (Am. Nation, XIV), 114–122.

15See chap. iii, below.

16Bourne, Essays in Historical Criticism, No. 9.

17Dunning, Reconstruction (Am. Nation, XXII), chap. x.

18Ibid.

19Dewey, National Problems (Am. Nation, XXIV), chap. xviii.

20Official order addressed to Spanish commanders authorizing the conversion, enslavement, or slaughter of the natives.

21“The shot from Champlain’s arquebus had determined the part that was to be played in the approaching conflict by the most powerful military force among the Indians of North America. It had made the confederacy of the Iroquois and all its nations and dependencies the implacable enemies of the French and the fast friends of the English for all the long struggle that was to come.” [This quotation is from Senator Elihu Root’s eloquent address at the Champlain tercentenary celebration in 1909. Influential as Champlain’s act proved to be, it is well to remember that it was the Dutch treatment of the Iroquois that gained the latter’s friendship for the English, the successors of the Dutch, and also that the Iroquois, as Doctor Thwaites points out in his France in America, did in subsequent years negotiate with the French. But the historic consequence of Champlain’s act is of course obvious, although it is not necessary to accept unreservedly one tercentenary dictum to the effect that “Few decisive battles from Marathon to Waterloo had larger consequences.” Cartier’s first voyage to the St. Lawrence decided the immediate association of the French with their Algonquian neighbors. It would have been impossible for them to be friends of both Algonquians and Iroquois. The consequences of immediate and prolonged hostility on the part of the Algonquians invite curious speculation.—Editor.]

22Clowes, Royal Navy, III, 186–189.

23Ibid., 210–214, on Boscawen’s victory; 216–222, on Hawke’s.

24Clowes, Royal Navy, III, 196–201.

25Ibid., 201–203.

26Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II, 80.

27For biographical details of Wolfe’s early career, see Wright, Life, and Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, I, 1–128; in ibid., II, 16, is a portrait of Wolfe’s fiancÉe.

28Text in Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, VI, 87–90.

29Lists in Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, II, 22, 23.

30Wood, Fight for Canada, 166, 167, 173.

31“Journal of the Expedition up the River St. Lawrence,” by a sergeant-major of grenadiers, in Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, V, 1–11.

32Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, II, 51–53.

33Wood, Fight for Canada, 152.

34Authorities cited in Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II, 233, 234. For details, consult Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, II, chap. vi.

35See Bougainville’s correspondence, in Doughty and Parmelee Siege of Quebec, IV, 1–141.

36September 22, 1759, quoted in Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, II, 249.

37Official journal of Amherst, in London Magazine, XXVII, 379–383.

38Stanwix to Pitt, November 20, 1759, MS. in Public Record Office.

39[There was one regular regiment of American origin with Wolfe, the “Royal Americans,” represented by their second and third battalions. One battalion was left to guard the landing. The superior officers of this regiment were English. There seem to have been also some provincial rangers, although the famous Robert Rogers was not present.—Editor.]

40Doughty and Parmelee, Siege of Quebec, II, 237.

41Ibid., II, 332, with detailed British returns; Wood, Fight for Canada, 262.

42Greene, The Provincial Governor, passim.

43Barry, Hist. of Mass., I, 288–295.

44For a detailed study of this subject, see Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolution (American Nation, VIII).

455 George III., chap. xii, given in Macdonald, Select Charters, 281.

46Beer, Commercial Policy of England, 10–13.

47For details and exact references to laws, see Channing, The Navigation Laws, in Amer. Antiq. Soc., Proceedings, new series, VI. For discussion, see Andrews, Colonial Self-Government, chap. i; Greene, Colonial Commonwealths (American Nation, V, VI).

48Beer, Commercial Policy of England, chap. vii.

496 George II., chap. xiii.

50Macdonald, Select Charters, 259.

51Lecky, American Revolution (Woodburn’s ed.), 48.

52J. Adams, Works, II, 523–525.

534 George III., chap. xv.

54Osgood, in Political Science Quarterly, XIII, 45.

55Lecky, American Revolution (Woodburn’s ed.), 64.

56Dulany, in Tyler, Lit. Hist. of Amer. Rev., I, 104–105.

57Life, Correspondence, and Speeches of Patrick Henry, I, 84–89.

58Hart, Contemporaries, II, 402.

59Walpole’s Letters, February 12, 1765.

60Franklin, Works (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 161–198.

616 George III, chap. xii.

62Morley, Burke, 146.

63Franklin, Works (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 169.

64Walpole, Memoirs of George III., II, 275, III, 23–27.

657 George III., chaps. xli, xlvi, lvi. See Macdonald, Select Charters, 320–330.

66Samuel Adams, Writings (Cushing’s ed.), I, 184.

67Hutchinson, Hist. of Massachusetts Bay, III, 494.

68Junius (ed. of 1799), II, 31.

69Collins, Committees of Correspondence (Amer. Hist. Assoc., Report, 1901), I, 247.

70Va. Cal. of State Pap., VIII, 1–2.

71R.I. Col. Records, VII, 81, 108.

72Farrand, “Taxation of Tea,” in Amer. Hist. Review, III, 269.

73Macdonald, Select Charters, 337–356; Force, Am. Archives, 4th series, I, 216.

74“Quebec Act and the American Revolution,” in Yale Review, August, 1895.

75Force, Am. Archives, 4th series, I, 421.

76Macdonald, Select Charters, 356, 362.

77Wells, Samuel Adams, I.

78Franklin, Works (Sparks’ ed.), IV, 41.

79Franklin’s Plan, in Works (Sparks’ ed.), III, 26, 36–55.

80Van Tyne, Loyalists, 5.

81Van Tyne, Loyalists, chap. i.

82Force, Am. Archives, 4th series, II, 365–368.

83Hatch, Administration of the Revolutionary Army, 1.

84Frothingham, Siege of Boston, 100–102.

85Ibid., 99–101.

86Bolton, The Private Soldier Under Washington, 90; Force, Am. Archives, 4th series, III, 2.

87Hatch, Administration of the Revolutionary Army, 13, 14.

88Frothingham, Siege of Boston, 105, 106.

89“Bunker Hill Monument celebrates a fact more important than most victories—namely, that the raw provincials faced the British army for two hours, they themselves being under so little organization that it is impossible to tell even at this day who was their commander; that they did this with only the protection of an unfinished earthwork and a rail fence, retreating only when their powder was out.... The newspapers of England, instead of being exultant, were indignant or apologetic.”—Thomas Wentworth Higginson.

90Later Bemis.

91“The surrender of Burgoyne turned the scale in favor of the Americans so far as the judgment of Europe was concerned.... The first treaty with France—which was also the first treaty of the United States with any foreign government—was signed February 6, 1778, two months after the news of Burgoyne’s surrender had reached Paris.”—Higginson’s History of the United States.

92For the text of the articles of capitulation, and the general return of the officers and privates surrendered, see Harper’s EncyclopÆdia of United States History, X.

93A detailed description of the topography and events of the Yorktown campaign is afforded in Lossing’s Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution, II, chap. xii. An elaborate and authoritative study from a military point of view is provided in The Yorktown Campaign, by Henry P. Johnston. Both histories are published by Harper & Brothers.

94Annual Register, XXV, 252–257.

95Two Centuries of Irish History, 91.

96Treaties and Conventions, 370, 375.

97Journals of Congress, January 13, 14, 1784.

98For the complete history of the American struggle for independence, see Professor Van Tyne’s The American Revolution, IX, in The American Nation. Harper & Brothers.

99“The destruction of the British fleet gave the United States supremacy on Lake Erie and compelled the abandonment of Malden and Detroit; it recovered Michigan, and made a real invasion of Canada once more a possibility, for by means of the control of the lakes thus given Harrison was enabled to enter at once upon an aggressive campaign on the Canadian side of Lake Erie. His men were easily transported to the north side, and his line of communication was no longer threatened by a British fleet. Its effect, too, upon the American people was decidedly important; for the first time an American fleet had met a British fleet and defeated it. Nor was it fair to discount the significance of the victory by saying that the vessels were small and of hasty construction. The charm of British invincibility had been broken in the great ship duels which made the names of Decatur, Bainbridge, and Hull household words. To this list was now added the name of Perry, who was looked upon by the Americans as a hero of the same class as Nelson.”—Prof. Kendric Charles Babcock in The Rise of American Nationality.

100“The decisiveness of this battle was evident at once to the British. Hardly was the result known, when measures were taken for the retreat of Prevost’s army into Canada. At best, Prevost’s assault upon the land forces had been so poor as to give little aid to the fleet; and for this failure and his prompt retreat Prevost was ordered to trial by court-martial, but died before the trial could take place. The war was practically ended by this retreat of the British army from Plattsburg into Canada. It would seem as though the persistent mismanagement of the American forces in northern New York, the incompetency of Dearborn and Wilkinson, the strange interference of Secretary Armstrong, the diversion of the forces of Izard from the front of Prevost’s army, were all atoned for by the brilliancy of the accomplishment of Commodore Macdonough and his handful of sailors and soldiers on Lake Champlain.”—Prof. Kendric Charles Babcock in The Rise of American Nationality.

101For the whole correspondence beginning with this letter, see Senate Docs., 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 25–48.

102Senate Docs., 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, p. 28.

103Senate Docs., 28 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 38, 41.

104Ibid., pp. 42–48.

105Niles’ Register, LXVIII, 84.

106Ibid., 135; Von Holst, United States, III, 80, nn. 3, 4.

107DublÁn y Lozano, LegislatiÓn Mexicana, V, 19–22.

108Taylor’s successive orders, in House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 7, 79–82.

109House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 99.

110Ibid., pp. 102–109.

111House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 90.

112House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, p. 140.

113Ibid., p. 141.

114See Polk, MS. Diary, entry for May 9, 1846.

115Richardson, Messages and Papers, IV, 442.

116Cong. Globe, 29 Cong., 1 Sess., 795.

117[John Slidell, of New Orleans, appointed a commissioner to Mexico in 1845 to endeavor to adjust the boundary and re-establish relations.]

118Polk, MS. Diary, February 17, 1846.

119Senate Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, p. 39.

120Ripley, War with Mexico, I, 149; Polk, MS. Diary, May 14, 16, 1846.

121Hittell, California, II, bk. vi., chaps. ii–v, passim.

122Niles’ Register, LXX, 310; Cong. Globe, 29 Cong., 2 Sess., 298; Polk, MS. Diary, August 18, 19, 1847.

123House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 324, 353, especially Taylor to Adjutant-General, July 2, 1846, ibid., pp. 329–332; cf. Polk, MS. Diary, September 15, 1846.

124Taylor to Adjutant-General, October 15, 1846, in House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 351–354.

125Polk, MS. Diary, November 14, 1846.

126Taylor to Adjutant-General, January 27, 1847, in House Exec. Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 60, pp. 1100–1102.

127Taylor to Adjutant-General, March 6, 1847, in Senate Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 132–141.

128Scott to Marcy, March 29, 1847, ibid., 229.

129Ripley, War with Mexico, II, 153–155; Polk, MS. Diary, December 28, 1847.

130Senate Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., VII, No. 52, p. 345.

131Buchanan to Trist, October 6, 1847, ibid., pp. 91–93; Polk, MS. Diary, October 5, 1847.

132See official reports of these operations, in Senate Docs., 30 Cong., 1 Sess., I, No. 1, pp. 354–471.

133U.S. Treaties and Conventions, 683.

134Gen. Lew Wallace, who reached Buena Vista two days after the battle, furnishes a vigorous defence of the Indiana volunteers in his Autobiography, vol. I, chaps. xviii and xix.—[Editor.]

135Cf. Am. Nation, XIV; XVI-XVIII, passim.

136Stephens, War between the States, II, 32.

137Davis, Confederate Government, I, 80.

138Adams, New England Federalism, 144–146.

139Buchanan, Administration on Eve of Rebellion, chap. v; National Intelligencer, January 18, 1861.

140Secretary of War, Report, 1860, Senate Exec. Docs., 36 Cong., 2 Sess., No. 1, pp. 214, 216.

141Secretary of Navy, Report, 1860, ibid., 383.

142Secretary of War, Report, 1860, ibid., 209, 213.

143Buchanan, Administration on Eve of Rebellion, 104.

144National Intelligencer, January 11, 1861.

145War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 68.

146Ibid., p. 69; Crawford, Fort Sumter, 57, 58.

147Trescot MS., quoted by Crawford, Fort Sumter, 58, 59.

148War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 70.

149War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 74, 75.

150Ibid., 76.

151Ibid., 80.

152Crawford, Fort Sumter, 64.

153War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 79–82.

154Ibid., p. 82.

155Crawford, Fort Sumter, 67.

156War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 89.

157Ibid., 103.

158War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 96–100; Crawford, Fort Sumter, 77.

159Trescot MS., quoted by Crawford, Fort Sumter, 78.

160War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 101.

161Crawford, Fort Sumter, 81–83.

162Ibid., 85, 86.

163Curtis, Buchanan, II, 385. The emphasis is Buchanan’s.

164Governor’s message to legislature, quoted by Crawford, Fort Sumter, 87.

165War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 111.

166Crawford, Fort Sumter, 91.

167Crawford, Fort Sumter, chap. x.

168War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 2.

169Crawford, Fort Sumter, 112.

170Crawford, Fort Sumter, 110, 111.

171War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 3.

172Ward H. Lamon, a former law partner of President Lincoln, who visited Charleston at this time and assumed to be a representative of the President.—[Editor.]

173War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 222.

174War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 230.

175Ibid., 228.

176Ibid., 284, 285.

177War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 285.

178Crawford, Fort Sumter, 377.

179War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 283.

180War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 241.

181Doubleday, Sumter and Moultrie, 98.

182War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 235.

183Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, IV, 31, 32.

184War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 294.

185Ibid., 249–251.

186Talbot’s report, in War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 251.

187Roman, Beauregard, I, 33.

188War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 12–25, 213–216.

189War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 25–58.

190Statement of Ex-Confederate Secretary of War to writer; Crawford, Fort Sumter, 421.

191War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 297.

192War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 297.

193Crawford, Fort Sumter, 422.

194War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 13.

195Ibid., 59; Crawford, Fort Sumter, 424.

196War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 301.

197Crawford, Fort Sumter, 425, 426.

198Naval War Records, IV, 248.

199Fox’s report, in Naval War Records, IV, 245–251.

200Doubleday, Sumter and Moultrie, 142.

201Doubleday, Sumter and Moultrie, 147.

202Ibid.

203Foster’s report, in War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 20, 21.

204War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 293.

205Ibid., 22.

206Doubleday, Sumter and Moultrie, 158.

207Foster’s report, in War Records, Serial No. 1, p. 24.

208Foster’s report, in War Records, Serial No. 1, pp. 23, 24.

209Doubleday, Sumter and Moultrie, App., where the names appear.

210Naval War Records, IV, 251.

211J.E. Johnston, Narrative, 84.

212Commander J.M. Brooke, in Battles and Leaders, I, 715; Scharf, Navy of the Confederate States, 145 et seq.

213Battles and Leaders, I, 692 et seq.

214Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, V, 226.

215Soley, Blockade and Cruisers, 54.

216See The Appeal to Arms, by Dr. J.K. Hosmer, p. 74.

217Poore, Burnside, 132.

218War Records, Serial No. 6, pp. 133–167.

219Soley, Blockade and Cruisers, 82 et seq.

220Farragut, Farragut, chaps. i, ii.

221Naval War Records, XVIII, pp. xv, xvi.

222Farragut, Farragut, 207.

223Naval War Records, XVIII (West Gulf Blockading Squadron); Mahan, Gulf and Inland Waters, 52.

224Beverly Kennon, a Southern officer, in Battles and Leaders, II, 76, criticises severely the management of the Confederate ships.

225Naval War Records, XVIII, 134 et seq.; Mahan, Gulf and Inland Waters, 52 et seq.

226Parton, Butler in New Orleans, chap. xii.

227War Records, Serial No. 24, p. 511.

228Grant, Personal Memoirs, I, 411.

229Sherman, Memoirs, I, 319.

230Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, VII, 135.

231Sherman, Memoirs, I, 324.

232Cullum, Register of Mil. Acad., art., “McPherson.”

233War Records, Serial No. 36, pp. 371–467.

234Mahan, Gulf and Inland Waters, 110 et seq.

235Johnston, Narrative, 152.

236War Records, Serial No. 36, pp. 565 et seq.

237War Records, Serial No. 36, p. 32.

238Johnston, Narrative, 153.

239Admiral Porter’s fleet kept up a continuous bombardment for forty days. Seven thousand mortar shells and forty-five hundred shells from the gunboats were discharged at the city. As Grant drew his lines closer, his cannonade was kept up day and night. The people of Vicksburg had taken shelter in caves dug in the clay hills on which the city stands. In these caves families lived day and night, and children were born. Famine attacked the city, and mule-meat made a savory dish. Grant mined under some of the Confederate works, and one of them, Fort Hill Bastion, was blown up on June 25th with terrible effect.—Harper’s EncyclopÆdia of United States History.

240War Records, Serial No. 37, pp. 146–424.

241War Records, Serial No. 41, pp. 41–181 (Port Hudson).

242Greene, The Mississippi.

243War Records, Serial Nos. 43 and 44, pp. 1–775 (all on Gettysburg campaign).

244Longstreet, Manassas to Appomattox, 331.

245War Records, Serial No. 45, p. 31.

246F.H. Lee, Robert E. Lee, 265. For R.E. Lee’s report of Gettysburg, see War Records, Serial No. 44, pp. 293 et seq.; Long, Lee, 280.

247But see controversy between Mosby and Robertson as to management of the Confederate cavalry, Battles and Leaders, III, 251.

248Cullum, Register of Mil. Acad., art. “Meade.”

249Hunt, in Battles and Leaders, III, 258.

250Livermore, Numbers and Losses, 102.

251War Records, Serial No. 43, pp. 104–119 (Report of Meade).

252F.H. Lee, Robert E. Lee, 270.

253Doubleday, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, 132.

254Cullum, Register of Mil. Acad., art. “Hancock.”

255Walker, Hancock, in Mass. Mil. Hist. Soc. Papers, “Some Federal and Confederate Commanders,” 49.

256Doubleday, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, 156.

257A tradition at Gettysburg.

258Mrs. Longstreet, Lee and Longstreet at High Tide, 83, 84.

259For criticisms by the friends of Lee, see Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, II, 447; F.H. Lee, Robert E. Lee, 299; William Allan, in Battles and Leaders, III, 355. Able and impartial is G.F.R. Henderson, Science of War, 280 et seq.

260Hood, Advance and Retreat, 57 et seq.

261For Meade’s good judgment and activity, see Walker, in Battles and Leaders, III, 406.

262Gibbon, in Battles and Leaders, III, 313.

263Mrs. Longstreet, Lee and Longstreet at High Tide, 48.

264Pennypacker, Meade, 194.

265Longstreet, Manassas to Appomattox, 385 et seq.

266Fremantle, Three Months in the Southern States, 274 et seq. Confirmed to the writer by General E.P. Alexander, who heard the rebuke.

267Battles and Leaders, III, 349.

268Committee on Conduct of the War, Report, pt. i (1864–1865), 408 et seq.

269Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, VII, 278.

270For a minute discussion of Meade’s management, and much testimony, see Committee on Conduct of the War, Report, pt. i (1864–1865), 295–524.

271Livermore, Numbers and Losses, 102.

272See the chapter on the Monroe Doctrine in The Rise of the New West, by Prof. F.J. Turner, and also chaps. i and xi of America as a World Power, by Prof. G.H. LatanÉ. (The American Nation, Harper & Brothers.)—[Editor.]

273The War with Spain, by Henry Cabot Lodge, and The Spanish War, by General Russell A. Alger, may be consulted with advantage. Both are published by Harper & Brothers. Harper’s EncyclopÆdia of United States History, VI, affords a picturesque account of the battle of Manila Bay, by Ramon Reyes Lala, a Filipino author and lecturer. Professor LatanÉ’s account of the war, in his America as a World Power (Harper & Brothers), offers an excellent example of judicial historical treatment.—Editor.

274Long, New American Navy, I, 209.

275Messages and Docs., Abridgment, 1898–1899, II, 921.

276Sec. of the Navy, Annual Report, 1898, App., pp. 465, 466.

277It was on this date, May 24th, that the Oregon, Captain Clark, appeared off Jupiter Inlet, Florida, ready for action, after a voyage of fourteen thousand miles from San Francisco.—[Editor.]

278Schley, Forty-five Years Under the Flag, 276.

279Sec. of the Navy, Annual Report, 1898, App., p. 402; Long, New Am. Navy, I, 258–287.

280Sec. of the Navy, Annual Report, 1898, App., p. 437.

281Sec. of the Navy, Annual Report, 1898, App., p. 667.

282Major-General commanding the army, Report, 1898, p. 149.

283Major-General commanding the army, Report, 1898, p. 162.

284Major-General commanding the army, Report, 1898, pp. 152, 169, 171, 319, 366, 381. [General Vara el Rey, one of the bravest of the Spanish officers, was the leader in this desperate resistance, and was killed while rallying his men in the village.—Editor.]

285Major-General commanding the army, Report, pp. 167, 173.

286Messages and Docs., Abridgment, 1898–1899, I, 270.

287Sec. of the Navy, Annual Report, 1898, App., pp. 505–602; Long, New Am. Navy, II, 28–42.

288Major-General commanding the army, Report, 1898, pp. 138–147, 226–243, 246–266.

289Senate Docs., 56 Cong., I Sess., No. 221, 8 vols.

290Nation, LXIX, 61.

291Proceedings of the Schley Court of Inquiry, House Docs., 57 Cong., I Sess., No. 485.

292Act of February 14, 1903, U.S. Statutes at Large, XXXII, pt. i, p. 830.