CHAPTER XI

GRAPES UNDER GLASS

Grape-growing under glass is on the decline in America. Forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one, grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for the market, and nearly every large estate possessing a range of glass had a grapery. But grapes are better and more cheaply grown in Europe than in America, and the advent of quick transportation permits English, French and Belgian grape-growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world war has stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, and American gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under glass profitable; they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruction of Belgian houses and the shortage of labor in Europe resulting from the war.

Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under glass wane, since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener's skill. Certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous rewards. Grapes grown under glass are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often attain enormous size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon. The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot-house grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in cold or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. Grapes are grown under glass with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores. A grapery need not be an expensive luxury, and the culture of grapes under glass can be recommended to persons of moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby.

The Grapery

Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted to growing grapes. Firms constructing greenhouses usually have had experience in building graperies, and, as a rule, it will pay to have these professional builders put up the house. If the actual work is not done by a builder, it is possible to purchase plans and estimates, from which, if sufficiently detailed, local builders can work. On small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable, being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be built against the stable, garage or other building; or better, a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected. It is possible to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash.

In commercial establishments and for large estates, where the grapery must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early in the season. On account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides, however, rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to grapery. Whatever the house, it must be so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in which much is gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing. The glass must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through defective spots.

Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required in the grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations. If wood is used, only the most durable kinds should enter into the construction of the house. The under structure of masonry or of wood should be low, not higher than 18 inches or 2 feet before the superstructure of glass begins. The grapery must be well ventilated. There must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature, as the grape under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject to mildew. Plenty of air, therefore, is an absolute necessity to the grapes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. The lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color, at which time the new growth, foliage and fruit are hardened, but from this time on upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always generously aired.

Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular; but in the modern houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat is now considered a necessity, even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use. For a finely finished product, a little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often saving a house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said. Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom requires high heat, hot water is rather to be preferred to steam, although there is no objection to steam, especially if the grapery is a part of a large range of glass.

The border.

The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too rich. The grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border. "Border," in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly comes from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used in which to plant vines. The border in a modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet outside the house.

Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula is: Six parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-rotted cow manure; one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone. These ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very well the soil and food requirements of the grape. This formula can be varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border compost should be placed above the drainage material. In a border made as described, the grape finds ample root-run, but not too much, as in a surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this extensive border.

The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies, of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure is to spade the outside border, if the border extends outside, before winter, after which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure, without any particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost, as a certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be beneficial. The inside border must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring, having been covered previously with well-rotted manure. The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted. For an early crop, the vines must be started early in February; for a late crop, a month or even two months later suffices. So started, the first crop of grapes comes on in June or July, the later ones following in August or September.

It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making gunpowder, composted "filth, dead animals, urine and offal with alternate layers of turf and lime mortar," and asserted that "a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and that "when the materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes." Napoleon's niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a grape-border, as the fruit produced in so rich a soil, though abundant, is coarse and poorly flavored, and the vines complete their own destruction by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border may be too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen.

Varieties

Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more than a score are grown under glass, and of these but a half dozen are commonly grown. Black varieties have the preference for indoors, especially if grown for the market, where they bring the highest prices. They are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the white sorts. However, as we shall see, one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house of any considerable size.

Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit because it is most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy producer, sets its fruit well, the grapes mature early; and, in particular, it meets the requirements of the unskilled gardener better than any other grape. The clusters are not as large and the flavor not as good as that of some other sorts.

Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It is, however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high temperature to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit and the grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity; it also requires a long season. A good quality is that it may be kept long after cutting, much longer than Black Hamburg.

For an earlier white grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much to recommend it; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier than Muscat of Alexandria and is much more easily grown. It is good in quality but not of high quality. Buckland Sweetwater may be well grown in the house with Black Hamburg, whereas it is almost impossible to grow Muscat of Alexandria in the same house with Black Hamburg.

Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and Muscat of Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit characters between these two standard sorts. It is not, however, very generally grown, although it well deserves to be because of its large, beautiful, tapering clusters of black grapes of finest quality.

Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of indoor grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening sometimes to a dark shade of pink, and are borne in long, slender clusters. The grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality but are, all in all, rather difficult to grow.

Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black grapes, especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters of large size with large berries. Both are very good in quality. Neither of the two is particularly easy to grow, since they require a long time to ripen; but, to offset this, both keep longer than any other sorts after ripening. Because of the large size of the berries, thinning must begin early and must be rather more severe than with other grapes. This variety is now largely grown in England for exportation to this country in early spring.

White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain largest size in clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds being not infrequent, but are coarse and poor in quality and are, therefore, hardly worth growing.

Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety, since it departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in flavor. The grapes have very thick skins and may be kept longer than those of any other variety.

Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest quality, but difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are small in comparison with other standard sorts, characters that do not commend the variety to most gardeners.

Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial in American graperies, but the list given covers the needs of commercial establishments and will meet the wants of most amateur growers.

Planting and Training

Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines are set inside the house at least a foot from the walls and four feet apart. The grapery must be built on piers with spaces of at least two feet between, and the vines are placed opposite these openings in the foundation. When planted, the vines are cut back to two or three buds, and when these start the strongest are selected for training, the others being rubbed off. The grapery must be strung with wires running lengthwise of the house at about fifteen inches from the glass. Greenhouse supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron brackets to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the growing vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia to hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak of the house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained must be pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store food in the lateral buds for the coming season. When the wood is well matured, the vine is cut back to half or one-third its length, depending on the variety, laid on the ground and covered for the winter. An item of no small importance in winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being inordinately fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the vines are ruined for the coming season.

The second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the first. The vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house and are again stopped by pinching. A considerable number of laterals spring up on each side of the main vine, and these must be thinned as they develop to stand at the distance apart of the wires to which they are fastened. This is pre-supposing that the gardener has chosen the spur method of pruning, the method generally used in America and the one, all things considered, which gives best results. The selection of the laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much importance since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should be taken to have these spurs regularly distributed over the length of the vine. This second year, grapes must not be permitted to develop on the terminal shoots, but a few clusters may be taken from the laterals in which case the laterals are pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the pinching continuing throughout the season if the laterals persist in breaking, as they will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the terminal is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched back to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season.

The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the second, with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit throughout its whole length, although not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of main vine is permitted. The plants are now established and the only pruning in this and succeeding years is to cut the laterals at the close of each season close to the main stem, leaving strong healthy buds of which at least one, usually more, will be found close to the stem. If more than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen, although often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the opposite side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat on the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the main stem can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely to permit his vines to overbear with the result that the crop is cast, or the berries rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripening. From the beginning to the finish of the season, in this method of pruning, much pinching of laterals is required. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for this pinching, but, roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second joint from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows. With most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about eighteen inches from the main stem. After a few years, well-developed spurs form at the base of the original laterals, and from these spurs the new wood comes year after year.

An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes to grow up from a bud near the ground each season. When the vine is well established, this new cane is fruited throughout its entire length, the laterals being pinched as described under the spur method. This method of pruning is known as "the long cane method." Gardeners hold that they can grow better fruit with this than with the spur method, but the difficulties are greater and the crop is not as large.

Care of the Vines

With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters set than the vines can carry. This means that a part of the clusters must be removed, an operation that depends on the variety and one that requires experience and judgment on the part of the gardener. Roughly speaking, half the clusters are taken, leaving the other half as evenly distributed on each side of the vine as possible. The time to take these clusters is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are shy in setting and the clusters must not be taken until the berries are formed and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule, however, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form of the cluster can be seen.

It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing large berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time to thin the cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set fruit freely can be thinned sooner than those which are shy in setting. On the one hand, the thinning must not be done too soon as it cannot be told until the berries are of fair size which have set seed and which have not; however, if thinning is neglected too long, the berries become over-crowded and the task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed with slender scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the hand, as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-shaped wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the berries to attain their full size but also to permit the bunches to attain as great size as possible. If too severely thinned, the clusters flatten out after maturity. This is especially the case when too many berries are taken from the center of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of several small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper clusters or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell without being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping require more thinning than those to be used at once after picking, since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the center of the bunch if it is too compact.

The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable care. The amount of water to be used depends on the composition of the borders and the season of growth. If the border is loose and well-drained, the supply of water must be large; if close and retentive, but a small amount of moisture is required. Watering must not be done during the period of blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper pollination. When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are heavily watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some gardeners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the house and keep the atmosphere dry.

Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the season's work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the early spring months when the dryness of the sun on the one hand, and cold air on the other, make it difficult to avoid draughts and regulate the temperature. Another troublesome time is when the grapes begin to color, as it is then necessary for the grapery to have air at night; but when too much air enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the end of the season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and the grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit is cut, the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may ripen properly.

Pests

Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors. Of these, mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most troublesome. In a well-conducted grapery, there is never an intermission in the warfare against these pests.

Mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gardener. In a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing, it should never be seen, but, since gardeners must often grow other plants in the grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears and is often hard to dislodge. It is best repelled by removing the loose bark on the trunks which harbor the pest and then washing with kerosene emulsion. When this becomes necessary, not only the vines but the rafters and all parts of the house should be sprayed with the emulsion.

Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but it thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of by syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its appearance is usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage; syringing should be kept up until the pest is disposed of, keeping the house damp in all except dull weather. Syringing is done only when plenty of air can be given and when it can be followed by sunlight so that the water remains on the vines as short a time as possible.

Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but not often and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine. Much care must be taken in the application of nicotine late in the season, otherwise the fruit will be injured.

The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the greenhouse is mildew. Mildew is usually brought on by a sudden change of temperature or by draughts in the grapery. Gardeners are of the opinion that east winds, in particular, give unfavorable conditions for mildew and prefer to open the ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew is easily kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it, and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur.

CHAPTER XII

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the mercy of numerous insect and fungous pests unless man intervenes with remedial or preventive treatment. Happily for viticulture, knowledge of the pests of the vine has made such advancement in recent years that practically all are now controlled by remedial or preventive measures. Possibly no field of agriculture has had greater need, or received greater aid from science in the study and control of insects and diseases than grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to treat the pathological troubles of the grape fully; only such details of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are essential to a proper understanding of the control of the parasites can be given here.

Insect Pests

Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 having been described in America, most of which have their habitat on the wild prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent. For this reason, with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the grape in America are widely distributed, abundant, and, therefore, often very destructive to vineyards unless vigorously combated. The many pestiferous species vary greatly in importance, depending on locality, weather and the variety. Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and deserves first attention.

Phylloxera.

This minute sucking insect (Phylloxera vastatrix), injures the grape by feeding on its roots. Decay usually follows its work on the roots and is often more injurious than the harm done directly by the parasite. This decay is always much more serious on European vines than on those of our native species. The phylloxera is a native of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was introduced into France and from France into California, where it causes much greater damage than elsewhere in the United States. Wherever the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in sandy soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often sufficiently resistant to be practically immune.

The life history of the phylloxera is very complex where the different forms of the insect appear and need not be entered into in detail here. East of the Rockies, the most evident indication of the presence of the pest is great numbers of leaf-galls on the under side of the leaves of the grape as shown in Fig. 36. These galls, however, are seldom to be seen in California and are not present on Concords and some other varieties in the East. The winter egg may be taken as the beginning of the life cycle of the phylloxera. From a single winter egg a colony may arise, the first insect after hatching making its way to the leaves where it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a new generation of egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions where the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established on the roots, generation follows generation throughout the growing period of the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring in one season.

From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some of the eggs deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs which acquire wings and emerge from the soil to form new colonies from eggs deposited on the under side of the leaf. An individual insect deposits from three to six eggs of two sizes, from the larger of which come the females and these, after fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and deposit the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle.

Several methods of control have been employed in Europe and California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in the soil; flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated; confining the vines to sandy soils; and, most important, planting vines grafted on resistant stocks, there being great variation in immunity of species of American grapes to phylloxera. The subject of stocks resistant to this pest has been discussed in Chapter IV and need not be taken up again. East of the Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes.

The grape root-worm.

The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect pests of grapes in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. This root-worm (Fig. 37) is the larva of a grayish-brown beetle (Fidia viticida), shown in Fig. 38. The worms feed at first on the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots of the vines so that the injured plants show roots devoid of rootlets and bark channeled by the pest. So plain is the work of the root-worm that the grower never need be at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by this pest. The worms feed during the latter part of the growing season, reaching full growth at this time. The next June they transform into pupÆ and in late June or early July emerge as adult beetles.

The presence of the adult beetles is more easily detected on the foliage than is that of the larvÆ on the roots, for the feeding beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the leaves, leaving chain-like markings, shown in Fig. 39, their destructiveness decreasing somewhat after a few days from their first appearance. A fortnight after the beetles begin their attack on the foliage the female begins laying her eggs, to the number of 200, placing them under the rough bark of trunk and cane. These hatch in late July or August and the young grubs at once seek the roots.

Two methods of control have been devised: destruction of the beetles before they lay their eggs; and destruction of the pupÆ while in the ground. When the beetles are present in large numbers, many of them may be destroyed by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and arsenate of lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a hundred gallons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six pounds. This should be followed by a second spraying a week later, using bordeaux mixture (4–4–50) and three pounds of arsenate of lead. This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles from the vines. The molasses spray is ineffective unless several days of fair weather follow the spraying, as rain washes the material from the foliage. Bordeaux mixture is not easily affected by rain. In moderately infested vineyards, bordeaux mixture and arsenate are used instead of molasses and arsenate of lead, followed in about ten days with a second application of the same material.

An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is the destruction of the pupÆ. This is best done by leaving a low ridge of earth under the vines at the last seasonal cultivation to remain until most of the larvÆ have pupated, and then be leveled with a horse-hoe and later with a harrow. The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the pupÆ and break the cells of others to the great destruction of the pest. This latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in bad infestations both should be used. When the infestation is only moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the lateness of the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural practice to horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June. To wait for the pupal stage of the root-worm delays the work until numerous small roots start which would be destroyed by the horse-hoe. Spraying will control a moderate infestation.

The grape-vine flea-beetle.

In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes are swelling, a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in the vineyards of eastern America feeding on the tender buds of the grape. From its color the insect is often called the steely-beetle, and from its activity and habit of jumping it is known as the flea-beetle (Haltica chalybea). The vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many buds are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often develop after the injury, but these, as a rule, produce only foliage.

The life history of the flea-beetle is such that the pest is not hard to control, the chief steps in its development being as follows: The beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs, cylindrical in form, illustrated in Fig. 40, about the buds and in crevices of the bark of the canes in May or June. Most of these eggs are hatched by the middle of June. The larvÆ feed upon the foliage until about July first and then crawl to the ground in which they form cells and pupate. The latter part of July the adults emerge and seek wild vines upon which they feed, entering hibernation rather early in the fall. The beetles hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the bark of trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the following spring to seek vineyards.

Two methods of control have been developed to keep this pest under. The vines should be sprayed with three pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water when the larvÆ are feeding on the foliage; or the beetles when feeding may be knocked into a pan containing a shallow layer of kerosene. The former is the cheaper and more effective method provided the grape-grower has the foresight to discover the larvÆ, since the larvÆ of this summer produce the beetles that will destroy the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from wild vines, or the larvÆ were not destroyed in the vineyard, collecting the adults is the only practical method. The destruction of wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this pest.

The rose-chafer.

The rose-chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus), a long-legged beetle of a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in length, often appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the middle of June in northern states and about two weeks earlier in southern states east of the Rocky Mountains. Often they overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards and nurseries, and usually, after having done a vast amount of damage in the month of their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as suddenly as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most often infested, the larvÆ of the beetle seeming to live in considerable numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage to the grape is done to the blossom; in fact the insects, after feeding on the blossoms during the blossoming period, usually migrate to blossoms of any one of several shrubs. The larvÆ feed on the roots of grasses, having particular liking for the roots of foxtail, timothy and blue-grass.

Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essential to effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June and after feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg-laying does not take place until the insects have been out for a fortnight or more. The females burrow into the soil and deposit their eggs, seldom more than twenty-five in number, which begin to hatch in about ten days. The young larvÆ feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of grasses. They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding, but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid sudden changes of temperature. The following spring they again come near the surface to feed. The grubs form cells from which the pupÆ emerge, as we have seen, about the middle of June, timing their appearance very closely to the blossoming of Concord grapes.

The methods of control are three, namely: destruction of the larvÆ; cultivation to kill the pupÆ; and spraying to kill the beetles. Since the larvÆ feed on the roots of grasses in sandy soils, it is easy to locate the feeding ground of the pest and plant it to cultivated crops which destroy the grasses and therefore the larvÆ. The second method of destruction is similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pupÆ. This is accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating stage to break the cells and crush the pupÆ, thus preventing the emergence of the beetles. The third method, however, is the most effective and consists of spraying the vineyard with a sweetened arsenical spray. The spraying should be done as soon as the beetles appear, using arsenate of lead six pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred gallons. It is often necessary to make a second application a week later. If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the application should be repeated as soon as the weather clears.

The grape leaf-hopper.

From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, wherever the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper (Typhlocyba comes) infests the grape in greater or less numbers, feeding on the lower surface of the leaf. Grape-growers commonly call these insects "thrips," a name, however, which really belongs to a very different class of insects. The injury done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the locality, in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in others exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance. There is great variation also in individual vineyards, those near favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants often being injured seriously season after season in succession. These leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis on the under side of the leaf surface and sucking the sap, and add further injury by inserting their eggs underneath the skin of the leaf. The punctures greatly decrease the starch-producing area of the leaf with the result that the vigor of the plant is lowered, and the quality of the fruit decreased.

The life history of the leaf-hopper is very well known. The eggs are deposited in June or early July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in New York, the season being earlier or later as one goes south or north. The young leaf-hoppers are wingless, the nymph stage, but reach the adult stage in late July and August, at which time many of them mate, and eggs are laid from which a second brood may develop, although usually only one full brood is produced in a season in the northern states. Figures 41 and 42 show the several life stages of the leaf-hopper. Insects which become adults in the latter part of July feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek winter quarters, passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen leaves, in dead grass or other similar protection. The hibernating place must be dry and for this reason sandy knolls are most favored by the insects. The adults emerge in the warm days of spring and then seek food first on the strawberry, then migrate to red and black raspberries or blackberries, if raspberries are not present. They remain upon these hosts until the grape leaves expand and then migrate to these to feed, lay their eggs and die.

Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages of the leaf-hopper: avoiding the planting of raspberries near grapes; spraying with contact insecticides; and the destruction of hibernating places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed especially on the raspberry before the leaves of the grape have expanded in the spring, avoiding planting these two plants near each other is a very effective method of control. The contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must, therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The best spray is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons of water or bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side of the foliage by a trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-hopper spray devised by F. Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin 344 of the New York Experiment Station. The destruction of hibernating places is almost as effective a method of control as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses which die in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be destroyed. It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish in fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the autumn or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green during the winter do not harbor the leaf-hoppers.

The grape-berry moth.

This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever grown in North America. The insect feeds on all varieties but is especially destructive to grapes with tender skins and such as grow in compact bunches. Its work is detected usually in compact grape clusters where a number of berries are injured by a "worm." The "worm" is a dark-colored caterpillar, the larva of the grape-berry moth (Polychrosis viteana.) There are two broods of this caterpillar, the first of which feeds on the stems and external portions of the young berries, while the second attacks the berries. The loss to the fruit-grower is of two kinds, the loss of the fruit and the marring of clusters which entails the cost of picking out worthless berries. Figure 43 shows the work of the grape-berry moth. The damage is usually greatest near woodlands since the trees cause more snow to lodge in the adjoining vineyards, this protection permitting a greater percentage of pupÆ to survive.

The moth passes the winter in the pupal state on leaves underneath the vine, emerging about the time grapes are blossoming. The sexes then mate and the eggs are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly set fruit. After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a portion of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which emerges in late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and from these come the caterpillars which live entirely in the berry. The larvÆ leave the berries about the time the fruit is ripe, form cocoons on the leaves and hibernate. The moths are small, brown in color, mottled with gray and so much the color of the grape cane that they can hardly be detected when resting on the wood.

The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be done to curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the most effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used (4–4–50) to which has been added one and one-half pounds of resin-fish-oil soap and three pounds arsenate of lead. A second application of the same spray is advisable in early August. In a small vineyard or with a slight infestation, it often pays to pick and destroy the berries infested by the spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall or early spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the leaves deeply directly under the vines and this earth must remain until after the time for the adults to emerge. Plowing under leaves is not as effective on sandy as on heavy soils, since sandy soils do not become sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of moths.

Insect pests of minor importance.

Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the grape, entomologists mention several others than those described that in occasional years or localities become abundant and cause serious injury. Thus, there are several species of cut-worms which sometimes feed on the expanding buds of the young leaves of grapes. The damage of these cut-worms to the grape is greater in California than in other parts of the United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on the vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The most satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the application of poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the vines.In California there is a grape root-worm (Adoxus obscurus) quite distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America which injures both the roots and the parts of the vine above ground. As in the eastern species, the best evidence of infestation of this pest is the narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the leaves, though the insect also gouges out part of the petioles, pedicels, berries and shoots and works under ground, eating the rootlets and bark of the larger roots. Infested vines show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a normal growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the case of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a beetle, the life history of the insect not being greatly different from that of the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are fairly effective: the adult beetles may be jarred from the vine and captured on a screen when the infestation is restricted to small areas; or the beetles may be poisoned with the arsenical spray recommended for the eastern species. Both jarring and spraying often have to be repeated as new infestations appear.

The grape leaf-folder (Desmia funeralis) is another insect pest of vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East, which works, however, only in restricted localities and in occasional years. In California, the insects are detected in a vineyard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube rather less than the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for the home of the larvÆ. The larvÆ feed on the free edge of the leaf in the interior of the roll and are thus protected by the outer layers. In the East the caterpillar merely folds the edges of the leaves together. This leaf-folder hibernates as a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to lay eggs on the vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are two broods in California and the northern states and three broods in the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of by spraying with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch and before the larva is protected by its roll of leaves.Still another pest found throughout the United States and especially destructive in California is the hawk-moth (Pholus achemon), the larvÆ of which occasionally do serious damage to small areas of vines. These larvÆ are very similar to the large worms, familiar to all, which attack the tomato and tobacco. The insect hibernates in the pupal state in the ground where it may be distinguished as a large cylindrical object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape, upon which the larvÆ when hatched immediately begin to feed. There are several species of these hawk-moths, all of which have essentially the same life history. It is not a difficult pest to control since the larvÆ are easily killed with arsenical sprays; or if there are but occasional specimens they may be picked by hand. There are several species of the hawk-moth which attack the grape but this is the common one.

In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destructive grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as pests only in the Appalachian region of West Virginia and neighboring states. One is the grape-curculio (Craponius inÆqualis), not essentially different from the familiar curculio of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle feeds freely on the upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit stems, and the female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes in excavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring as the beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins.

Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer (Memythrus polistiformis) closely allied to the peach-borer, known by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known to the growers of vegetables. This borer is the larva of a moth and is a whitish grub with a brown head which, when fully grown, is about one and three-quarters inches in length. The body is slender, distinctly segmented and has a sparse covering of short, stiff hairs. These larvÆ burrow into the grape-root, at first confining themselves to the softer portions of the bark, often encircling the root several times, but later bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season so destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the outer bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The borers cannot be removed by "worming" as in the peach, and neither can the roots be protected by sprays or washes. No one variety of the grape seems more immune than another. Thorough cultivation in the months of June and July to destroy the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of the ground seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and this is not always effective.

Fungous Diseases of the Grape

The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in America, unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the parasites in check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there are regions, as we have seen in the description of grape regions in Chapter I, so fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases that there is little uncertainty in grape-growing and but small expense in controlling diseases. Also modern science has discovered the life history of all the important diseases and devised fairly effective means of combating them.

All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are indigenous, having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, therefore, all widely distributed, and as cultivation has presented to them great numbers of grape plants in continuous areas, the diseases have increased rapidly in intensity, at times have swept like wildfire through grape regions devastating and utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however, are now at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profitably in all parts of America, do permit their culture for home use in practically all agricultural districts in the country.

Black-rot.

This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky Mountains. Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast. The disease is caused by a parasitic fungus (Guignardia Bidwellii) which gains entrance to the grape plant by means of minute spores distributed chiefly by wind and rain. Black-rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead tendrils or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the fungus spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black spots on the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the disease spreads to the fruits, not usually attracting attention until the berries are at least half grown. Soon after the ravages of the fungus become apparent on the berries, the fruits turn black, shrivel and become covered with minute black pustules which contain the summer-spores. Figure 44 shows the work of black-rot. In the winter and spring, another form called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon these old, shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease over from one season to another.

Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied fruits and diseased wood, the desirability of destroying these mummied grapes and the leaves and prunings of infected vines as soon as possible is apparent. This treatment, however, is not sufficient, and the disease can be effectually controlled only by thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture (4–4–50). The first application should be made just before the grape blossoms; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount of material applied matters less than evenness in distribution and fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps a third or a fourth application should be made in regions where the disease is serious; the third is made when the berries are the size of a pea; the fourth, as the berries become large enough to touch each other.

Downy-mildew.

Downy-mildew (Plasmopara viticola) rivals black-rot for first place among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found in all grape regions east of the Rocky Mountains but does most harm in northern localities. Like black-rot, downy-mildew attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine, but is chiefly found on the foliage and is usually less destructive than black-rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of the fungus appears as greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper surface which later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the under surface of the leaf, a thin, white downy growth puts forth. The spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth, and under favorable conditions are distributed by wind and water to all tender parts of the vine, where they germinate and begin their work of destruction. The fruit is attacked when partly grown, as shown in Fig. 45, becoming covered with the gray down of the fungus, the "gray-rot" of the grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon covers the whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the name of "brown-rot." Besides the summer-spores, another form of reproductive bodies is produced in the winter to carry the fungus through the resting period.

Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and does most injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all diseases of the grape, much can be accomplished in the way of control of the disease by destroying infested leaves, shoots and berries which contain the winter spores, but these sanitary measures are not sufficiently effective and vineyards must be sprayed as recommended for black-rot, except that the first application should be made before the blossom-buds appear.

Powdery-mildew.

Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery-mildew (Uncinula necator), unless checked, is capable of destroying the entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope. In the East it sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties known as "Rogers hybrids" and, curiously enough, is often a rather serious disease of the Concord. The disease is caused by a superficial fungus which passes the winter on fallen leaves and also on the canes. The spores begin to germinate a few weeks after the grape blossoms, but the disease is not often found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The fine white filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative portion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit, sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers of spores are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf a gray, powdery appearance, hence the name. Eventually the diseased leaves become light brown and if the disease is severe, soon fall. Infected berries take on a gray, scurfy appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in growth and often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries, however, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by the downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting-spores produced late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew differs from other fungous diseases of the grape in being more prevalent in hot, dry seasons than in cold, wet ones.

In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the treatment recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is not prevalent, two sprays with bordeaux mixture are recommended; the first in early July and the second about two weeks later. On the Pacific coast, however, powdery-mildew or "oÏdium" as it is often called there, the name coming from Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand or with perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and any one of several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the work better.

Anthracnose.

Another widespread disease is anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum), called "birds-eye-rot" because of the peculiar spots produced on the affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots and fruits of the vine. It first appears on the leaves in small, irregular, dark brown sunken spots with a dark margin. Later it appears on the fruits, having much the same appearance though the spots are usually larger and more sunken, the disease being most characteristic on the fruit, however. Frequently two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of the berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced in great numbers on diseased areas during the growing season and are borne on thread-like filaments which live throughout the winter in the tissues of the vine and are ready for new growth in the spring. Winter-spores have not yet been discovered.

Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but seldom causes great or general loss, most of the commercial grapes being relatively immune to the disease. A few sorts rather commonly grown in home vineyards, as Diamond, Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from anthracnose. Spraying with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for black-rot, is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check.

Dead-arm disease.

A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing considerable damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie, being most common on the Concord. From the fact that it is usually found on one arm of the vine it is called "dead-arm disease" (Cryptosporella viticola.) The disease is caused by a fungus which passes the winter in small, black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of the vine. Early in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to the young shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries, producing small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms or trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually kills the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease is quickly detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped about the margin.

The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms when the first symptoms appear and cutting these off at pruning time. If the vine is much mutilated by such pruning, usually suckers can be brought up from beneath the surface of the ground to renew the vine. The applications of bordeaux mixture recommended for black-rot are valuable in preventing the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely prevented by renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk begins to show a gnarled appearance.

Shelling.

In eastern America, especially in the Chautauqua grape-belt, grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the crop by the premature falling of the grapes from the stems. The trouble is an ancient one and is designated as "shelling" or "rattling." This premature dropping usually begins at the end of a cluster, and clusters farthest from the trunk are earliest affected. When vineyards suffer badly from this shelling, the vines often take on a sickly appearance, the foliage falling off in color and the outer margins of the leaves drying up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid taste and is, of course, worthless even if it could be harvested.

The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may "rattle" on high land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heavy or light soil. A vineyard may be affected one year and not the next. Grape-growers usually attribute the trouble to faulty nutrition, but applications of fertilizers have not proved a preventive. Old and well-established vineyards seem freer from the trouble than new and poorly established plantings. The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is that it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions so affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined.

Diseases of minor importance.

Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (Glomerella rufomaculans) is a disease due to the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple. As the name indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit at ripening time and under favorable conditions continues after the grapes are picked. It may also attack the leaves and stems. The first indication of the fungus is the appearance of reddish-brown spots which spread and eventually cover the whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the rotted surface becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are borne. It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it is not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mixture for black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in controlling it.

Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes knots or galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants, sometimes attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground. Occasionally, the disease is rather serious, but it is not often to be reckoned with in the vineyard regions of America. Fungicides are useless in combating the disease and all that can be done is to exercise great care in planting infected stock. It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever seriously injures vines in northern regions, although it may occasionally do so in the South.

In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known as "Anaheim disease," because of its having first made its appearance in the vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be learned, the disease first appeared in 1884 and then spread rapidly from forty to fifty miles from the point where it began its ravages, causing direct and indirect loss of many millions of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of grape-growing in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in recent years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does more or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease are not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters are studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer from this disease should apply to the experiment station at Berkeley for the latest information in regard to it.

Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which little is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term signifies the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters. The trouble occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It is worse in some localities than others and in some varieties than others. Various causes have been assigned to the disease, chief of which, and most probable, are unfavorable climatic conditions.

Control of Insects and Diseases

From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape, it would seem that, literally, "pestilence walketh in darkness and destruction wasteth at noonday" in the vineyards of the country. But not many of the ills that grape-flesh is heir to are ever found in one region, and the vineyard is seldom attacked by many diseases or insects in a single season. There was a time, as we have said before, when grape-growers were so beset by pests which they could not control, that viticulture was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture. But one brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that need cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the outcome.

Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is permitted. It follows that by proper sanitation most of the insect pests of the vine can be kept out of the vineyard.

Vineyard sanitation.

By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be secured from many of the pests of the grape and damage may be reduced with most if not all. Cultivation, as has been noted under several insect pests and one or two of the diseases of the grape, is an effective method of eliminating grape pests. In the case of insects, it destroys the insects themselves and the hibernating places as well. The vineyard should never be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent cultivation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted after the last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be preceded by deep plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen leaves and weeds or grass in which hibernating insects may pass the winter.

The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after. Fence-rows and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may often be burned over to destroy the hibernating places of grape insects. As a rule, it is unwise to plant the bramble berries or even strawberries in vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, since these plants afford hibernating places and food plants for some of the grape insects, especially the destructive leaf-hopper. Lastly, precaution should be taken by destroying all wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these frequently harbor insects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the wild grape-vine almost a necessity to its existence.

Spraying.

Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards the country over. The literature on this subject is plentiful in any state in which grapes are largely grown, within the reach of the grape-grower, and is not difficult to understand once it is in hand. Every grape-grower should secure and study the publications of the state experiment stations having to do with the control of insects and diseases.

The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary greatly in different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the only application yearly required in most vineyard regions is dusting with flowers of sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several other pests may, however, from year to year, or in one locality or another, require special treatment. In the grape regions of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all, but these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits are small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the northeastern states, orderly vineyardists spray at least once with bordeaux mixture (4–4–50) in which is put three pounds of arsenate of lead, no matter how few insects and fungi are present. This treatment is given soon after the blossoms fall. In more southern regions it may be necessary to make a similar treatment soon after the first leaves appear, again after the blossoms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the grapes begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even six applications in all. To these regular applications of bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as some of the nicotine preparations, may have to be added; or, for special purposes as specified in discussing the several pests, cheap molasses is added. It is doubtful, however, whether the grape can be grown with commercial success where insects and fungi prevail and are so pestiferous as to require annually more than two or three applications of spraying mixtures.

CHAPTER XIII

MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS

Viticulture, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of two quite distinct phases of activity: growing the crop and marketing the crop. The subjects to be treated in this and the next chapter belong rather more to marketing than to cultural activities. Treated in detail, these operations constitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise, and only an outline of present practices is in place in a text such as this devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations to be discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and marketing.

Harvesting in the East and North

As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering of the crop is celebrated in all European countries with rejoicings in song, dance and mirth. In America the vintage is less of an event than in Europe, but it is more picturesque and diverting than the harvest of most other crops. It is work in which youth and old age, as well as those in the prime of life in both sexes, can take part and is reputed as a most healthful occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest in America, as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that workers are usually readily found for the several operations of harvesting. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by cities and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers that the care of the crop is speedily accomplished.

Pickers.

As a rule, pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the day, experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more and better work. There is usually much diversity in race, age and condition of life of pickers so that harmonious and efficient work is scarcely possible without a competent foreman in charge who must often be assisted by a sub-foreman. Efficient supervision doubles the picking capacity of a gang of workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that the fruit is picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it is usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until the close of the season; otherwise those disposed to have a holiday leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek greener pastures when the grapes become scarce.

Time to pick.

Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are fully ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes not matured lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids to keep well and have not developed their full flavor. Many growers make the mistake of sending grapes to the market before fully ripe, a mistake easily made with some varieties because they acquire full color before full maturity. Color, therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to pick. In the northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may be allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity, the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness and perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to further maturity and to secure the added advantage of the removal of many leaves from the vines. Ripeness is indicated by a combination of signs difficult to describe but easily learned by experience. These signs are: first, a characteristic color; second, full development of flavor and aroma; third, a softer texture of the pulp and a slight thickening of the juice so that it is more or less sticky; fourth, the ends of the stems turn from green to brown; fifth, the berries pull more readily from their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more nearly free from the pulp and usually turn from green to brown.

Picking appliances.

But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears are a necessity. These are of special make and can be bought from dealers in horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to $1. Some growers, after picking, pack the fruit in the field in the receptacles in which it is to go to market. The greater number, however, pick in trays which are taken to the packing-house and allowed to stand until the fruit is wilted before packing for shipment. Trays may be of several sizes and shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the vineyard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have specially built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of which pass under the platform.

Picking accounts.

It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers. Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags in keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to give a ticket to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is delivered, the grower either keeping half of the original or a duplicate of it. Objections to ticket systems are that the pickers often lose the tickets, are irregular in returning them, or exchange them with other pickers. To obviate the disadvantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear the picker's name and are attached to his person. These tags have marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a punch as pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method is to keep book accounts with each picker in which case payment is made by the pound, each receptacle being put on the scales as brought in from the field, credit being given for the number of pounds. It is the duty of those in charge to see that each picker finishes the row or the part of the row to which he is assigned, and that he does not wander over the vineyard in search of the best picking.

Packing-houses and their appliances.

The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing and storing. Houses differ in design and fitting for almost every vineyard. Sometimes the house is a combination one for packing and storing. Often the packing-house is a halfway place between the vineyard and the shipping station, in which case it is an open shed or a lightly constructed building. In these field packing-houses there are usually no provisions for storing. The better types of combined houses are provided with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is used for packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of baskets and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the grapes are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ventilated, the temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as 50° F. during September and October. The cellar floor in these houses is usually of dirt better to regulate the moisture-content of the room. Often the first floor is divided into two rooms, one to be used for packing and the other as a shipping room. A good combination packing-and-storage-house of this type can be built for $1000 to $2000. Now that cold storage facilities can be secured in most grape-growing regions, and the rates of storage are becoming more reasonable, there is less need of storage-houses.

Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so different in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to describe them in detail. A building that protects the workers from the elements and affords conveniences in packing serves the purpose. Such a packing-house, which is often located in the vineyard, should be well lighted, should be connected with the storage-room for baskets and should have advantages for delivering the packages from the storage-room to the packing-room and from the packing-room to the shipping-room. Its size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be packed. The house must be built so that it can be kept clean and sweet.

Every packing-house, whatever the design, must be furnished with tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed. Usually these tables are so made that the picking trays are set before the packers on an inclined table. The packer transfers the grapes from the trays into the baskets in which the fruit is to be sold. The trays of grapes as they come from the field are set before the worker, who then packs the fruit into the basket from the left. As the baskets are filled, they are placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the packer and are then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are usually held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and from time to time are replenished by the attendant. Figure 46 shows a packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes the packing-table is circular and revolves, the packers sitting about the table. The baskets are held on the lap and the packer takes the grapes off the table which is turned as fresh fruit is brought in. This circular table is not in general use; its only advantage is that it permits the packer to select from a larger quantity of fruit.

Grading grapes.

Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for usually there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult to specify exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors must be considered which bring in play the judgment of the grader. At least, firsts must have the following qualities: The bunches must be approximately uniform in size; there must be few or no berries missing from the stems; the grapes must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness and uniformly colored; and the fruit must be free from insect and fungous injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since all grapes not firsts are culls.

In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price, the more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is picked, the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading is done in the packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from the trays into the selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors made for the purpose, to be purchased from dealers in horticultural supplies, is used to trim out diseased and crushed berries. The fruit must be permitted to wilt for a few hours, a half day or overnight, before it can be graded to advantage. In this work of grading, the greatest care should be taken to keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches and to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely finished is the product.

Grape packages in eastern grape regions.

Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other fruit, selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Mountains being much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are universally packed in gift packages—that is, packages which are given away when the fruit is sold—and this insures a clean dainty package. It seems imperative that a uniform style of package should be used the country over for the general market, but up until this time, although there have been both national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been secured. A national law is needed establishing standard commercial packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to another without being a law-breaker. Such a package should be based on cubic-measure and not on weight as is often advocated; for grapes cannot be shipped without some loss from sampling in transit; and there are also losses in weight by evaporation so that the grower, although trying to comply with the law, may become technically a law-breaker if the standard is based on weight.

The most popular package for the grape in eastern grape regions is the Climax basket made in various styles and sizes. These are cheap, easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are durable. Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the ten-pound and the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound basket usually holds only a little over four pounds; the ten-pound about eight pounds; and the twenty-pound rather less than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax baskets are shown in Fig. 47. It is commonly understood, however, that the packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really deceive.

These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a light wood binding at the top and bottom. The cover is of wood and is usually fastened on with staples. The handle is either of wood or of wire. When well made, the baskets are firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean and white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy in color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the storage-room with sulfur. The baskets also become yellow and discolored if left in the sun and must, therefore, be stored in clean, dark, dry rooms.

When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays which, if the market is near at hand, are always returned. If they are to be shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound baskets or bushel baskets, although the latter are not regarded with favor by consumers.

Packing.

Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to stand from a few to twenty-four hours after being picked to permit them to wilt. When thus wilted they are much more easily packed and do not shrink in transportation, so that the basket usually reaches the market well filled with fruit. Each bunch of grapes is placed separately in the basket after all unmarketable berries have been removed. The bunches are arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the fruit project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when putting on the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled as little as possible, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is taken, also, that the fruit is free from spraying material and is otherwise clean and fresh. Much less pains need be taken when the grapes are packed in trays to be sold by weight, but even in this there must be method in filling the trays, otherwise there will be many open spaces and corners between bunches.

Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on their packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of the packages, but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to name of the variety and the quality of the fruit. These labels are, also, a sign by which a grower's fruit may be distinguished and are, therefore, a valuable advertising medium. Some growers have registered their labels in the United States Patent Office in order to prevent others from using them. Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor grade of grapes.

Storing grapes.

The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold storage warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after harvesting. There is no question but that keeping a part of the crop in artificially cooled houses is a great benefit to the grape-grower, since it prolongs the season for selling by some three or four months. Formerly, native grapes could be secured in general markets only until Thanksgiving time or thereabouts, but now American grapes are very generally offered for sale in January and February, while the European grapes from California are in the market nearly the year around. The grape-grower need make little or no preparation of his product in putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product is first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money and effort to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well-matured, well-packed grapes. The grape-grower, however, seldom need concern himself with storing, since the crop is usually stored by the buyers.

Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping grapes in common storage, There are but few difficulties in keeping European grapes for several months after picking if they are stored under favorable conditions. Not all, but several of the native grapes may also be kept practically throughout the winter if proper precautions are taken. Among these varieties Catawba is the standard winter sort, but Diana, Iona, Isabella, Rogers' hybrids and Vergennes, all rather commonly grown, may be kept by the small grower.

To insure keeping, these native grapes must be handled most carefully. The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe and the bunches placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds. It is important that the temperature be reduced gradually so that there are no sudden changes. If the nights are cool, a valuable aid is to leave the grapes out-of-doors in crates the night after they are picked, placing them in a cool building or dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or store-room should be well ventilated and should be such that the temperature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should be avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature from 40° to 50° can be maintained, the varieties named may be kept until March or April. An expensive store-room is not necessary and ice to cool the room is not only unnecessary but undesirable.

If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor; if, on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes mold. It is essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an atmosphere too dry and one too wet. It is possible that a light fumigation with sulfur or formaldehyde might help to keep down molds in these common storage grape-rooms, but as to the value of fumigation there seems to be no experimental evidence.Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep better than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years ago there was an association in Ohio known as The Clay-Growers Association which handled only grapes grown on clay lands. The members of this association believed that their grapes were much more desirable for storage than grapes from regions where the soil was lighter.

Harvesting and Handling Muscadine Grapes

The Muscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are unique in vine and fruit, are used for different purposes and go to different markets from the grapes of the North, so that they may be considered almost a distinct fruit. Not only are cultural requirements peculiar to this fruit, as we have seen, but the methods of harvesting and marketing are quite distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and Dearing[18] as follows:

"Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on overhead arbors in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and under such conditions the general practice of jarring the grapes from the vines is perhaps the most practical method of harvesting. If the vines are trained to upright trellises or if the fruit is intended for shipping or table use the grapes should be picked by hand in order to be sound and clean. On account of the presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with the grapes jarred from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers will pay 5 to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the work can be done at practically no greater expense than is necessary to shake off and clean a crop, and the increased price obtained for the fruit will more than pay the difference."A description of the harvesting of the Rotundifolia grapes by the jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with it. Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring 6 by 12 feet and having leather handles. A man is placed at each end of the sheets and four men with two sheets work together. The wide sides of the two sheets are brought close together under each vine, with the trunk of the vine in the middle. The vines are then jarred, the berries falling into the sheets. Those not caught by the sheets or that have fallen to the ground by the shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the adjoining vines was harvested, etc., and which are usually of the best quality, are picked by hand. The writers are informed that it costs approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the ground and 12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets.

"The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is not large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the fruit are removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity of fruit some mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan mills, are used to clean it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or shipped to the winery. In wineries with modern equipment there are blowers which thoroughly clean the fruit. These are located near the end of the elevators that carry the fruit to the crusher.

"A common and very objectionable practice followed in harvesting Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring method, is that of gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there should be at least three periods of harvesting. When harvested at one time the best quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground, and is lost before the harvest is commenced and the last part of the crop is thrashed from the vines in a half-ripe condition along with the ripe fruit. In this manner not only is the first and best fruit entirely lost, but the harvested fruit is inferior in quality, which necessarily results in a poor product from the entire yield."

Returns from Muscadine grapes.

"Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines. At times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields are reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure, wet weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization, lack of pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In spite of this, Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the safest and most prolific of fruit-bearing plants. While in one of the largest Rotundifolia vineyards there has been only a partial crop during the last three years, owing to various causes, another grower reports a yield of 177 bushels of grapes from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale of cotton to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at 280 bushels to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an acre from 4-year-old vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines, and 150 bushels to the acre when the vines are in full bearing should be obtained.

"The prices paid for Rotundifolia grapes depend on the season, the quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the crop is short better prices are usually paid than when there is a heavy crop. Aside from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries, grapes as a rule sell for more in the cities and larger towns than in smaller places, the local demand being somewhat in proportion to the population. In such localities fruit of good quality will bring a much better price than inferior fruit. Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in berry boxes usually brings from $1 to $2 per bushel. Grapes harvested by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring an average of 75 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest price paid for this quality of fruit was reached in 1910, when $2.25 per bushel (f.o.b. shipping point) was paid for white Rotundifolia."In many localities certain growers have built up quite a reputation for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which they ship to special customers in distant markets. For this purpose the James variety is usually grown because the berries adhere well and are of good size and flavor. Several growers ship as far north as New York and Boston, getting from $2.00 to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In shipping, three styles of carriers are used—the 24-box strawberry crate, the 6-basket peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. More attention should be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties best suited for shipping are the James, Memory, Flowers, and Mish.

"In the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and Eden varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment vineyard at Willard, N. C., to Washington D. C., part of the consignment being in strawberry boxes and the remainder in bushel baskets. No important difference could be noted in the two lots on their arrival in Washington. The James variety arrived in perfect condition in both packages; of the Eden 30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had shelled. More extensive experiments along this line are contemplated."

Handling the Grape in California

Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine, raisins and the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and wine is best taken up in a discussion of these products in the chapter on by-products of the grape, leaving only table grapes to be discussed at this place.

The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on the wide distribution of the product in eastern markets for a profitable sale of the crop, since production is so great that but a small part of the crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific slope. The growers in this region, therefore, have special problems, chief of which are those of successful shipment over long distances. California annually ships in the neighborhood of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of which must be handled within a period of about two months. As competition increases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend the area over which the fruit is to be sold; to lengthen the marketing season through cold storage; and for both of these purposes to devise new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit. The two requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk of grapes are: The fruit must reach the markets in sound condition; and it must have sufficient market-holding quality to remain sound for a considerable length of time after it arrives in the markets. Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to grape-growers in California that decay in grapes is largely dependent on the presence of injuries to the grape berries, to the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches. Methods of handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used, must be such that the product is injured as little as possible.

Careful handling.

In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has been found that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling the crop. The bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising or crushing berries, and as far as possible they are lifted only by the main stems. They are then laid with care in the picking trays which are filled only one layer deep. In moving the trays to the packing-house, they are handled carefully, the trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In sorting, special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound berries and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches are placed firmly in the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems or to injure the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of either berry or pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing decay to gain entrance into the fruit.

Shipping packages.

The most common package for table-grapes in California is a square basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are placed for shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some varieties may be too large for these small baskets, and these extra large-clustered grapes are packed in oblong baskets holding in the neighborhood of eight pounds, two baskets filling a crate. No good filler seems yet to have been devised for packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which grapes from the Mediterranean are received is not available and a good substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes used but has not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and the fruit absorbs disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occasionally, however, grapes from California are sent to eastern markets packed in dry redwood sawdust and these seem to come through in good condition and not to have absorbed a disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this specially selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago.

Shipping.

Considerable work has been done by the United States Department of Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could best be shipped from the far West and reach the eastern markets in good condition. The crop is, of course, shipped in refrigerator cars and much depends on the cooling of these cars and especially on the temperature at which the grapes are kept while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of mountain and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car must be used. It does not appear that the pre-cooling so advantageous to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble and expense with table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent decay. Cooling cannot be substituted for careful handling, which seems as yet the most necessary precaution to be taken in the preparation of these grapes for eastern shipment.

Marketing

Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions are now almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few grape-growers are prepared to load a car quickly with grapes, some kind of coÖperation is required, or the crop must be handled by large buyers. CoÖperative methods are becoming more and more popular, although a large part of the grape crop, both East and West, is now handled by buyers.

There are several important advantages in selling through a coÖperative organization. Thus, in selling coÖperatively, the grapes are graded and packed in accordance with one standard; more favorable transportation rates can be secured by a coÖperative association; and, most important of all, the output can be distributed to the grape markets of the country without the disastrous competition that attends individual marketing. In some of these organizations, also, supplies needed by the grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more economically than by individuals; in particular, grape packages can be purchased better by an organization than by an individual.

As the grape industry and competition grow in the different regions of the country, the necessity of forming marketing organizations becomes greater. Such organizations must be founded on the principles which many experiments have shown best govern fruit-marketing associations. It is not possible to discuss these principles at length, but the following fundamentals will suffice:

An ideal coÖperative association is one in which there are no profits nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized association is a producer. All of the product grown by a member is sold through the association. The association is democratic, all members having an equal voice in its management and all sharing alike in its successes and failures. When profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to the members of the association in proportion to the amount of business each has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as near cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses, depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are deducted. Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is to give each member as nearly as possible the exact price his fruit has brought in the markets.

Vineyard Returns

Grape-growing as a business is a comparatively new industry in America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this fruit were made to found an industry, but these were complete and dismal failures, and the start in growing grapes in America eventually came as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a hobby into vineyard culture on a large scale, the business side of the industry long lagged. At present, with increasing competition, manifold uncertainties in vineyard conditions, and much unbusinesslike administration, interest in cultural operations, with which pioneers in the industry were chiefly concerned, is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is a highly developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful business management.

Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures from which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the outgo and income of average vineyards in grape regions are. The value of such data to investors or to those making an effort to keep track of the finances of their business is obvious, and an attempt is made here to put the reader in possession of figures that ought to be helpful. The data given, although scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the cost of producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture of this fruit in one of the great grape regions.

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying on experiments to determine the outgo and income from vineyards in the Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet finished, nor could the findings be published in detail before being sent out by the Station, but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the work, has consented to set down summaries of costs and returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which will serve as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least:

First Year
Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre		$12.00
Preparation of land		8.00
Cost of vines per acre		12.00
Planting		4.00
Cultivating		6.00
Total expenditure for first year		$42.00
Second Year
Interest on value of vineyard @ $225 per acre		$13.50
Cultivating, hand hoeing, etc.		9.25
Pruning		1.00
Total expenditure for second year		$23.75
Third Year
Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre		$15.00
Pruning		2.50
Posts (cost of) @ .10 240		24.00
Setting and driving		6.50
Wire and wiring, staples, etc.		11.65
Tying and twine		1.45
Cultivating, plowing, harrowing		9.25
Spraying		4.00
No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 500	$80.00
Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand		10.00
Picking @ .01 per basket		5.00
Packing @ .01 per basket		5.00
Hauling .003		1.50
Outgo for third year		$95.85
Income	$80.00
Fourth Year
Interest on value of vineyard @ $300 per acre		$18.00
Pruning		2.50
Tying		2.90
Spraying and materials		4.00
Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand-hoeing and plowing back one furrow		9.25
Trellis upkeep, driving posts, tightening wires, etc.		2.50
Pulling and poling out brush		1.69
No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 1000	$160.00
Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand		20.00
Picking @ .01 per basket		10.00
Packing @ .01 per basket		10.00
Hauling .003		3.00
Outgo for fourth year		$83.84
Income	$160.00
Outgo for four years	$245.44
Income for four years	240.00
Estimates for Succeeding Years
Gross income	$125–200
Outgo	75–85

Packing raisins.

"The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed and the loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried grapes are immediately run through a stemmer and grader which stems, cleans, and assorts the raisins into three or four different grades, after which they are packed and shipped to various parts of the country, some also being exported. Those producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have not already been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms. In these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins, are stacked and left usually from 10 to 30 days, or long enough for the overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-dried ones. This sweating also properly softens and toughens the stems, which prevents their breaking and enables them to hold the berries better. In California, where the climate is so dry, no first class pack could be made without thus first equalizing the raisins. After having been equalized the raisins are taken out, assorted into the different grades, and placed in trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the same grades are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for packing.

"Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are burst open is work requiring experience and good judgment. It takes four pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose raisins that have dropped from the cluster through handling before they were equalized are also graded, the largest, of course, making the choicest pack."

Classes of raisins.

"Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers the three best grades of raisins on the stems were known as 'Imperial,' 'Dehesia,' and 'Fancy Clusters,' respectively. The California Raisin Growers Association established classification and grades similar to those of the Spanish raisin packers, on which the French trade names are also based. The original Spanish, as well as English terms with which they correspond, and the different grades in descending order of quality are shown in the following table:

"The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being no linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster with all berries of large size, would be a 'Six-Crown Cluster,' such being the very finest raisins on the stem. 'Five-Crown Clusters' were formerly the 'Dehesia' cluster, and 'Four-Crown Clusters' were formerly 'Fancy Clusters.' Grades less than 'Four-Crown' on the stems (the 'Three-Crown' and 'Two-Crown') are known as 'Layers,' or 'London Layers.' These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net; in half boxes of 10 pounds; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds; and in fancy boxes containing 21/2 pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins off the stem, are graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and Four-Crown raisins by being run through screens the meshes of which are thirteen thirty-seconds, seventeen thirty-seconds, and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in size, respectively. The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson Seedless), and the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case."

Seeded raisins.

"The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E. Pettit in the early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful effect on the industry.

"Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col. William Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very difficult to dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last 15 years has increased from 700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their popularity is constantly increasing. In 1900 about 14,000 tons were placed on the market, in 1905 about 21,000 tons, in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about 49,000 tons. The seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons per day. Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the raisin industry.

"A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will prove interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry temperature of 140° F. for three to five hours, after which they are put through a chilling process so that the pedicels can be easily removed, and are then thoroughly cleansed by being passed through cleaning machines. They are then taken by automatic carriers to another room, spread out on trays, and exposed to a moist temperature of 130° F. to bring them back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the seeding machine, where they are carried between rubber-faced rollers and the impaling device of the seeding machine which catches the seeds and removes them from the fruits as they are flattened between the surfaces of the rollers. The impaled seeds are removed from the roller by a whisking device in such a way as to be caught in a separate receptacle. The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing tables on the floor below.

"The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes; in 1-pound cartons, 36 to the case; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case; and some in bulk in 25-pound boxes.

"Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with the grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade. This contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest of the Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one blended grade.

"From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by-products are now made.

"The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding vary from 10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins according to their conditions and quality.

"The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become separate branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all done by especially trained women, who have become experts at it. The establishments in which this work is done furnish employment for over 5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll each month during the season is between $200,000 and $350,000."

Grape-vinegar

A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although as yet this outlet for over-production is not largely utilized in America. Grapes which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert, wine-making or grape-juice can be used for vinegar-making. Under the most favorable conditions, grape-vinegar cannot compete in cheapness with vinegar made from numerous other products and must, therefore, always sell at a high price. Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar can be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The production of grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly not as much expert knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike the latter, however, the vinegar can be produced on a small scale for domestic purposes by any one possessing a knowledge of wine-making or vinegar-making.

Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or red grapes, although that from white grapes is generally preferred. It may be made either directly from grapes or from wine, the acetifying process being the same for both. There are, therefore, two distinct stages in the manufacture of this product. First, there must be alcoholic fermentation by which the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol with the escape of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must follow the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into acetic acid.

By-products of Grape Industries

There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making and grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a by-product in the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization of these wastes has been rendered profitable in Europe, and there is no reason why by-products should not yield considerable profit in America, as a few already do. Good authorities state that if all the wastes of the grape crop could be utilized the value of the crop would be increased over 10 per cent.

Pomace.

The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing, is the most valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-juice manufacturers. If the pomace is permitted to ferment, and afterwards is distilled, a product called pomace-brandy is made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often add water and sugar to pomace, after which it is refermented and the resulting product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the word "wine" as applied to this product is a misnomer, the total amount of such wine made and consumed in America is large. Piquette is another product in which the pomace is put into fermenting vats, sprinkled with water and the liquid after a time is drawn off, carrying with it the wine contained in the pomace. This liquid is re-used in other pomace, until it is high enough in alcoholic strength, when it is distilled into "piquette" or "wash."

In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a sheep and cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly and stored in silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a manure, for which it has considerable to recommend it, being rich in potash and nitrogen. Acetic acid is made from pomace by drying it in vapor-tight rooms, during which process 50 to 60 per cent of the weight of the pomace becomes vapor, and this, condensed, yields considerable quantities of acetic acid.

Cream-of-tartar.

The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in which new wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or reddish crust on the inside of the receptacle. This is the argol or wine-stone of the wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of-tartar, an article considerably used in medicine, the arts and for culinary purposes. From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees consist of either cream-of-tartar, or of calcium tartrate, the latter also having commercial value. Red wines are much richer in argol than white wines. A ton of grapes yields from one to two pounds of argol. This product becomes a source of considerable profit in large wineries and in grape-juice manufacturing plants.

Seeds.

In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used in various ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in America, especially when separated from raisins. The seeds are used as food for horses, cattle and poultry, for which they are said to have considerable value. If crushed and ground, the seeds yield a clear yellow oil which burns without smoke or smell and which may also be employed as a substitute for olive oil. A ton of grapes yields from forty to one hundred pounds of seeds from which may be made from three to sixteen pounds of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for linseed oil and in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin. After the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer.

Domestic Uses for Grapes

At present, when food conservation is being emphasized everywhere, mention of the domestic use for grapes is particularly appropriate. The country over, no fruit is more generally grown than the grape; yet grape products are not as common for home use as those of several other fruits, although many attractive and appetizing preserves can be made from grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices or other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality and the cheapness of the products that can be made from the grape. Thus, grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter, catsup, spiced grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes are used, preserves and mince-meat are among the desirable culinary products easily and cheaply prepared from home-grown grapes or those bought in the market. Only simple domestic utensils are needed in the preparation of any of these products.

Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any home without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table sirup, but is a most useful sugar substitute for the preparation of other culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the South, to be purchased by almost every householder in southeastern United States, in particular, are useful for these domestic products. Recipes for all of these products can be found in cook books, and one or two bulletins and circulars from the United States Department of Agriculture give recipes for preparing grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers' Bulletin 859 entitled Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes is a particularly valuable publication on this subject.

It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome products would find a ready sale in the markets of the country, and that their manufacture would prove profitable to the maker and to the grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for their products, the better the grower can breast the blows of unfavorable markets and over-production.

Isabella

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Alexander, Black Cape, Christie's Improved Isabella, Conckling's Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb's Grape, Hensell's Long Island, Payne's Early, Helene, Woodward

Isabella (Plate XX) is now of little more than historical interest, it having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture. In appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that of any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and the berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good, but the thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The grapes keep and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine characters by many other kinds, notably Concord, which has taken its place. The lustrous green, ample foliage which remains late in the season, and the vigor of the vine, make this variety an attractive ornamental, well adapted for growing on arbors, porches and trellises. The origin of Isabella is not known. It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island, about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York.

Isabella Seedling

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring of Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent, but ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch. Like that of its parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps remarkably well. This seedling is now grown more than Isabella and, while not of any considerable commercial importance, is far more deserving attention as a market grape than some of the poorly flavored kinds more generally grown. There are several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned by Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The Isabella Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensenberger, Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889.

Israella

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Israella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with Iona and was heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation. For several years after its introduction, it was widely tried but was almost everywhere discarded because of the poor quality and unattractive appearance of the fruit and lack of vigor, hardiness and productiveness in the vine. Grant grew Israella from seed of Isabella planted in 1885.

Ives

(Labrusca, Æstivalis)

Ives' Madeira, Ives' Seedling, Kittredge

Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine, being surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine is hardy, healthy, vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in quality, colors long before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh is tough and pulpy. The bunches are compact, with well-formed, jet-black grapes, which make them attractive. The vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any good grape soil, but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to manage. The variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati, Ohio.

James

(Rotundifolia)

James is one of the largest of the Rotundifolia grapes and probably the best general-purpose variety of this species. The vine is noted for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown north of Maryland. It thrives in sandy loam soils with clay subsoil. The variety was found by B. W. M. James, Pitt County, North Carolina. It was introduced about 1890 and was placed on the grape list of the American Pomological Society fruit catalog in 1899.

Janesville

(Labrusca, Vulpina)

Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold to which most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a place for itself in far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes ripen early, being about the first to color although they are not ripe until some time after coloring. The vine also is healthy, vigorous and productive. The fruit, however, is worthless when better sorts can be grown. The clusters and berries are small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy, have a thick skin and a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown by F. W. Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in 1858.

Jefferson

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Jefferson (Plate XXI) is an offspring of Concord crossed with Iona, and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and healthiness of vine, and Iona in color and quality of fruit. The vine produces its fruit two weeks later than Concord and is not as hardy, faults that debar it from taking high rank as a commercial grape. Fortunately the vines yield readily to laying down for winter protection so that even in commercial plantations it is not difficult to prevent winter injury. The bunches of Jefferson are large, well-formed, compact with berries of uniform size and color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy with a rich, vinous flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even after the berries have dried into raisins. The fruit ships and keeps well, the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and is well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not particular as to localities, if the season be long and the climate temperate, and thrives in all soils. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874.

Jessica

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet, rich, sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is unattractive and does not keep well. The clusters and berries are small, and the clusters are too loose for a good grape. Jessica may be commended for earliness and hardiness and is, therefore, desirable, if at all, in northern regions. William H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from seed planted some time between 1870 and 1880.

Jewel

(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)

The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality in fruit; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the vine is vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch and berry, Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes are deep black in color. The flesh characters and flavor of the fruit are much like those of Delaware, the pulp being tender yet firm, and the flavor having the same rich, sprightly, vinous taste found in the parent. The seeds are few and small. The skin is thin but tough, and the grapes ship well, keep long, do not shell, and although early, hang until frost. Jewel is a most excellent grape, worthy the place among black grapes that Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is recommended for earliness and for localities in the North where standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, grew Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874.

Kensington

(Vinifera, Vulpina)

Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine characters. The vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina parent, in vigor, hardiness, growth and productiveness, but the fruit has many of the characters of the European parent, Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are yellowish-green, large, oval and borne in loose clusters of medium size. In quality the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of Buckland Sweetwater but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh is tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardiness of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make Kensington a favorite green grape in northern gardens. This variety was grown by William Saunders, London, Ontario. It was sent out some time between 1870 and 1880.

King

(Labrusca)

King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is more vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season the same, the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more persistent, the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same but more sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder and of shorter joints and the pedicels larger. King was found in the Concord vineyard of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for Concord and is supposed to be a bud-sport of that variety.

Lady

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent, although not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its fruit fully two weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to that of Concord in quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy. The grapes hang on the vines well but deteriorate rapidly after picking. The term, "ironclad," used by grape-growers to express hardiness and freedom from disease, is probably as applicable to Lady as to any other of the Labrusca grapes. The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green, neither scalding under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts, making it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for near-by markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and because of its early ripening is especially adapted to northern latitudes where Concord does not always mature. Although the fruit ripens early, the buds start late, often escaping late spring frosts. When Lady was first heard of, it was in the hands of a Mr. Imlay, Muskingum County, Ohio. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874.

Lady Washington

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent grape but falls short in quality and does not excel in vine characters. The grapes make a good appearance, keep and ship well and are tender, juicy and sweet. The vines are luxuriant, hardy, for a grape with Vinifera blood, and healthy although slightly susceptible to mildew. As an exhibition grape, few green varieties show better when grown with care than Lady Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady Washington is another of J. H. Ricketts' fine seedlings, this variety having come from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. It was introduced in 1878.

Lenoir

(Bourquiniana)

Alabama, Black El Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue French, Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaux, Jack, Jacques, July Sherry, Longworth's Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio, Springstein, Warren

Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely in France and California as a resistant stock and a direct producer. The fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and is very good for table use. The vine is very resistant to phylloxera and withstands drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is unknown. It was in cultivation in the South as long ago as the early part of the last century. Nicholas Herbemont states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina.

Lignan Blanc

(Vinifera)

White July, Luglienga, Joannenc

At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blanc ripens first of all grapes, native or European. It is not of highest quality but is better than any other early grape and makes a valuable addition to the home vineyard. It is a favorite grape in Europe and is rather commonly grown in California. This variety offers excellent material for hybridization with native grapes.

Lindley

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

By common consent, Lindley (Plate XXII) is the best of the red grapes originated by Rogers in his crosses between Labrusca and Vinifera. The bunches are of only medium size and are loose, but the berries are well-formed, of uniform size and an attractive dark red color. The flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy, tender with a peculiarly rich aromatic flavor. The skin is thick and tough but is not objectionable in fruit fully ripe. The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries neither crack nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to mildew. The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, precariousness in bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils. Lindley is a general favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers gave this grape its name in honor of John Lindley, the English botanist.

Lucile

(Labrusca)

In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (Plate XXII) is not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately, the fruit characters are not so desirable. The size, form and color of bunches and berries are good, making a very attractive fruit, but the grapes have an obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and are pulpy and seedy. Lucile is earlier than Concord, the crop ripening with that of Worden or preceding it a few days. For an early variety, the fruit keeps well and in spite of thin skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape soils. Lucile may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and for localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia, New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is a seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine and surpasses in both.

Lutie

(Labrusca)

Lutie (Plate XXIII) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters. The vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although scarcely equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists differ widely as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high quality for it and others declaring that it is no better than a wild Labrusca. The difference of opinion is due to a peculiarity of the fruit; if eaten fresh, the quality, while far from being of the best, is not bad, but after being picked for several days it develops so much foxiness of flavor and aroma that it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found by L. C. Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. It was introduced in 1885.

Malaga

(Vinifera)

Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and also a popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some parts of southern California, where the Muscats do not thrive, it is much grown, and in the San Joaquin Valley it is rather largely used in making raisins. It requires a long season and probably could not be grown in eastern regions except in the most favored localities. The description is compiled.

McPike

(Labrusca)

McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries and bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differing in having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in flavor and fewer and smaller seeds. Because of the thin, tender skin, the berries crack badly. The grapes shell more or less, and the vines are less productive than those of Worden. The faults named debar it from becoming a commercial grape and it is not high enough in quality to make it of value for the amateur. This variety originated with H. G. McPike, Alton, Illinois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890.

Marion

(Vulpina, Labrusca)

Black German, Marion Port

Marion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horticultural characters as to be clearly of the same type. The vine is vigorous and hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive, and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit is pleasantly sweet and spicy, although not high enough in quality for a table-grape, but makes a very good dark red wine. The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs well on the vines and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was brought to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850.

Martha

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the introduction of superior varieties has reduced its popularity until now it is but little grown. It is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent, differing chiefly as follows: fruit green, a week earlier, bunch and berry smaller, flavor far better, being sweeter, more delicate and less foxy. The vine of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less robust, and the blossoms open a few days earlier than those of Concord. One of the defects of Martha, and the chief cause of its going out of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The variety is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew Martha from seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868.

Massasoit

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers' hybrids, ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity of being best before full maturity, developing, after ripening, a degree of foxiness which impairs the quality. In shape and size of berry and bunch, there is a striking resemblance to Isabella, but the color is that of Catawba. The texture of the fruit is especially good, firm but tender and juicy, while the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine quality for local markets.

Maxatawney

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom hear of Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its fruit in the North only occasionally. The variety is interesting historically as being the first good green grape and as showing unmistakable Vinifera characters, another example of the fortuitous hybridization which gave so many valuable varieties before artificial hybridization of Vinifera with native grapes had been tried. In 1843, a man living in Eagleville, Pennsylvania, received several bunches of grapes from Maxatawney. The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the resulting plant being the original vine of Maxatawney.

Memory

(Rotundifolia)

Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for the garden and local markets, its fruits being especially good for dessert. As yet, however, the variety has not been widely distributed even in North Carolina where it originated. The vine is given credit for being the most vigorous grower and the most productive of the grapes of its species. Memory is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much resembles, having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near Whiteville, North Carolina, by T. S. Memory, about 1868.

Merrimac

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among Rogers' hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several black varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed by Wilder, Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong in growth, productive, hardy and exempt from fungal diseases; but the grapes are not high in quality, and flesh, skin and seed characters are such that the fruit is not as pleasant to eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac is worthy a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave this variety the name Merrimac in 1869.

Mills

(Labrusca, Vinifera)

The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed; the berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Viniferas; the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds; the flavor is rich, sweet and vinous; and the grapes are hardly surpassed in keeping quality. But when the fruit characters of Mills have been praised, nothing further can be said in its favor. The vines are neither vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and are very subject to mildew; neither wood nor roots ripen well in the North in average seasons; and the variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of doubtful commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety with better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton, Ontario, grew Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg fertilized by Creveling.

Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal and lateral sinuses deep and wide; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with numerous, small warts; brush long, wine-colored. Berries large, oval, jet-black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, rich, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to three, large, brown.