CHAPTER I.ToC

The Assideans.

After the spirit of prophecy had ceased among the Jews, and there being no inspired persons to whom they could apply as formerly, they fell into religious doubts and disputes. This caused different opinions to exist among them, and divided them into sects and parties; such as the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes, who were the principal, and supposed to have arisen out of the Assideans.

The Assideans are called by some "Chasidim," or pious. They were a religious society among the Jews, whose chief and distinguishing character appears to have been to support the honor of the Temple, and observe punctually the traditions of the Elders. In the apocryphal books of the Maccabees, we meet with the word "asidaioi," which no doubt is derived from the Hebrew word chasidim. This sect is supposed to date their origin either during the captivity, or shortly after the restoration of the nation. Being of a pious and religious character, they were the first who adhered to Mattathias, and afterwards to his son Judas Maccabees, in defense of their religion and the Law of God. They proved themselves zealous in their cause, as stated in the following passage: "There came to Mattathias, a company of Assideans, who were mighty men of Israel, even all such as were voluntarily devoted unto the law." They were not however, considered a distinct religious sect from the rest of their brethren; but they were devoted to their ancient religion and the service of the Temple, the supporting of the sacrifices, the relief of the poor, and the general benefit of all their co-religionists. Our views on the subject may be considered correct, as Josephus, who wrote in those times, and concerning those affairs, does not mention any such sect being distinctly marked from the general body of the people. We may therefore safely adopt the opinions of those who consider the appellation given them in the book of the Maccabees, to be no more than used in our days to pious and religious men, who are designated saints or holy men.

CHAPTER II.ToC

The Pharisees.

This sect derived their name from the Hebrew word "Perusheem," which signifies separation, and so called because of their being separated from the body of the people in point of their religious conduct. They considered themselves more than ordinarily holy, and more strict in the observance of their religious precepts and ceremonies. It is not quite certain at what time the Pharisees first made their appearance; yet there is no doubt, that like all the other sects among the Jews, they were not known in any way, until some time after the death of Malachi, the last of the prophets, when the spirit of prophecy ceased to exist among Israel. Josephus, who was himself of this sect, speaks of it as flourishing in the days of Johnathan the high priest. In the days of John Hyrcanus, a high priest of the Asmonean race, they became very numerous and influential. It is generally admitted that the Pharisees were more devout than their brethren, and appear to have excelled in the knowledge of the law, and to have been more skillful in their interpretation of the same.

The principal doctrines of this sect were as follows:

They held sacred all the traditions of the elders in those days, and considered the laws of the Rabbins, as contained in the said traditions, equally binding upon them as the written law. They were of the belief that the written law could not be properly understood without the explanation of the oral law, which removed the apparent difficult passages in the written law. They were guided by the conviction that both were derived from the same fountain, as handed down by the tradition from father to son. They further believed, that when Moses was with God on the mount during forty days, he received from him both laws—the one in writing, the other traditionary, which contained the sense and explanation of the former. That Moses having returned to his tent, taught the same to Aaron, then to his sons, afterwards to the seventy elders, and lastly to all the people. That the same was further continued throughout every generation until their day, and that consequently they considered their system the only true one, in order to the understanding of the law and the performance of its precepts. This sect became the most numerous of all the others, since their doctrines were supported by the scribes and expounders of the law, who were the most competent judges in those days, and hence the best calculated to guide the people in all their religious duties.The Pharisees were, therefore, much respected and highly esteemed by the general class of the people, who followed their example in the performance of all their religious observances, and because they would not encourage any innovations to be made in their religion or temple worship. They were very particular in the performance of all the ceremonial part of their religion, considering form and custom to be the great contributing cause to the cementing more firmly the principles upon which the Jewish religion is based, and that frequent changes in religious affairs tend materially to weaken, but not to strengthen, the cause.

They maintained the belief in the resurrection of the body—at least of the good—and the future rewards and punishments to all men in an eternal state of retribution, believing that every soul is immortal. They ascribed some things to fate, but held that other things were left in man's own power; that all things were decreed by divine power, yet not so as to take away the freedom of man in the discharge of those duties which he is expected to perform in this life, in order to obtain the promised happiness of an hereafter.

The religion of the Jew in the present day, is that which was practised by the sect called Pharisees, and is in general use among all the descendants of Israel, wherever they may be dispersed throughout the earth. There are some few exceptions, in those who have seceded, and have set up a standard for themselves; but they are few in number, and not very significant in the scale of Judaism. The principle which they so strenuously advocate is a mere change in the formulÆ of prayer, and the mode of synagogue worship, under the idea of conciliating the Gentiles, by whom they are surrounded. The belief in the coming of the Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead, as also the restoration of Israel to the promised land, is not in the least invalidated. The Jews in general look forward with anxious hope for the forthcoming of that period in which all this shall come to pass, as so frequently foretold by the prophets in the various ages in which they flourished.

CHAPTER III.ToC

The Sadducees.

The Sadducees derive their name from the Hebrew word "Tzaddukeem," so called from Zadok, who was a pupil of Antigonus, the son of Socho, president of the Sanhedrim, upwards of two thousand years ago. This sect arose from the following circumstance.

Antigonus taught in his school the doctrine that "Man ought to serve God from pure love, and not in a servile manner, either out of fear of punishment or the hope of reward."

Zadok, not comprehending the spiritual idea of this doctrine, concluded that there would not be any future state of reward or punishment; and, accordingly, taught and propagated this false doctrine after the death of his preceptor, Antigonus.

This sect believed in the written law as handed down from the time of Moses; but not in the oral or traditional law. They rejected all the traditions maintained among the Pharisees. They not only denied the resurrection of the body, but even the existence of the soul after its departure from the body here on earth. They ignored the idea entertained of divine decrees, and held the belief that man is absolute master of his own actions, with the full privilege of acting as he pleases, either for good or evil. That God does not in anywise influence his creatures in the doing the one or the other; that man's prosperity or adversity in life depends entirely on his own acts, and that both are respectively the result of either his wisdom or his folly. The Sadducees received the Pentateuch as divine; but not the other books of the old testament. In the days of Josephus, the celebrated Jewish historian, the Sadducees were not very numerous, but supposed to have been the most wealthy among the people; and the more opulent joined them. We can easily reconcile this to our minds, as we observe in our times that the rich and the great are apt to prefer the pleasures and enjoyments of this life to any expectancy in a future state of existence. Hence they are found ready and willing to embrace such a system of religion as enables them to follow their own inclinations.

These men do not wish to tax their minds with any uneasy reflections on the subject of retribution, or of the world to come, when they shall be called to account for their past conduct in this life.

The Sadduccees were, however, not tolerated among the mass of the people, in consequence of their assertions, precepts, and doctrines, which were held by the community at large as impious, and, therefore, injurious to the happiness of society.

At the destruction of Jerusalem, this sect became very insignificant—their name became nearly forgotten for many years—and subsequently the name was applied to the sect called Karaites, whom we shall notice hereafter, in reproach and disgrace.

CHAPTER IV.ToC

The Samaritans.

The Samaritans were originally heathens, consisting of persons from the several nations, to whom the king of Assyria gave the lands and cities of the Israelites when they were made captives by the said monarch.

This sect was called Samaritans from the fact of their having been settled in the city of Samaria, the metropolis of the kingdom of Israel. When these people were first carried to Samaria, they adopted the idolatrous worship and customs of the surrounding nations from among whom they came.

History informs us that Samaria was infested with lions, which the people supposed to be a judgment from heaven for their idolatrous and superstitious practices.

The king of Assyria being of the same opinion with the rest of the people, sent a Jewish priest to instruct them in the Jewish religion, and to put away their idolatry.

Notwithstanding the instruction they received from the Jewish priest, these people could not easily be weaned from their old practices; and, therefore, to conciliate all parties, as they supposed, they made up among themselves a system embracing the principles of both the Jewish and the heathen religion.

At the return of the Jewish nation from the Babylonish captivity—and after the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem—the religion of the Samaritans underwent a revision, and an alteration in many points, under the following extraordinary circumstances.

One of the sons of Jehoiada, the high priest, married the daughter of Sanballat, the Horonite, contrary to the Mosaical law, which prohibits the inter-marriage of the Israelite with any of the other nations.

Nehemiah in his day zealously endeavored to reform the people among whom this innovation had spread itself to an alarming extent. He compelled all those men who had married strange women to repudiate them.

Manasseh, unwilling to obey the order of Nehemiah, together with many others who acted in concert with him, left Jerusalem with their wives, and settled themselves under the protection of Sanballat, the governor of Samaria.

From that time onward, the worship of the Samaritans came much nearer to that of the Jews. At a later date, they obtained permission from Alexander the Great, to build a temple on Mount Gerizim, near the city of Samaria, in imitation of the temple at Jerusalem, where they followed the same system of worship, with some few exceptions.

This sect bears some affinity to the Sadducees—it being the prevailing opinion among the learned, that they rejected all other sacred writings excepting the five books of Moses.

This circumstance created a strong hatred between the Samaritans and the original Jews. It was considered in those days a great reproach among the Jews to be designated a Samaritan. So violent was the animosity on both sides, that the one would not in any way associate with the other, nor even perform any acts of civility to each other, and thus all friendly intercourse ceased among them.

The Samaritans, as well as the Sadducees, are sometimes called by the Jewish Rabbins, "Cutheem."

CHAPTER V.ToC

The Essenes.

This sect is supposed to have first appeared a short time before the days of the Maccabees, when the faithful among the Jews, at least those who were the most scrupulously religious, had to flee from the power of their cruel enemies, and take up their abode in the deserts and in caves. Living in such retreats, many of them became so habituated to retirement, that they preferred to remain so even in later days, when they might have again appeared in public. In this way it was, that they formed themselves into recluses.

Although this sect has not been noticed in the scripture history of the Jews, still they formed a considerable party among them, as mentioned by Josephus. The Essenes appear to have been rather peculiar in their mode of living. They loved to be in solitude and retirement, and were devoted to a contemplative life. They were singular in their piety, humility, and devotion. It is supposed by some of the ancient writers, that among this sect it was that the Hebrew philosophy and metaphysics chiefly flourished, because they showed but little regard for worldly pleasures—as wealth, honors, or vain-glories. They were remarkable for their patience, moral conduct, and for their strict observance of the Sabbath according to the law of Moses.

They were exemplary in their manner of worship, for they would not speak of any worldly affairs after the sun had risen, until they had performed their religious duties as customary in those days. In the present day, nothing is known of this sect; the probability is, that in the lapse of time, they became mixed up among the rest of their brethren in their various dispersions throughout the world.

From the account given of the doctrines of this sect by Philo and Josephus, that they believed in the immortality of the soul; that they held the scripture in great reverence; they offered no sacrifices, but sent presents for the support of the temple at Jerusalem.

Their quiet, pious habits, rendered them remarkable. They remained neutral amidst all the political changes, and were thus respected by all parties of their own nation, as well as those of the heathens. They lived chiefly in Palestine and in Egypt.

CHAPTER VI.ToC

The Herodians.

The Herodians were considered by some to be a political party, and by others, a religious sect. Josephus appears to have passed over this sect in silence, which leads us to suppose that he did not consider them very formidable. The opinion, however, of most ecclesiastics, is, that they derived their name from Herod the Great, and that they were distinguished from the Pharisees, and other Jews, by their agreeing with Herod's scheme in putting himself and his dominions under the power of the Romans, and complying with many of the heathen usages and customs.

In their zeal for the Roman authority, they were directly opposite to the Pharisees, who considered it unlawful to submit to, or to pay taxes to, the Roman emperor. The Pharisees encouraged this opinion, because they were forbidden by the law of Moses to set over them a stranger to be their king. The Herodians were also distinguished, having adopted some of the idolatrous worship of the heathens, which had been introduced among them by Herod the Great, when he built a temple in honor of CÆsar, near the head of the river Jordan; and erected a magnificent theatre at Jerusalem, in which he introduced the pagan games, and placed the figure of a golden eagle over the gate of the holy temple.

Herod also furnished the temples, which he reared in the several places out of Judea, with images for idolatrous worship, in order to gain favor with the emperor of Rome; though, at the same time, to the Jews he pretended to do it in opposition to his own will, but in obedience to the imperial ordinance. In all these schemes the Herodians acquiesced, and encouraged their master in his work of iniquity.

It is also probable, from some account in ancient history, that the Herodians were chiefly of the sect of the Sadducees, who were very lax in the performance of their religious duties. This sect was, however, after a very few years, lost in oblivion, and up to the present day, nothing more is known of them.

CHAPTER VII.ToC

The Galileans, or Gaulonites.

A sect among the ancient Jews, so called from their founder or leader, Judas of Galilee. It is supposed that this party seceded from the Pharisees, and formed themselves into a new sect.

This Judas, considering it to be improper for his countrymen to pay tribute to strangers, excited them to oppose the edict of the emperor, Augustus, who had decreed that a census should be taken of all his subjects.

He declared his reason for this opposition to be, that God alone should be honored as the supreme master, and not any earthly monarch. This Judas was in company with one Zadoc, a Sadducee, and they publicly taught that such taxation was forbidden by the law of Moses. The tumults which they excited were, however, for a time suppressed; but their disciples were active in propagating this doctrine. This caused a secession from the body of the Pharisees, declaring it to be unlawful to pay for infidel princes. In all other respects, they held the same doctrine as the original Pharisees; but apart from them, they performed the duties of sacrifices, and all other forms of worship peculiar among them in those days.

It is generally supposed that this sect of Galileans ultimately embodied among themselves most of the other sects which appeared at that time; and it is even credited, that the zealots, particularly mentioned at the siege of Jerusalem, were of this faction.

CHAPTER VIII.ToC

The Karayeem, or Karaites.

The Karaites trace their pedigree from the ten tribes who were carried away captive by Salmanassar, and settled themselves in Tartary. They derive their name from the word Kara, which signifies scripture, they having adhered to the scripture only as the rule of their faith and religion. Hence they were called Karayeem. They reject the Talmud and the Mishna, as also all other traditions, and confine themselves strictly to the written law—the word of God, as they term it—and content themselves with the literal sense of the text, which admits of no comment, according to their opinions. The translation of the bible in use among them, is in the Turkish language, which in all probability proceeds from their constant intercourse with the Mahomedans.

During the time of the celebrated Hillel, and his cotemporary, Shammai, who were the president and vice president of the Sanhedrin of those days, the disciples of these two eminent divines became divided, and formed two parties. They were in constant disputes, owing to the different opinions entertained by each party on the several religious subjects. Those who were of the same opinion as the Karaites, agreed with the school of Shammai; whilst those who were zealous advocates for tradition, joined the school of Hillel. Though the name Karaites be thus modern, this sect boasts of their high antiquity; for they say they are the true followers of Moses and the prophets, as they undoubtedly are, on account of their adhering so closely to the scripture.

This sect differs from the rest of the Jews in this respect—they expound the scripture, after its having been read in the synagogue in Hebrew, in the language of the country in which they dwell; and they read most of their prayers after the same manner, both in private and in public. At Constantinople, where many of them are living, their translation is in modern Greek; whereas, in Caffa, it is in the Turkish language. They are found chiefly in the Crimea, Lithuania, and Persia, at Damascus, Constantinople, and Egypt.

They are proverbial for honesty and integrity, and said to be men of great learning, piety, and true religious principles.

Their doctrines chiefly are as follow:

They believe in the immortality of the soul, and in rewards and punishments hereafter. They believe, also, with the rest of Israel, that the Messiah is yet to come, with the same hope and fervency of spirit as all Jews of the present day.They are exemplary in their observance of the Sabbath, and the festivals, according to the strict letter of the law, as contained in the bible.

The celebrated traveler, Benjamin of Tudela, who made himself famous in the twelfth century, visited all the synagogues in the east, where he became acquainted with all the customs, manners, and ceremonies of the different parties. He relates that he met some Karaites at Damascus, in Syria, and in Egypt; that they all appear to have adopted one uniform mode of worship and religious practices; that they met with great encouragement in the Ottoman empire, owing to their unanimity of feeling in synagogue worship, and their general conduct in religious affairs. In Constantinople, where they are pretty numerous, they hold an equal position. It was here that Elijah ben Moses composed his astronomical tables for the capital of the Ottoman empire. It was here, also, that the learned Rabbi, Judah Alpoka, the noted Karaite, published his work, the "Gate of Judah," in which he deplores the unfortunate state of his sect, which, he says, had lost, by plunder and other persecution, about three hundred volumes of books, composed in Arabic by their doctors, and translated into Hebrew.

This historian further informs us, that this sect is to be found in Syria, and as far to the east as Nineveh, from which place, some years ago, one of the Karaites came to Frankfort, in Germany. He brought with him some books, which he valued at a very high price. He then visited Poland, Muscovy, and Lithuania, where many of them are residing at this day. This proves to us the folly of the vulgar notion, that this sect are extinct in the west. Doubtless, there are still many Karaites in these countries who trace their origin from the Tartars.

Our historian further informs us that, in the course of his travels, he met in Damascus two hundred Karaites, four hundred Samaritans, and about three thousand Pharisees, and that none of these sects would intermarry; and consequently, they remain to this day distinct and separate, so far as regards their religious intercourse and forms of worship. In all other respects, however, they are friendly with each other, and mix together in society as citizens of the world.

The term synagogue signifies simply an assemblage of persons, which name was applied to places or houses in which the people met for religious worship. Among the Israelites of old, the word synagogue was used in its primary sense; as when they speak of the great synagogue, or the court of the seventy elders, which was instituted in the days of Moses, the legislator, to superintend the political affairs of the nation. The number of seventy became, in later days, increased to one hundred and twenty.

Synagogues were originally instituted as chapels of ease, for the convenience of those persons who lived far distant from the temple, and could not, therefore, attend regularly to divine service. In the later ages of the Jewish state, synagogues became very numerous, even in Jerusalem, where the temple stood.

The silence of the old testament respecting synagogues, and the absence of any other authentic account, have induced most historians to conclude that synagogues were not generally in use before the Babylonish captivity.

It appears to be the current opinion of many who have written on the subject, that synagogues were first built during the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. They directed that in every town and city throughout the land, where ten men could be assembled, synagogues should be erected for divine worship, which consisted of prayers and praises, reading the scripture, and expounding the same, in the language of the country in which the people lived.

The Israelites having, during their long captivity in Babylon, neglected the study of the Hebrew language, which was their vernacular, the result proved that the bible became less understood by them. It was on this account that Ezra read the law to the people in Hebrew, and the meaning of the text was given in Chaldee by the Levites; and thus it was, that the people were enabled to comprehend the true and proper meaning of that portion of the law when read publicly every Sabbath in the synagogue. Hence the origin of preaching in the synagogue, which was considered one of the objects for which the synagogue was instituted.

After the Babylonish captivity, the erection of synagogues among the Israelites proved of great utility to the people in general, as the frequent public reading of the law was the only means of preserving the true religion of the Jew, and of diffusing the knowledge of the holy law of God. It cannot be denied, that it had been partially forgotten during the long and severe captivity; that many of the rites and ceremonies had fallen into disuse, in consequence of the many cruel persecutions which were inflicted upon the people, which unfitted them for the performance of God's holy law.

The regulations for divine service were as follow. Two days in each week, besides the Sabbath and other festivals, were appointed for this service in the synagogue, viz: Mondays and Thursdays. The hours for the daily prayers were at the time of the morning and evening sacrifices. These hours were devoted to prayer in the temple as well as in the synagogues, as also to private devotion in the respective homes of the people.

In addition to these two seasons of prayer, the ancient Hebrews prayed at the beginning of the first night watch, while the evening sacrifice was still burning on the altar; as we find recorded of king David in the book of psalms, who prayed morning, noon, and evening. It is also mentioned of Daniel, that he prayed three times a day.

The priests and the Levites were devoted to the service of the temple; but in the service of the various synagogues, persons of any tribe were appointed, if found competent, by the elders who were the rulers of the synagogue.

The synagogues were also used in olden times as courts of justice, more especially in ecclesiastical affairs. The great council of the nation, called the Sanhedrin, whose department was in the temple at Jerusalem, was vested with the power of deciding between life and death. Its authority extended over all the synagogues in Judea, as also over all other places, where the people resided near Jerusalem. The great synagogue consisted of one hundred and twenty elders, among whom were the three later prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, and Malachi. This conclave continued in succession till the days of Simon, the just, the high priest in Jerusalem, who was the last of this school. He was designated the just, because of his devotion and unfeigned piety to his God, and his upright conduct towards his fellow creatures. This conclave were zealously engaged in restoring the holy religion of Israel to its former excellence, which had undergone many corruptions during the captivity and other persecutions which the people endured subsequent to that period. They published correct copies of the bible, and taught the same to the people, in order that they should understand the religion which they professed to follow.

Then it was that the worship of the synagogue consisted of three parts—the reading of the scripture, prayer, and preaching. By the scripture, is understood the pentateuch, portions from the prophets, and Hagiographa. The pentateuch is divided into fifty-two portions, for the fifty-two weeks in the year; one of these portions is read every Sabbath till the whole pentateuch is finished; in addition to the reading of the law, a chapter from the prophets is read, which dates its origin to the following fact.In those days, when Antiochus Epiphanes destroyed all the books in the possession of the Jews, he prohibited also the reading of the weekly portions of the law on the Sabbath. The elders then, as a substitute, selected chapters from the prophets, corresponding, in some measure, with the context of the weekly portions of the law. This practice was continued until Judas Maccabees had conquered Antiochus, when the reading of the law was resumed. To commemorate this event, the practice of reading the said portions of the prophets, on Sabbaths and festivals, has been continued among the Jews, and is now in use in all Jewish orthodox synagogues.

Under the head of synagogues, we must notice that the Jews had schools wherein the children were taught to read the law; as, also, academies, in which the rabbins and doctors made comments on the law, and taught the traditions to their pupils. These academies were furnished with many tutors, of whom one was appointed as president, and under whose name the academy was denominated. Of this character, were the two famous schools of Hillel and Shammai, as also the school of the celebrated rabbi, Gamliel, whom we shall have to introduce to the notice of the reader hereafter, when we speak of the compilers of the Mishna and the Talmud. The subject of prayer will form the contents of the next chapter.

CHAPTER X.ToC

Of the origin and introduction of Prayer among the Jews.

The bible informs us that, even in the earliest ages of the world, there existed in the human breast a spontaneous bursting forth of grateful feeling towards God, the benefactor of mankind.

The first specimen we meet with is in the days of Seth, the third son of Adam. "Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord." The same expression is used in the history of the patriarch Abraham, who built altars and prayed to God. His example was followed by Isaac and Jacob, and their immediate descendants. This "calling on the name of the Lord," is what we now understand by the term prayer.

From the several verses in Genesis, which speak of the prayers offered up by the patriarchs, the Talmud infers that the morning prayer was first introduced by Abraham, afternoon prayer by Isaac, and that of the evening by Jacob; and, therefore, it is concluded that prayer was, from the earliest period, held as a regular and stated duty.After the release of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, they were initiated into a holy communion by divine revelation on Mount Sinai. The mode of worship then, consisted of regular daily sacrifices, as described in the bible; additional offerings for festivals, or propitiatory, as those offered for sins and transgressions. These last were always accompanied with suitable prayers and confessions.

In this manner, the sinner had to make confession when he brought an offering in expiation of his sins. On the day of atonement, when the high priest presented the offering to the Lord, he had to make confession on behalf of himself and the congregation.

In Deuteronomy, chapter the twenty-sixth, fifth verse, we find a particular form of thanksgiving and confession to be used by the people, when they offered up the first ripe fruits to the Lord in the temple at Jerusalem.

All other addresses to the Almighty appear to have arisen as occasions required. Of this class, we find several instances, such as Moses, Joshua, Hannah, Hezekiah, and others.

Nothing, however, more clearly points out the fact where prayer become an established custom, than the devout and emphatic prayer to the Almighty by king Solomon, at the dedication of the temple at Jerusalem, which he had raised to the honor and glory of the God of Israel.

The language used by the royal sage on that occasion, so strongly proves the assertion that prayer became an established custom, that we cannot refrain from introducing to the reader the following extract.

"That thine eyes may be open toward this house, night and day, even toward the place of which thou hast said, my name shall be there; that thou mayest hearken unto the prayer which thy servant shall make toward this place. And hearken thou to the supplication of this servant, and of thy people Israel, when they shall pray toward this place; and hear thou in heaven, thy dwelling place, and when thou hearest, forgive."

The royal sage then proceeds to particularize the nature of prayers most likely to be used; as private injuries, national subjugation, want of rain, famine, or pestilence, even the prayer of a stranger not of the people of Israel, &c. Surely, a specimen such as this, must prove an established custom among them to consider it a duty to pray to God for favors conferred, and solicit his protection in the hour of trouble and distress.

The temple at Jerusalem was certainly the consecrated place of regular prayer and sacrifices, for all Israelites who were within its reach; yet, as many lived at too great a distance from this sacred spot, private devotion was no doubt regularly practiced among them. We can trace, in history, many accounts of the existence of places purposely devoted to daily prayer and regular worship. The prophets, of whom we read, at Damascus, Shiloh, Bethel, and Jericho, had, no doubt, a regular form of prayer; for, at Jericho, there was an assemblage called the sons of the prophets.

After the destruction of the first temple, the Jewish nation was driven to Babylon, and from there they became scattered about the neighboring heathen countries. The occasions for prayer and supplication must have increased in such a state of slavery and persecution. Hence their addresses to the Almighty must have become more sincere and more constant. The reflection on their former state in society, compared with that in which they were now placed, must have caused in the people a strong feeling of devotion, leading on to the use of regular and earnest prayer. Then it was, that prayer was the sole solace of the people, while under such persecution.

The prophet Daniel suffered himself to be cast into the lions' den, because he persisted in praying three times a day towards Jerusalem, in defiance of the king's edict, which prohibited any person from worshipping any other God but the idol set up by the king.

In the days of Daniel, it is found that the pure Hebrew used by the Israelites had become much corrupted by the intermixture of the Chaldee and other languages, with which they became conversant by their being so closely united with the strange nations. This caused the holy tongue to be in a great measure forgotten. Nehemiah complains of this, and says: "Their children spake half in the speech of Ashdod, and could not speak in the language of the Jew, but according to the language of the several people."

Ezra, the scribe, who lived in those days, looked on this matter with considerable grief. He was fearful that the people would entirely neglect their holy worship on account of the want of a proper knowledge of the sacred language. And he further saw the consequences would be, that when the people did pray, they would fail to select proper expressions to convey their feelings and sentiments. Ezra, therefore, in conjunction with his conclave, collected, composed, and compiled the prayers in the pure and original Hebrew. They were so arranged as to be suitable for any occasion of private and public devotion, both for the morning and the afternoon, in reference to the regular daily sacrifices offered up in the temple. Also, an additional form of prayer, called "Moosoph" in Hebrew, for those days on which the additional sacrifices had been offered; such as Sabbaths, festivals, and the new moon; also, for the evening sacrifice which burned all night on the altar; likewise, the Nengelah, or concluding prayer of the day of atonement. These are the prayers which have been handed down to the posterity of the Jews throughout the known world.

Ezra and his conclave, who performed this great work, were called "the men of the great assembly or synagogue." The Talmud, Maimonides, and other eminent Jewish authorities, inform us that this synod was composed of one hundred and twenty persons of great piety and learning, among whom were the prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azaria, together with many other great men, whom we shall notice hereafter.

These prayers were in daily use among the people during the second temple; for in the Mishna, when speaking of the order observed in the daily sacrifices in the temple, it is stated that the prefect who gave the instructions, regularly said to the officiating priests, "repeat ye one blessing," which they did; then the ten commandments, and the shemang. He again said, "repeat ye with the people these blessings," which they did, many of which are in daily use among all orthodox Jews. Besides, as we have before noticed, many Israelites lived at great distances from the temple, and, therefore, it is not reasonable to suppose that God's chosen people should be altogether without some regular formulÆ of prayer.

Any person who examines the prayers in daily use among the Israelites, must become sensible of their excellence, and the grateful expressions and high wrought admiration in which they are composed. They are adapted to every situation in life, whether in sorrow or in joy, in grief or in mirth. No one who views the wondrous creation; no one possessed of the slightest spark of gratitude for favors bestowed; nor he who looks forward with hope for relief in the hour of distress, or sickness, can possibly have any language better suited to his feelings, under any circumstances, and on every occasion.Nothing, perhaps, has tended so much to keep Israel distinct from every other nation in the world, as their religious customs and observances; but more especially so, their language, the sacred original, in which the Lord of hosts manifested himself to his favorite creature; the language in which they pray, and which, in truth, is the only relic of their former glory and paternal heritage. It is the continuance of praying in the Hebrew, which forms, as it were, a communion for their dispersed brethren, from whatever country or clime they may migrate, and constitute themselves into a congregation; a language peculiarly their own—venerable for its antiquity, and sacred from its first promulgation, as being the true channel of divine revelation.

The reader will please understand that our observations, as well as the historical accounts, can only have reference to those prayers and supplications which were composed for the Jew by the men of the great synagogue, as already explained. Alas! that any innovation should have been suffered to mar the beauty of those holy compositions!

There are many more of a sacred character, such as known by the name of "Peyutem," or poetical compositions, which are read in the synagogue on the festivals and other special days. These are of much later date, and have been introduced, from time to time, into the Jewish liturgy, by men eminent for their learning, piety, and devotion. They were written under peculiar circumstances of distress and persecution, during the varied dispersion of the nation, more especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

It was then that the Jews found consolation in the dark storm of persecution, in pouring out their souls in prayer and religious devotion, which they did spontaneously on the different occasions which presented themselves. Their extempore effusions were so characteristic of their pitiful situation, that they made an indelible impression upon the minds, not only of their composers, but also upon those to whom they were recited. To commemorate such events, these compositions were committed to writing. In honor to the authors, the several congregations among whom these pious men lived, introduced them into the festival prayers, and other marked days. These have become embodied in the regular festival and Sabbath prayer book, and have been in constant use among the German and Polish Jews up to the present day. The Portuguese Jews, however, have an entire different formula. Theirs is more ancient than either the German or Polish. It is worth notice, though strange, indeed, that the German Jews, who, in a great measure, omit the recital of these Peyutem, were the very people among whom they were principally composed. It is, however, not our province to discuss here the expediency of such proceedings: we have only to treat of facts; the reader can judge for himself.

Some few exceptions, however, exist. Many of the Peyutem, above mentioned, claim a much earlier date, and are from the pen of some of the most holy men of the ancient race of Israel. These compositions will be found in the additional service of new year and day of atonement; also, those prayers called propitiatory—as the Selechous, recited previously to and during the penitential days. They have in all ages been admired for their beauty of diction, and sublimity of language, and are highly calculated to inspire the reader with profound awe and veneration, when addressing them to his creator.

It remains now only for the Hebrew language to become a primary object of study among all classes, so that they may learn to appreciate the beauty of God's own language, and thus to be prepared with devotion whenever engaged in prayer, either in private or in public. If such were the case, those who labor in the good cause would be fully repaid, when, by their exertions, they should succeed in awakening the dormant feelings of the negligent to such a duty of prayer as may be acceptable to the creator of mankind. Then will the intelligent mind become sensible of the excellence of the ancient and holy liturgy of the chosen people of God.

CHAPTER XI.ToC

Of the Ureem and Thumeem.

"And thou shalt put in the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem." Exodus, 28, 30. What the Ureem and Thumeem were is not distinctly explained in the bible.

That they were not the twelve precious stones contained in the breast-plate, as some have erroneously imagined, is quite clear; for we do not find that God directed Moses to make the Ureem and Thumeem, as he did when he said, "And thou shalt make the breast-plate," &c., &c.

It is plain from the text itself, that they were something in addition to the breast-plate, and put therein, after it was finished, by Moses himself; and therefore God says, "And thou shalt put into the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem."

From this fact, it is evident that there was something additional placed in the breast-plate by Moses; and for this reason, it is supposed that it was made double, that it might the more conveniently hold them. It now remains to inquire what the Ureem and Thumeem in reality were, and what the particular use of them. As to the former, there are various opinions among the learned. Many celebrated Christian divines have ventured many erroneous definitions on the subject. According to the opinions of the most erudite and pious Hebrew doctors and rabbins, the following appears to be the most reasonable view of the case.

It was, say the rabbins, the Tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses was commanded to place in the breast-plate, and was consecrated to holy purposes. It was vested with divine power to give an oracular reply from God to any counsel being asked of him by the high priest, during the time in which he wore it. Now, as the answer came immediately from God, it was therefore properly designated "asking counsel of God." As to the Ureem and Thumeem, it was especially to ask counsel of God on such momentous occasions only, in relation to the Jewish nation.

In the Mishna of Yoomah are explained three express conditions necessary to be observed in the asking of counsel by the Ureem and Thumeem.

First.—Concerning the person inquiring. He must not be a private person. He must be either the king, the president of the Sanhedrin, who presided over the whole nation, the general of the army, or some other noble prince, or governor in Israel.

Second.—Concerning the nature of the question. It must not be respecting the affairs of private persons; but such only as relate to the public interest of the whole nation, either of church or state.

Third.—Concerning the person who presents the question. He must be the high priest, clothed in his pontifical robes, and his breast-plate with the Ureem and Thumeem.

The learned Maimonides observes in his celebrated work, "Moreh Nevoocheem," or a "guide to the perplexed," part second, chapter forty-five, that the Ureem and Thumeem was a degree of the divine inspiration. Speaking of the different degrees or orders of prophecy, he says: "And thus every high priest who inquired by the Ureem and Thumeem was of this order, as already mentioned."

The divine presence rested on him, and he spoke by the holy spirit, that is, he delivered his answers with the assistance of the holy inspiration. According to this opinion, it was but one degree below the spirit of prophecy. All the learned and eminent men among the Jews say, that the manner of asking counsel, and receiving the answer thereto, was as follows.

The person who inquired did not make the request in an audible tone; but in such a way as one who is at his devotion pronounces the words, sufficiently loud to be heard by none but himself.

The question being made, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and on perceiving some letters on the stone of the same glistening, he, by combining them together, obtained the answer. We shall best exemplify the foregoing by the following passage from the book of Judges.

"Now, after the death of Joshua, it came to pass that the children of Israel asked the Lord, saying, who shall go up for us against the Canaanites first, to fight against them." The reply was: "Yehuda Yangaleh" or "Judah shall go up;" for as soon as the question was propounded, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and seeing the name of Judah appear prominent, he was assured that Judah was the tribe. The priest looked again, and beheld the Yod shine, the Ngain from the name of Simeon; then the Lamed from another name, and the Heh from another; these four letters being put together made the word "Yangaleh" which signifies, "He shall go up." When the priest found that no more letters glistened, he knew immediately that the answer was completed. Hence the reason why they are called Ureem, which signifies Light, from the shining of the letters; and Thumeem, or perfection, as the answer was thus complete and perfected.

This fact distinguished the Jewish oracles from the pretended heathen oracles, which were always delivered in an enigmatical and ambiguous manner. The Jewish oracles were always clear and explicit, never falling short of perfection, either in the manifestation or the certainty of the truth thereof.

During the existence of the second temple, the Ureem and Thumeem were not consulted; for when the ark and coverlid, the cherubim and the two tables of stone, disappeared at the destruction of the first temple, the breast-plate with the Ureem and Thumeem shared the same fate. Notwithstanding that on the return of the Jews to Jerusalem, they had the pontifical robes, with the breast-plate with four rows of stones, engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel; yet no question was ever asked, and consequently no communication ever received from the Ureem and Thumeem. Two reasons are assigned for this.

First.—Because the said Ureem and Thumeem were instituted to ask counsel of the Lord of such things which concerned all the tribes of Israel, and the common interest of the whole nation. Now, there being at that time the tribes of Judah and Benjamin only, these oracles could not be consulted, the common interest of the nation having then ceased.

Secondly—And possibly the principal reason, was, that the Tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses put between the folds of the breast-plate, was wanting. This being the most important part, and the very essence of the whole—when the cause ceased, the effect also ceased.

CHAPTER XII.ToC

Of the Mishna, or Oral Law.

The Pentateuch, or written law, was communicated by God to Moses, and by him to the people of Israel at different times, and adapted to the various seasons, places and circumstances during the forty years' sojournment in the wilderness.

The mode adopted in instructing the Israelites in the wilderness in the divine law was as follows: Every passage or chapter of the written law, whether historical or preceptive, was written by Moses, as received from God himself, which he placed before his council or senate, called, afterwards, Sanhedrin, as well as before the whole body of the people. This council consisted of seventy elders, or senators, the most learned and pious among the nation, of whom Moses was the president. Every chapter of the law was explained by Moses according to the oral tradition, which he received coeval with the written law. The agreement of these two was proved in such a way as to show that the oral law is the true and genuine spirit and sense of the Pentateuch; that they are so intimately and inseparably connected with each other as to be considered as one and indivisible.

Aaron, the high priest, was honored with the appointment of repeating, for the instruction of the people, all the learning taught by his brother Moses. Aaron was succeeded by his sons. Then came the elders who gathered together all the Israelites and placed them in their several academies for the study of the law. Every individual of Israel was permitted to make memoranda of the oral law, in order to assist the memory, for personal and private convenience, but the public instruction was taught orally. This oral tradition was transmitted from Moses down to the days of the celebrated Rabbi, Judah the Prince, son of the learned Simon the Just, about a hundred and fifty years after the destruction of the second temple. After the death of Moses, Joshua the son of Nun, his successor, taught the said law in his Sanhedrin, and delivered it to the elders who succeeded him; and in like manner the tradition of the Mishna was successively transferred from generation to generation, and was concluded by Rabbi Judah, above named, who flourished in the reign of the Emperor Antoninus, by whom he was honored with the title of Prince, and invested with a supremacy of power for his office. It was generally believed in those days that there never rose up in Israel any man like unto him, in whom so much piety, wealth and glory were united.

It was in consequence of his extreme piety and devotion to spiritual purposes only, and divesting himself of all worldly cares and pleasures, that he was designated Rabbinu Hakodesh, or the Holy Rabbi. This pious man, acting as president of the Sanhedrin, consulted his colleagues, who, perceiving the decline of literature, such as contained in the oral law at that period, and fearful of the consequences thereof to the nation at large, took into their serious consideration the necessity of adopting some plan by which such tradition should not be entirely forgotten. They saw and felt that the many sufferings and persecutions inflicted upon their co-religionists would ultimately be the cause of the loss of that knowledge which was so dear to them as God's own people. That it would be impossible for future generations to understand the practical part of the divine precepts as embodied in the Pentateuch. It was therefore with holy zeal that they judged it proper to collect and compile all the oral tradition explanatory of the written law and commit the same to writing, in order that it should be handed down to posterity. This is the same Mishna now in existence among the Jews at this day. It is written in short sentences and aphorisms, and generally considered to be in pure Hebrew, with some few exceptions. It contains full elucidations of the Pentateuch, as admitted by the most eminent Jewish doctors of all ages, who testify that without such elucidations the written law would have remained a sealed book to the world at large.

In the following chapter we shall treat of the Gemara, or Completion, usually called the Talmud, the same being a commentary on the Mishna.

For the present, we shall content ourselves by laying before our readers a succinct account of the contents of the Mishna.

The Mishna is divided into six general heads, called in Hebrew, Sedoreem, orders or classes. The first is styled ZeroeËm, which signifies seeds, and is subdivided into eleven sections.

First—Berochout, or Blessings.—This section treats of the laws directing the order of prayers and thanksgivings for the produce of the earth, and for all other benefits conferred on man by the beneficent creator; with the consideration as to time and place when they are to be said or repeated.

Second—Pyoh, or Corner.—This section treats of those laws which direct the leaving of the corner of the field, as the portion for the benefit of the poor, as commanded in the book of Leviticus.

Third—Demai, or Doubtful.—This treats of such things of which there exists some doubt, as to tithes having been paid for them, the Israelites not being allowed to eat of anything until it had been tithed.

Fourth—Terumous, or Oblations.—This section points out such things of which a portion was to be set apart as devoted to the use of the priests.

Fifth—Shevingis, or Seventh.—This section explains the laws of the seventh year, called the Sabbatical year, during which period the land was to remain at rest, and lie fallow; and during which time all debts were remitted and obligations canceled.

Sixth—Killayim, or Mixtures.—This portion lays down the laws which prohibit the mixing or joining of things together of an opposite or different nature or species; as, the sowing of various kinds of seeds in one and the same spot of ground; or suffering cattle of different kinds to engender; or the grafting a scion of one species of plant on the stock of another of a different character.

Seventh—Mangsire Reeshoun, or First Tithe. This section signifies the first tithes, and treats of the laws of the said tithes which shall be apportioned to the Levites.

Eighth—Mangsire Shynee, or Second Tithes. This treats of the laws of the second tithes, which were to be taken up to Jerusalem, and there to be eaten, or to be redeemed, and the produce expended at Jerusalem in peace offerings.

Fifth—Chalah, Loaf, or Cake.—This section speaks of the laws relative to setting apart a cake of dough for the priests; of the description of dough the cake should be, and what kind of dough was prohibited from being used for the purpose.

Tenth—Orlah, or Uncircumcised.—This section explains the law touching the illegality of eating the fruit of any tree until the fifth year of its growth. As follows: During the first three years of its bearing fruit, it must not be eaten; the fourth year it was holy to the Lord; and on the fifth year, it was permitted to be eaten by the owner thereof.Eleventh—Bickureem, or First Ripe Fruits. This section treats of the manner in which the first ripe fruits were to be offered up in the holy temple at Jerusalem.

The second general head or class is called Seder Moed, or order of festivals. It is so denominated because it treats of all those laws which were made concerning festivals and days of solemn observance. This second class is divided into twelve sections.

First—Sabbath, or Rest.—This is so called because it treats of all the laws respecting the Sabbath. This division contains twenty-four chapters.

Second—Eyruveen, or Mixtures, or Associations.—This section shows in what manner food might be conveyed from house to house on the Sabbath day. All the inhabitants of the court or place in which the association was formed, were allowed so to do. It also explains the rules laid down for any journey to be made on the Sabbath.

Third—Pesochim, or Passover.—This portion treats of all the laws, customs, and ceremonies, to be observed at the offering up of the paschal lamb on the eve of the festival of Passover.

Fourth—Shekoleem, or Shekels.—This treats of the half shekels, which every Israelite, whether rich or poor, was bound to pay every year towards defraying the expenses of the daily sacrifices offered up on the altar in Jerusalem.

Fifth—Youmoh, or Day.—This section treats of the great and solemn day of atonement; pointing out the ceremonies of the day, and the duties of the high priest on that holy occasion. It also speaks of the sacrifices which were to be offered up as expiations for the sins of the people.

Sixth—Succoh, or Tabernacle.—This portion treats of the feast of tabernacles. It points out in what manner the tabernacle should be built; the use of the palm tree, the citron, the myrtle, and the willow of the brook, which were ordered to be taken and used on the said festival.

Seventh—Youm Touv, or Festival.—It is called, also, Bytsoh, or Egg, being the word with which it commences. This section contains the laws and regulations for the due observance of the festivals of the Lord. It points out what work may, or may not, be lawfully done on any of the festivals which are called holy days of convocation, on which all manual labor or traffic is prohibited.

Eighth—Roush Hashono, or New Year.—This treats of the laws and solemnities of the sacred day of the new year; such as the sounding of the shouphar or cornet; of the prayers and regular service of that holy occasion. It describes, also, the ceremony for the observance at the appearance of the new moon, by which all the holy days were regulated by the Sanhedrin during the existence of the second temple.

Ninth—Tanganees, or Fast.—This division treats of the different fasts held throughout the year, and the manner in which they are to be observed by every Israelite. These fasts are held on different occasions for various reasons, and purposes; such as days of repentance, humiliation, and of calamity and misfortune which befel the nation in the several ages of persecution.

Tenth—Megilloh, or Roll of the Book of Esther.—This section treats of the feast of Purim, and directs how the roll shall be written and read on this festival. It speaks of many other rules and regulations to be observed on this feast, which commemorates the miraculous deliverance of the Jewish people from the hands of the wicked Haman, who contemplated the destruction of the whole nation. It also treats of the laws concerning the synagogue, and the reading of the holy law on the several days of solemn and religious observance throughout the year.

Eleventh—Moed Koton, or Lesser Festivals. This treats of such work as may or may not be done during the middle days of the passover and tabernacle holidays. It is, therefore, called Moed Koton, as the middle days of the said festivals are considered less holy than the first and last two days. It contains, also, the laws regulating the conduct of mourners.

Twelfth—Hagigah, or Festival Offerings. This section specifies the laws relating to the offerings made on the different festivals; the description of the persons; how they are to be qualified, and in what manner they are to appear before the Lord on the three great festivals in every year, when all the Israelites that possibly could, were expected to be in attendance at the holy city of Jerusalem.The third general head, or class, is called Nosheem, or women. This is subdivided into seven sections.

First—Yevomous, or Marriage.—This section is so called, as it treats of the laws by which one brother is expected to marry the relict of his deceased brother. It shows how, and when, the obligation shall take place; the duties and the ceremonies to be observed at the performance of the same.

Second—Kesuvous, or Documents.—This speaks of the laws relating to marriage contracts, and dowries, and of estates, whether real or personal, which may fall to some married women; how the same shall be disposed of, by, or allotted to, the said party or parties.

Third—Nedoreem, or Vows.—This treats of such vows which, when made, become binding, and by what persons such vows shall be made; how vows are considered null and void, since the husband has the power of confirming or annulling the vows of his wife. This law is very particularly specified, as to how such may be done; and the class of vows which fall under the control of the husband, and those which do not.

Fourth—Nozeer, or Nazarite.—This section treats of those laws which guide the different classes of Nazarites who take upon themselves the vows of abstinence.

Fifth—Sotah, or to turn aside.—This treats of the enactments relating to trials occasioned through jealousy between man and wife; the nature of the punishment inflicted on the woman, if it be proved that she had been guilty of the crime of adultery.

Sixth—Gitten, or Letter of Divorce.—This treats of the laws of divorce. It explains when, and under what circumstances, a divorce may be granted. It directs also all the formulÆ to be used and observed in all cases of divorce.

Seventh—Kedusheen, or Betrothing.—This treats of the laws, customs, and ceremony of betrothing; the forms, rites, and regulations to be observed at the solemnization of the marriage according to the laws of Moses and Israel.

The fourth general head, or class, is called Nezeekeen, or Damages. This class is divided into eight sections; the first of which is again subdivided into three separate sections, as follow.

First—Bovoh Kamma, or First Gate.—This first section treats of all such damages, which may be recovered for injuries done, either by man or beast.

Second—Bovoh Meziah, or Middle Gate.—This treats of the laws of usury. It explains what is, and what is not, considered an act of usury. It speaks also on matters of special trust; of letting or hire, and such like transactions between man and man.

Third—Bovoh Bosroh, or Last Gate.—This treats of the laws relating to commerce, copartnership, buying and selling; also, the laws of inheritance, and the right of succession.The above three sections are called by the Talmud and Mishna, gates, because, in the East, the courts of law were held within the gates of the city.

Second—Sanhedreen, or Senate.—This speaks of the great senate, as also of the minor courts of judicature; of the causes for trial, and the nature of the punishment inflicted for the several crimes; the four kinds of death, as the penalty for capital offenses. It describes, also, very minutely, the mode to be adopted by the Judges in the examination of witnesses.

Third—Maccous, or Punishment.—This portion treats more especially of that which may constitute false testimony, or inadmissible evidence; the laws relative to the forty stripes inflicted on the delinquent; the reason why the rabbins directed that only thirty-nine stripes should be inflicted instead of forty, as stated in the bible; also, the manner in which the said punishment should be administered. It relates, likewise, the regulations to be observed by such persons who were compelled to seek shelter in the cities of refuge.

Fourth—Shevungous, or Oaths.—This section explains the laws to be observed in the administration of an oath; in what cases an oath shall or shall not be submitted to the contending parties; who shall or who shall not be considered qualified to take the oath.

Fifth—Adoyous, Testimonies or Evidences. This treats of the decisions of the many important cases, collected from the evidence and testimony of the most eminent and learned rabbins and doctors of the great Sanhedrin of olden times.

Sixth—Avoudoh Zoroh, or Idolatry.—This section is so called, as it treats of all manner of idolatry. It is also entitled the "the worship of the planets." It explains the manner and form of the different modes of worship, as practised by the idolatrous nations, with the view of preventing the Israelite from becoming contaminated by them.

Seventh—Ovous, or Fathers.—This section contains the history of those holy fathers who, in their respective ages, successively received by tradition the oral law; from the days of Moses, the great lawgiver, down to the period when it was compiled and committed to writing by the celebrated rabbinu Hakodesh. It contains, also, many of the wise sayings, aphorisms, and moral maxims of the learned men, and is therefore called the "Ethics of the fathers."

Eighth—Houroyous, or Precepts.—This section is so called, because it treats of the punishment and penalty to be inflicted on those who should presumptuously act against, or teach anything in opposition to, the decrees and decisions of the great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem.

The fifth general head, or class, is called Kodosheem, or holy things. It is subdivided into eleven sections.

First—Zevocheem, or Sacrifices.—This section treats of the order to be observed in offering up the cattle for sacrifices, and points out their nature and quality. It also relates the time and the place; and specifies by whom they were to be killed and brought up as an offering upon the altar of the Lord.

Second—Minochous, or Meat Offerings.—This portion treats of the oblations of oil, flour, and wine, proper for each offering; and of the two waive loaves, which were to be made of fine flour, such as were offered up, on the festival of pentecost.

Third—Choolin, or Profane.—This section points out that which is clean, and that which is unclean; what may and what may not be lawfully eaten; and the law which prohibits the killing of the dam and its young, both in one day. It also shows the law prohibiting the eating of the "sinew which shrank;" and the law forbidding the taking of the dam with its young. It, moreover, embraces the laws appertaining to the killing of cattle and fowl for domestic use; and who may, and who may not, be permitted to kill the animals for food to be eaten by Israelites.

Fourth—Bechourous, or First Born.—This section treats of the laws relating to the first born of both man and cattle; pointing out in what manner, and at which period, they were to be redeemed, either with money, or brought up as an offering to the Lord. It speaks also of the tithes of all manner of cattle.

Fifth—Eyrachin, or Valuation, or Estimation.—This section treats of the manner in which things devoted to the Almighty are valued, so that they may be redeemed and applied to ordinary purposes; as also how the priest shall value a field, devoted or sacrificed to the Lord by its owner.

Sixth—Temuroh, or Exchange.—This portion explains how far it may be lawful to exchange one sacred thing for another; as, whether an animal which had been consecrated as an offering to be sacrificed to the Lord might be exchanged. In most cases, where an animal had been consecrated to the Lord, and then exchanged, both the animal and its substitute became sacred.

Seventh—Kerisus, or Excisions.—This section relates to offenses which, if wantonly committed, were punished by the offender being cut off from among the people, called Kohrice. It points out, at the same time, what offenders were liable to this punishment. It likewise explains how those who had offended through accident, had to bring a sin or trespass offering.

Eighth—Mengeloh, or Trespass.—This portion treats of the nature of the trespass made by converting such things which have been consecrated and devoted to holy purposes, to profane or unholy matters.

Ninth—Tomeed, or Continual Offerings.—Herein are specified the daily sacrifices, and the description as to how, and in what manner, they were to be offered upon the altar of the Lord.

Tenth—Middous, or Dimensions.—This book is so called, because it speaks of the dimensions and proportions of the temple. It describes the mount on which the temple stood, and the full extent of the outer court. This was considered requisite to be known; for whoever had become unclean, from any circumstance whatever, was prohibited from entering the temple on pain of excision.

Eleventh—Koneem, or Nests.—This section speaks of the birds, such as pigeons or turtle-doves, which were brought as offerings by the poor, instead of the more expensive, which they were unable to bring. The smaller value was equally acceptable to the God of mercy and kindness.

The sixth general head, or class, is entitled Taharous, or purifications. It is divided into twelve sections.

First—Kyleem, or Vessels, Utensils.—This book is so called, because it treats of the pollutions incident to vessels, and how they are to be purified from such uncleanness. It treats also of the manner in which garments of every description may be purified, in the event of their becoming polluted or defiled by uncleanness of any kind.

Second—Oholous, or Tents.—This section treats of the manner in which houses become polluted; the nature of such pollutions; and how far those who enter such dwellings may thereby become contaminated, and how they may be purified.

Third—Negoim, or Plagues, or Diseases.—This book explains all the laws relative to the plague of leprosy; whether on man or beast, dwellings or garments. It shows how and in what manner infection took place; and how the things or persons so afflicted may become purified.Fourth—Poroh, or Heifer.—This section speaks of the laws relating to the red heifer; how the said heifer should be burned to ashes, in order to make the water for purification; and in what manner all defilements, contracted by the touch or contact of a dead body, could be purified by means of the ashes of the red heifer.

Fifth—Taharous, or Purifications.—This portion treats of all those laws pertaining to such defilements which may be contracted otherwise than by the touch of a dead body; and of the manner purification may, and can take place.

Sixth—Mikvoous, or Baths.—This section treats of the laws and regulations for baths to be used for purification by ablutions; of all persons who may have from any cause whatever become unclean. Herein is also specified the manner in which the bath should be constructed, and the quantity of water required for every ablution.

Seventh—Niddoh, or Separation.—This portion explains all the laws relating to the pollutions and purifications of women after child-birth, and on every occasion of uncleanness.

Eighth—Machshereen.—This section explains in what manner seed or fruit became susceptible of defilement or pollution through the admixture of liquids.

Ninth—Zobeem, or Issues.—This portion treats of the laws relating to the impurities arising from the issues of the body; and points out how and when they are deemed unclean; and how and in what manner either persons or things may become affected by their pollution.

Tenth—Tibbul Youm, or Purification of a Day.—This portion speaks of persons who may become unclean, and require ablution to purify them; which purification cannot be considered complete until the setting of the sun on the same day when the purification shall take place.

Eleventh—Yodoyeem, or Hands.—This section treats of the laws and regulations for cleansing the hands from any uncleanness; and the custom and ceremony to be observed in washing the hands on the different occasions.

Twelfth—Uktseem, or Stalks.—This last section is so called, because it explains how the touching of the stalks of any sort of fruit may convey pollution to the fruit itself.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FOREGOING MISHNA.

CHAPTER XIII.ToC

Of the Gemara, or Completion, which is usually styled Talmud.

In the foregoing chapter we described the manner in which the Mishna was compiled, together with its contents, from its first delivery by Moses till the time of its being committed to writing by Rabbi Judah the Prince. We shall now proceed in regular order to explain what the Talmud is, and how it was composed by the several learned men among the Jews both in Jerusalem and in Babylon.

The compilation of the Talmud ranks among the most ancient Hebrew writings. It consists of two distinct heads—the Mishna and the Gemara, and both together form the Talmud.

The Mishna, as already explained, chiefly contains the oral or traditional laws transmitted down to posterity from the time of Moses the Lawgiver, to that of Rabbi Judah the Prince or Nassi.

The Gemara consists of expositions and comments on the Mishna, as also various other subjects connected with Jewish literature, and more especially Jewish theology. It contains also treatises on moral philosophy, ethics, mathematics, astronomy and chronology, and many other branches of the different sciences known in those days. The Gemara or expositions on the Mishna was commenced in the days of the Rabbins, Gamaliel and Simeon, the two sons of Rabbi Judah the Holy, about the year 3980 of the creation, and was completed and compiled into one body by Rav Ashi, President, and Raviny, Vice President, who are considered the actual compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. This took place about the year 4260.

The authors of the Talmud in general are styled Amooroim, dictators, as they dictated the several explications of the Mishna, as discussed in the different schools, and which are all found in the Talmud. The comments and expositions are known by the name of Gemara, which signifies completion, because therein is fully explained all the traditional doctrines of the Jewish law and its religion. The Mishna is the text, the Gemara the comment, or glossary, and both together form the Talmud.

There are two Talmudim. The first is styled Talmud Yerushalmi, or Jerusalem Talmud. This was compiled by Rabbi Jochanan in five sedorim or divisions. This Talmud does not contain the whole of the Mishna. It was completed about the year 4060. The second Talmud is called Talmud Bably, or Babylonian Talmud, which was completed about two hundred years after the other Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is the least esteemed of the two, and consequently less studied and quoted by the learned among Israel. It is the Babylonian Talmud which is usually studied and consulted in all points of jurisprudence, as connected with all religious affairs, both in, and out, of the synagogue. It is therefore to be understood, that whenever the Talmud is simply notified, it means the Babylonian Talmud; as the other Talmud is never quoted, unless particularly and expressly mentioned.

The Talmud Bably is arranged in the following order. The Mishna forms the text, and the Gemara is annexed as the comment or glossary. The same order is observed as with the Mishna, although it must be observed that the Gemara appears only on thirty-six sections, whereas the whole of the Mishna contains sixty-three sections, as explained in the foregoing chapter. The order of the Talmud is as follows:

CHAPTER XIV.ToC

APPENDIX.

Having given a brief description of the Mishna and the Talmud, and their contents, we now direct the attention of the reader to the following observations, as a summary to the preceding two chapters.

The Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, is generally understood by the term "written law," and the Talmud as the oral or traditional law. The oral law was handed down from Moses to Joshua, from the elders to the prophets, and from them to the Great Synod, which consisted of one hundred and twenty of the most learned men of the age, and in like manner from time to time, until the days of Rabbi Judah, already mentioned. This great man, seriously contemplating the state of his nation as regarded their religious affairs, and perceiving that those who were learned in the law were gradually diminishing in number, feared that the knowledge of the oral law might ultimately be forgotten, and with it the essential portion of the law of Moses. In the true spirit of devotion and piety, this Rabbi collected all the doctrines and precepts which had been taught orally, down to that period, and with the assistance of his pious colleagues, committed them to writing, and arranged them in the order of the Mishna, as already described. After the Mishna had been written, and presented to the nation at large, it was received by them with a general and unanimous consent. It was universally approved, and was held by them as an authentic document, delivered to Moses by the Almighty, while on the mount, as an explanation of the written law. The prevailing opinion among the people then was, that the Mishna had been handed down by tradition, and they were confirmed in such opinion by the conviction that the same had been taught to them in their youth in the various schools and academies which were established for such purposes. It was then considered expedient by the learned in those days, that some further explanation should be given, in order to render the Mishna more intelligible to the general class of readers.

With this view, some of the most eminent among the Jewish doctors, taught in the schools the oral law together with the signification thereof, and in this way they illustrated all the most abstruse and difficult passages by useful and instructive commentaries. These illustrations and glossaries increased from time to time, which formed the Talmud, such as it is at present in the possession of the Israelites. It abounds with aphorisms and ethics, which were introduced by the Rabbins and Doctors who composed the Talmud, in the course of their discussions. It was in this manner, that they supported the opinions advanced by them on the various subjects upon which they treated. These subjects were frequently illustrated by moral tales and allegories, such being the tutelar system prevalent among most of the oriental nations in those days.

In the said Talmud the Rabbins taught also the various arts and sciences, such as known in those times, although it may be conceded that they may not have reached to such perfection as in the present enlightened age; nevertheless the principle was known by the Israelites of old, and practically applied by them as far as necessity demanded. It is well known that astronomy, geometry, architecture, physics, natural philosophy, as well as many of the other sciences, were in high cultivation both before and after the Babylonian captivity.

The building of the tabernacle in the wilderness—the beautiful temple of Solomon,—the superb edifice erected by Herod the Great, may certainly be advanced as specimens of the science of architecture, in which must naturally be included that of geometry. It cannot be denied that the Jews were also famous in hydraulics, aqueducts, etc., military tactics and war implements, engineering, agriculture, etc.

That astronomy was successfully cultivated by the Israelites of old, is proved by the perpetual chronological calendar which was formed and brought to perfection in the days of the Talmudical doctors. This calendar is composed both of the lunar and solar revolutions. Though it may not be strictly the province of this chapter to treat upon this subject, the reader will excuse the digression, in order to introduce a short extract of this calculation to show the basis upon which the same is founded, and prove that a knowledge of astronomy existed in those days, by the teachers of the Talmud. According to the Mosaic Law, the Israelites are directed to calculate the year and compute their holy days according to the lunar year. Twelve lunar, synodical revolutions, i.e. 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds, compose one simple year. Thus we make sometimes 353, 354, 355 days, allowing for fractions. Yet the Epactem of 10 days, 21 hours, 11 minutes and 20 seconds, in which the solar year exceeds the lunar, might be the cause, that the holy days would be removed from their respective seasons,—which would be the case, when calculating by the lunar only. So that in a period of seventeen years the feast of Passover would be in the autumn instead of the spring, and the feast of tabernacle in spring instead of the autumn. On this account it was that the Jewish chronologists took care to remedy this defect, by forming alternately, sometimes to compose the year of thirteen lunar months, as 383, 384, 385 days, for which reason they adopted a period of 19 years, in which they formed seven complete years,—as the 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, complete of thirteen lunar months, and the interval twelve years, simple, of twelve lunar months only; and in this periodical calculation of 19 years, according to the above rotation of twelve simple and seven complete years, the lunar and solar years then agree, without any variation whatever.[A] Hence it is that the Jewish calculation is very exactly and astronomically contrived, for it has never failed since its first introduction, now nearly fifteen centuries. This is a sufficient proof that the science of astronomy was known to the ancient Israelites.

We have already stated, that the Talmud contains many allegories, aphorisms, ethics, etc., which, it must be observed, are not to be interpreted in their literal sense, but as being intended to convey some moral and instructive lesson,—such being the system peculiar to oriental nations. This system not having been clearly understood by many of the Jews and Gentiles in both ancient and modern times, has led to the belief that the whole of the Talmud, as it now exists, is of divine origin. Now in justice to the authors of the Talmud, it must be stated, that they never intended to convey any such idea; their object was simply to render their discussions and dissertations intelligible to their coreligionists of those days, and that it should be carefully handed down to posterity. With this view it was, that the compilers of the Talmud left the work in its original and genuine state, with all the arguments and disputations as given by the authors in the various ages, so that they might not be charged with having interpolated it with ideas of their own, foreign to the views and intentions of the original authors of the work. This is sufficient to show that the whole of the Talmud never was considered by the learned, as having a divine origin; but those portions of the Mishna, illustrative of the written law, as already explained, were received as divine, having been successively transmitted by oral tradition, from Moses to Rabbi Judah, the Prince, and by him placed before the world and handed down unalloyed to succeeding generations. In coming ages, the learned among Israel, desirous that the study of the Talmud should not be entirely lost, have added comments and glossaries, in order to render the work as easy as possible to the comprehension of the student. The Talmud contains, not, as has been said, the narrow-minded sentiments of bigots, but the devout and conscientious discussions of men deeply impressed with the love of divine providence, and anxious to inculcate that love in others by precept and observation.

It was wisely remarked by the celebrated Luzzato, "that the ancient Rabbies were the incorrupt reporters of the ceremonials and rites of the Jews, and no innovators! that they did not attempt to grasp a subject they could not comprehend, nor seek to hide by sophistical arguments, eloquently clothed, a truth that was apparent." No! for, says the Venetian sage, they spoke of things to the study of which their whole lives had been devoted, and their piety gave weight to their opinions.

We are aware, however, that we are open to severe criticisms; but we trust that our remarks may neither shock the ear of the more enlightened portion of the Jewish nation, nor incur the displeasure of those, who still believe it to be a crime to urge a word respecting this time honored production. Much has been said on this subject. Whilst some have labored incessantly to enforce the divinity of the Talmud—others again, either from prejudice or other unholy motives, have set at nought the entire composition, and condemned it as useless in the present age. How far the latter may be justified in the promulgation of such sentiments, may be easily ascertained by a glance at Judaism at the present, in view of the strife and contention between the Orthodox and the Reform, with but little benefit to Judaism in general. The reader will look "on this picture and on that" and decide for himself.

We might quote many authorities of high standing among the Jewish literati, such as existed formerly in the schools of Jamnia, Tiberias, Surah, Pombeditha, etc.; and in subsequent ages, those unrivalled Luminaries that appeared in Spain and France, Germany and Poland, who have recommended the study of the Talmud as a guide to the perfect understanding of the holy writings. On the present occasion we prefer citing that which has been said of its merits by other divines, differing from the Jew in faith.

A celebrated Christian divine of the Catholic church who flourished in the fourth century, Aurelio Augustino, in a work called "The City of God," makes the following remarks:"For, indeed, that nation, that people, that state, that republic, the Israelites, to whom was given the eloquence of God, in no way confounded the pseudo-prophets with their true prophets. But by a unanimous consent, and differing in nothing among themselves, they recognized the latter as the depositaries of the sacred writings, and considered them the authors. These true prophets were philosophers, that is, lovers of wisdom: being themselves wise men, they were theologians, prophets, and teachers of probity and piety. Whoever therefore lives and grows wise according to their doctrines, lives and grows wise not according to the doctrines of men, but according to the doctrines of God, who spoke through them."

"He further states, that as the love of virtue, with which these philosophers were deeply imbued, is the foundation of true belief, and the basis of all religion, so their works, coming from so pure, so enlightened, and so pious a source, are entitled to be received, not only by Jews, but by men of all creeds, as guides to the true knowledge of God and to that state of spiritual bliss, which it should be our sole aim in this life to attain," for which reason, in his first book, "De Arcanis CatholicÆ Veritatis," he strongly urged the propriety of having the Talmud translated into Latin, that it might be studied in the schools of Italy.

Peter Galatino, a learned Franciscan monk, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century, was known to be a great persecutor of the Jews. Yet in speaking of the sacred writings and Jewish literature in general, he expressed himself nearly in the following terms: That he regarded the Talmud as a divine work, and that he considered every part of it as perfect, and adorned with excellent moral instruction, adapted both for the guidance of our active and contemplative life, and entitled on account of its inspired authors, to be regarded as a work of extreme piety and goodness.

The above quotations are worthy of consideration. Let those Jews then, who would attempt to cast a slur upon the Talmud, look for one moment at these remarks, and pause while reflecting, that they were made by Catholics, ere they proceed in their attacks upon a work which could command such expressions from those whose religion was so widely different, but whose reason could not refuse to yield to the cogent proofs the divine book in itself contained.

FOOTNOTES:

OF THE JEWISH MONTHS AND YEARS.

Time is the duration of things; it is divided into years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. A year is the space of twelve months, which is the time the sun takes in passing through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The Zodiac is a circle showing the earth's yearly path through the heavens. On this circle are marked the twelve signs, which are numbers of stars, reduced by the fancy of men into the form of animals, and from these forms they take their name. A month is the time the moon occupies in going round the earth. There are two kinds of months, Lunar and Solar. Lunar months are calculated by the moon; solar months are reckoned by the sun. The Hebrews make use of lunar months which consist alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days. The sacred volume directs them to make their computations by lunar months. The plan adopted by them at this day is that which was so admirably arranged by the celebrated and learned Rabbi Hillel, the Prince. The difference between the solar and the lunar months would occasion, in a period of seventeen years, the passover to occur in the autumn month called Tishree, instead of Neson, the spring month; and thus the feast of tabernacles would be in Neson instead of Tishree. To avoid such imperfections in their calculations, the Rabbins have arranged that every third year shall consist of thirteen lunar months instead of twelve. This additional month is called an intercalary month, and the year in which it occurs is called leap year. By this arrangement it will be found that, in the course of nineteen years, there are seven leap years, as follow:

The third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth, and nineteenth. The moon was more regarded by the Jews than the sun, because by the new moon all their festivals and fasts were regulated. The new moon was always the beginning of the month. Persons were appointed to watch its first appearance and represent the same to the Sanhedrin, who immediately made it known to the whole of the nation. The new moon was celebrated by the sound of trumpets, and an extra sacrifice was offered in the holy temple.

The ancient Jews had originally no particular names for their months. It is found occasionally in the Bible that names were given to some of the months. These names were made use of as descriptive of the season in which such month occurred; as we find by Moses the legislator, who called the name of the first month Abib, it being the spring time of the year. The present names of the Hebrew months are Chaldaic, and are said to have first been made use of by the nation during the captivity of Babylon. History informs us that these names were used both by the Chaldeans and the Persians. The Jews always reckon their day from evening to evening, because, in the account of the creation of the world the evening is mentioned before the morning; and thus it is that the Sabbaths, festivals and fasts commence from the previous evening. They have no particular names in Hebrew for the days of the week; they are called first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and the seventh is called Sabbath.

The term week owes its derivation to the Hebrew word Shovuang, which signifies seventh, on which day God rested from his labors. In former times the Jews had three sorts of weeks:

First—Weeks of Days, which were reckoned from Sabbath to Sabbath. Second—Weeks of Years, which were reckoned from one sabbatical year to another. The sabbatical year happened every seventh year. This year was called Shemittah, or year of release. Third—Weeks of seven times seven years, or forty-nine years, and the fiftieth year was called the year of Youvile, or Jubilee. The Jubilee was celebrated on the day of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sounding of rams' horns and seven trumpets. The Jubilee allowed the same privileges as the sabbatical year. On both these occasions the ground was not cultivated, but suffered to lie at rest, in order to recruit its fruitful powers. All Hebrew slaves were set at liberty, and all lands or houses, that may have been sold or pledged, returned to the original owners.It is thus plainly shown that the sabbatical year was evidently appointed to inculcate humanity, fellow-feeling, and brotherly love. At these periods the sovereignty of the Almighty was publicly acknowledged by the restoration of all property to its original and proper owner! Brotherly love was exercised by setting at liberty all bondsmen: thus showing that all men are equal in the eyes of the the Lord; and humanity was promoted by the care which was taken of the poor and the stranger.

PRAYER IN BEHALF OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The following prayer is read in the Synagogue in Lodge street, Cincinnati, on Sabbaths and festivals, the same having been composed by the Rev. H. A. Henry, Minister of the said Synagogue, at the request of the Board of Trustees of the congregation, as a substitute for the Hebrew prayer formerly used by them, in accordance with the custom and practice of the various European congregations.

PRAYER.

Almighty God and Supreme Governor of the Universe. Thou who art enthroned on high, and condescendest to look down, on earth, O! bless and prosper in thine abundant goodness, this happy country—this land of freedom—which thou hast destined to be our resting-place—the United States of America. Grant, O Lord, that virtue, truth, charity and mercy may flourish in these States. O! bless the inhabitants of this land! Grant that nought but peace and happiness may surround them both at home and abroad. Deliver them from all dangers and misfortunes! Endue them with the spirit of love and affection for each other, that they may live as brethren, as the children of the Universal Father of all mankind for ever and ever.

Pour forth, O Lord, thy blessings toward their excellencies the President and the Vice-President of the United States. May they be favored with health and vigor, and may all their efforts for the well-doing of the people prove prosperous. May righteousness and justice flourish in their days. O! banish all errors from their minds, and fashion their hearts according to thy infinite and gracious providence.

O! shed thy grace, O God, upon the Governor of this State, and the Mayor and Common Council of this City. Teach them to judge the people truly. Instruct them in the path they should tread, that their administration may prove wise, steady and prosperous.

Send forth thy salvation, O Lord, into this City, and unto all its inhabitants. O! spread over them thy pavillion of peace, and remove from them all sorrows—all troubles—protect them and shield them from all harm. Incline their hearts unto wisdom and piety, that they may serve thee in holiness of life and purity of soul.

And we, thy chosen people, Israel! O! satisfy us with thy goodness! Let us also rejoice in thy salvation! Guide us, O Lord, by thy unerring Providence, that we may find grace in thy sight, and favor in the eyes of the world. O may our daily supplications ascend thy throne of Grace, that we may live in peace with all mankind, and seek the welfare of the land where thou in thy mercy hast directed our course. In their days, and in our days, may Judah be saved, Israel dwell in comfort, and the Redeemer come unto Zion! O! may such be thy Divine Will, and let us say—Amen.