An Act of Parliament passed in 1679. Since Magna Charta every Englishman had theoretically the right to trial, and could demand a writ of Habeas Corpus, under which the duly constituted courts were bound to take cognisance of his case. In practice, however, various obstacles were from time to time opposed to the obtaining of this writ. The Act of 1679 ordered that a judge should at any time grant such a writ on application, and inflicted severe penalties on the gaoler who failed to obey it.

Habitans.

The name given to the Canadian farmers of French descent in the province of Quebec.

Hadji.

A Mohammedan who has made the Hadj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is entitled to this name.

HÆretico Comburendo, Statute de.

A statute passed in the reign of Henry IV (1401), forbidding teaching and preaching without a bishop’s license. The bishop was further given the power of condemning heretical books. The punishment for obduracy was burning at the stake. This statute was specially directed against the Lollards.

Hague Congress.

A Congress of the Powers, summoned at the instance of the Czar in 1899, to consider the possibility of universal disarmament, and other questions bearing on the peace of the world. The larger schemes foreshadowed by the Czar were found impracticable, but the Congress resulted in the appointment of an International Tribunal of Arbitration, to sit at the Hague. It was further agreed to prohibit in future warfare the throwing of explosives from balloons or air ships, the use of shells containing deleterious gases, and the use of expanding or explosive bullets.

Haleuca.

The body-guard of slaves of Touran Shah, Sultan of Egypt, afterwards known as the Mamelukes.

Half-breeds.

The name given by the Stalwarts in New York State in 1881 to those Republicans who supported President Garfield in his movement for Civil Service reform. They were also known as Featherheads.

Half-way Covenant.

An agreement between Connecticut and Massachusetts, recommended for the acceptance of Plymouth and New Haven in 1662. It somewhat mitigated the ultra-stringent conditions of Church membership then obtaining, whence it was derisively called the Half-way Covenant by the extreme Puritan party.

Halifax Fishery Commission.

A commission appointed in 1877 to assess the compensation to be awarded to the British-American Colonies, in return for the recognition of American fishing rights in Colonial waters. Canada was awarded four and a half million dollars, and Newfoundland a million.

Hammer of England.

The sobriquet of Sir William Wallace (1270-1305).

Hammer of Scotland.

On the tomb of Edward I was inscribed “Edwardus Longus, Scotorum Malleus hic est.”

Hampton Court Conference.

A conference held in 1604 between the Bishops and the Puritans, to consider the Millenary Petition. It ended in the complete triumph of the High Church party.

Hampton Roads Conference.

A conference held on February 3, 1865, on board a man-of-war in Hampton Roads, between President Lincoln and representatives of the Southern States, with the object of bringing about a suspension of hostilities. The conference was, however, without results.

Handsuppers.

The name given to those Boers who surrendered in response to Lord Roberts’ proclamation, or at later stages of the Boer War of 1899-1902. They were looked upon with contempt by those who fought to the bitter end, and seem not unlikely to form a separate Pro-British party in the new Colonies.

Hanging Gale.

A custom of Irish Land Tenure, having the force of law, by which a respite of from three to six months is given to the tenant before he can be proceeded against for non-payment of rent.

Hanover, Treaty of.

A treaty signed by Great Britain, France and Prussia in 1725, which subsequently received the adhesion of Holland, Sweden and Denmark, by which the contracting parties mutually guaranteed to each other the enjoyment of their then possessions.

Hanseatic League.

A confederation of the principal trading centres of Germany, formed in 1241 for commercial purposes, and specially for mutual defence against the Baltic pirates, and the robber nobles. Its founders were Hamburg and LÜbeck, who were shortly afterwards joined by Bremen, Cologne, Danzig and other cities, and still later by many foreign towns, until, at the height of its prosperity, the league comprised eighty cities. The league was dissolved in 1630, but Hamburg, Bremen and LÜbeck retained their privileges as free towns, until they were absorbed into the German Empire in 1871.

Hara-kiri.

The method of suicide adopted in old Japan by members of the Samurai, or military class, who had no alternative but to die. Hara-kiri might be either voluntary, or by order of a feudal lord, as the penalty of some crime which did not imply degradation from the rank of Samurai. In the latter case it was in the nature of an execution, and was surrounded by an elaborate ceremonial, especially in the case of a Daimio or a gentleman of high rank.

Harangue.

An appeal addressed by William of Orange to the Princes of Germany, in 1571, setting forth the wrongs of the Reforming party, and calling for their assistance.

Hardshell Democrats.

One of the sections of the Democratic party in New York State from 1848 to 1854. They were strongly in favour of the Fugitive Slave Law. Their opponents were known as the Softshell Democrats.

Hardwicke’s Act, Lord.

An Act, also known as the Marriage Act, passed in 1753. It provided that a legal marriage could be contracted only in the parish church, after publication of banns, or by special license of the Archbishop.

Harper’s Ferry.

The scene of John Brown’s abortive rising in 1869, in the attempt to bring about a revolt against the Southern slaveowners. He and his followers seized the United States armoury at that place, but his little band were soon overpowered, John Brown being captured.

Hartford Convention.

A secret convention of prominent members of the Peace Party in New England, who objected to the energetic prosecution of the war with England in 1814. They proposed to amend the constitution in the direction of diminishing the control of Congress over questions of peace and war.

Hatamotos.

In old Japan, the retainers of the ShÔgun were known by this name, which signifies “under the flag.” They were eighty thousand in number. Those whose lands were of a certain extent furnished a contingent in time of war; those with smaller revenues paid money dues. The Hatamotos may be described as a created nobility, as opposed to the hereditary nobility of the Daimios. They date from the time of the ShÔgun Iyemitsu, in the early part of the seventeenth century.

Hats and Caps.

Two political parties in Sweden in the eighteenth century, who were partizans respectively of the French and the Russians. They were so called from their wearing the headgear of the respective countries.

Hatti Humayun.

An edict of the Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Mejid, issued in 1856, conferring equal rights on all his subjects, Christian and Mohammedan alike. This concession was the result of the efforts of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe.

Hatti Sherif.

A firman or decree of the Porte, signed by the Sultan personally.

Haute Cour.

A tribunal established by the French Legislative Assembly in 1791, to enable it to deal with ministers and public functionaries obnoxious to the majority of that body. The Haute Cour had the power of initiating prosecutions as well as of judging, and there was no appeal from its decisions.

Hawkeye State.

The popular name of the State of Iowa, U.S.A. It is derived from a famous Indian chief of that name.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.

A treaty signed in 1901 between Great Britain and the United States, to amend the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with respect to the proposed canal to unite the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The new treaty maintains the general principle of neutralization of the canal, but the United States alone is charged with the maintenance of its neutrality. No fortifications are to be built in any way commanding it, and it is to be always free from blockade. The United States reserve the right to maintain a military police force along the line of the canal for protective purposes.

Headborough.

In Anglo-Saxon times the chief of the Frankpledge. In the event of a member of the Frankpledge failing in his obligations and fleeing from justice, it was the duty of the Headborough to prove that the other members of the Frankpledge were guiltless of complicity with the defaulter.

Hearth Money.

A tax of two shillings on every hearth, first imposed in 1663. It was very unpopular, and was abolished in 1689. A similar tax, known as Chimney Money, had been levied as early as the Norman Conquest.

Heaven-sent Minister.

A sobriquet of the younger Pitt.

Heemraden, Court of.

A court first established at Stellenbosch, Cape Colony, in 1682. It was composed of four local burghers, and its duty was the settlement of small disputes among the inhabitants of the district. Similar courts were established in other townships, and the system lasted till 1828, when the Heemraden were abolished by the Charter of Justice.

Hegira.

The flight of Mohammed from Mecca in 622. It is from this date that the Mohammedan era is computed.

Heidelberg Catechism.

A profession of the Calvinistic faith issued from Heidelberg in the sixteenth century. It is also called the Palatinate Catechism.

Heilbronn, Union of.

A meeting summoned by Oxenstierna, the Swedish Chancellor, in 1633, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, with the object of preventing the dissolution of the German Protestant Alliance. The meeting was attended by representatives of England, France and Holland, and the circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine, Suabia and Franconia.

Helvetic Confession.

A statement of the Protestant doctrine, harmonizing to some extent the opposing views of Calvin and Zwingli, drawn up in 1566 by Bullinger, and accepted by the majority of the Protestant Cantons.

Helvetic Republic.

The constitution established in Switzerland in 1798, under the revolutionary impulse generated by the French Revolution. It superseded the Federation of the Thirteen Cantons.

Henry, Articles of.

See Pacta Conventa.

Heptarchy.

The various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were known as the Heptarchy, though as a fact they were at no time seven in number, two or more being grouped at various periods, under one monarch. The most powerful sovereign of the time was usually recognized as the Bretwalda, or leader, of the rest. The various kingdoms of the Heptarchy were finally united under one crown, during the reign of Æthelstan (925-940.)

Herad.

Among the Norse nations, the Herad was the land of the Her or host, the Her being composed of a number of families who acted together for mutual protection under a chief, and formed in fact a tribe.

Herald’s College.

This was founded as a College of Arms by Richard III in 1484. Its members were the Earl Marshal, the Kings of Arms, and the Heralds, and its functions the supervision of all questions that might arise as to the bearing of coat-armour.

Heresy of the Politicians.

The teachings of Arnold of Brescia were known by this name. He commenced a crusade at Brescia in 1139 against the corruption of the Church and its assumption of temporal power. He was ultimately condemned as a heretic, and burnt at the stake in 1155.

Heretoga.

In Anglo-Saxon times the title given to the commander of the army.

Heriot.

A fine due to the lord of the manor on the death of a person holding land of the manor. It consisted of the best beast or chattel belonged to the deceased.

Heritable Jurisdictions Act.

An Act passed in 1747, abolishing hereditary jurisdictions throughout Scotland. Up to this date the decision of ordinary actions at law, especially in the Highlands, had been in the hands of the chiefs of the clans, and principal landowners, and had descended by heredity, with the result that judicial functions were frequently exercised by persons having no legal knowledge or aptitude. By this Act these powers were transferred to sheriffs-depute, one being appointed for each county.

Hermandad.

A confederation of the principal cities of Castile, formed during the middle ages for mutual protection against brigands and other lawless persons. By degrees the brotherhood usurped the functions of a legislative body, enforcing their rules, when necessary, by force of arms. It was also known as the Santa Hermandad, or Holy Brotherhood.

Herrings, Battle of the.

The name given to an unsuccessful attack by the French upon the entrenched camp of Sir John Fastolfe at Rouvray in 1429.

Hero of the Nile.

A sobriquet of Nelson.

Herschel System.

The system of State Education established in Cape Colony in 1838, and designed by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer. Public elementary schools were provided in all the principal centres of European population, where instruction was given free to all children of good conduct. Religious instruction was also given to all whose parents did not object, and clergymen of any denomination were permitted to catechise the children of their congregation at stated hours. Secondary schools were established in the principal villages, and a normal seminary in Capetown, to train teachers for the elementary schools.

Hersir.

In ancient Norse times, the hereditary chief of a Her, or tribunal community.

Hidage.

In Anglo-Saxon times, a land tax for war purposes. Under Æthelred the Unready the tax took the form of the furnishing of one man at arms for every eight hides, and one ship for every three hundred hides.

Hide.

In Saxon times the portion of land allotted to every free householder.

High Commission, Court of.

A court established in the reign of Elizabeth, to deal with all questions appertaining to church discipline. It was abolished by Parliament in 1641, but reconstituted by James II in 1686, under the notorious Jeffreys, in whose hands it became a mere instrument for persecution and extortion. Under pressure of the pending invasion of William of Orange, James, in the last year of his reign, consented to its abolition.

High Commission, Court of (Ireland).

A court established by Lord Wentworth in 1634, to exercise the same functions as the English court of the same name.

Highland Garb Act.

An Act passed in 1746, after the suppression of the Rebellion of Forty-five, rendering the wearing of the Highland dress illegal.

Hintchak.

An Armenian secret society, founded at Tiflis in 1887, to carry on a newspaper of the same name. The statutes of the society, however, clearly show that its aims were revolutionary, and it was largely concerned in fomenting the disturbances which preceded the Armenian massacres of 1895-6.

Hinterland Doctrine.

A doctrine enunciated by Germany to the effect that in newly-occupied countries, such as East or West Africa, the possession of the coast line implied a right to the back country, to be taken up at convenience, and that no other country had a right to take up country behind, and block the way into the interior.

Hlutdaw.

The old Burmese Council of Ministers. In 1886 five of the Ministers were confirmed in their offices, to act as an advisory board for native affairs to the Chief Commissioner. In 1889 the pacification of the country was sufficiently advanced to permit of the board being abolished.

Holkar.

The title of the Mahratta Maharajahs of Indore.

Holy Alliance.

An alliance formed between Russia, Austria and Prussia in September, 1815, by which the three sovereigns undertook that for the future their policy should be guided solely by Christian principles. At the same time there is no doubt that the alliance was intended to stem the tide of political liberty, set flowing by the French Revolution, and their threatened interference in the quarrel between Spain and her American colonies, which was the cause of the enunciation of the Monroe doctrine, is a sufficiently clear indication of this fact.

Holy Experiment.

The name given to William Penn’s experiment of establishing (in Pennsylvania) a colony on the basis of absolute self-government, as a free colony of all mankind.

Holy League.

A league formed by Pope Julius II in 1511, ostensibly for his protection against the aggression of Louis XII of France. Its members were Henry VIII, the Emperor Maximilian I, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Republic. Two years later Julius’ successor, Leo X, came to terms with Louis, and the league was dissolved.

Holy League.

A league formed by Clement VII in 1526, directed against the Emperor Charles V. Its members, in addition to the Pope, were Francis I of France, the Venetian Republic, and Duke Sforza of Milan.

Holy League.

A league of the Catholic Princes of Germany, formed in 1609 under the leadership of Maximilian of Bavaria, as a counterpoise to the Protestant Union of 1608.

Holy League of Nuremburg.

A league of Catholic Princes, formed by Held, the Chancellor of Charles V, in 1538, to oppose the Lutheran Princes. Its principal members were Duke George of Saxony, the Elector of Bavaria, and the Archbishops of Mentz and Salzburg.

Holy Office.

See Inquisition.

Holy Roman Empire.

The Empire of the West, which had been destroyed by the barbarian invasions, was to a great extent restored by Charlemagne, who was crowned its first Emperor by Leo III in 800. After the extinction of the Carlovingian line, the Emperors were exclusively German Princes, and were elected to the throne by the sovereign rulers of certain German States, though the Popes always claimed, and sometimes exercised, the right of veto, by refusing to crown. In 1272 the first Emperor of the House of Hapsburg, Rudolf, was elected, and from 1438 the Emperors were without exception members of this house, until the Empire was finally broken up by Napoleon in 1806.

Holy Sepulchre, Knights of the.

An order of knighthood instituted by Pope Alexander VI for the guardianship of the Holy Places in Palestine and the protection of pilgrims.

Home Rule Bill, 1886.

The first Home Rule Bill, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, providing for the creation of a legislative body in Dublin, with control of the administration, subject to safeguards as to the unity of the Empire, and the protection of minorities. It was to have control of all taxation, except of customs and excise, but was forbidden to legislate on any matter relating to the crown, defence, or foreign relations, or to endow any religious bodies. The Irish representation at Westminster was to be abolished. The bill divided the Liberal Party, many of Mr. Gladstone’s Cabinet deserting him, including Lord Hartington, Sir Henry James, Mr. Bright and Mr. Chamberlain, and consequently it failed to pass the second reading. The general election which followed proved that the country was strongly opposed to the scheme.

Home Rule Bill, 1893.

The second Home Rule Bill, introduced by Mr. Gladstone in 1893, was to a great extent on the lines of the first bill, creating a Parliament in Dublin, with legislative powers subject to certain reservations as to peace and war, external affairs, etc. In one respect, however, it differed widely, in that the Irish Parliamentary representation at Westminster was not abolished, but merely reduced. The bill passed the Commons after lengthy and acrimonious discussion, especially in Committee, where Mr. Gladstone introduced the system of “Closure by Compartments,” but was rejected by the Lords.

Home Rulers.

A party formed in 1873, under the leadership of Isaac Butt, to agitate for the re-establishment of a separate Parliament for Ireland. His successor in the leadership of the party was Charles Stewart Parnell.

An Act passed in 1885, providing that a male under eighteen could take up twenty acres of first class, or thirty acres of second class land, and a male over eighteen, fifty or seventy-five acres respectively, free of all cost, providing he agreed to reside five years on the land, and fulfil certain requirements as to cultivation.

Homesteads Act (Western Australia).

An Act passed in 1893, providing for free grants of 160 acres each to all males above eighteen, subject to certain conditions as to residence and improvements.

Honest Broker.

A nickname of Prince Bismarck, with reference to his attitude, as President of the Berlin Congress in 1878, on the points in dispute between Russia and Austria.

Honour of the Flag.

The claim made by Cromwell that England had the right to exact from all foreign ships, a salute to her flag in the narrow seas. The Dutch Admiral Van Tromp refusing the salute in 1652, he was fired upon by the English Admiral, and the action which followed led to the declaration of war in July of the same year. The Dutch afterwards conceded the claim by the Treaty of 1654.

Honved.

The Hungarian Landwehr or reserve is so called. The word means “Land Defenders,” and was given to the national champions in the early days of Hungarian history.

Hooks.

The party of the nobles in the Netherlands in the fourteenth century. (See Kabbeljaws.)

Hoosier State.

The popular name of the State of Indiana, U.S.A. It is probably a corruption of Husher, a Western term for a bully.

Hospitallers, Knights.

See Malta, Knights of.

Hospodars.

The Princes of Moldavia and Wallachia were so called from 1789, when these countries came under the sway of Russia.

Hot Gospellers.

The Puritans were so styled after the Restoration in 1660. The name was originally given to Edward Underhill, a Protestant who was imprisoned in 1553 for an attack made by him on the Roman Catholics on the accession of Mary.

Hotspur.

The sobriquet of Henry Percy (1364-1403).

Houghers.

An Irish agrarian society which appeared in Connemara in 1711. They took their name from their practice of houghing the cattle of obnoxious persons. The society was suppressed in 1713.

House-carls.

A body of standing troops raised by Knut, circ. 1030. The first standing army in England.

Hovering Act.

An Act passed in 1784, extending the authority of the revenue officers to a distance of four leagues from the coast.

Hubertsberg, Treaty of.

A treaty between Prussia and Austria, signed in 1763, at the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War. It was a pendent to the Peace of Paris, and confirmatory of that instrument, as between the two signatory Powers.

Hudson’s Bay Company.

A Company formed in 1670, under a charter granted by Charles II giving it absolute control of the watershed of Hudson’s Bay (then known as Rupertsland), in return for a small annual tribute. The Company’s territories were absorbed by the Dominion of Canada in 1869.

HuÉ, Treaty of.

A treaty between France and Annam, signed in 1874, by which Annam accepted the French protectorate over her territories.

Huguenots.

The name given to the French Protestants. It is probably derived from Hugues, a Calvinist of Geneva, though other derivations have been given. When, by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685, the exercise of their religion was denied them, many thousands of them emigrated to England, Holland, and other Protestant countries.

Human Leopards.

A secret society of negroes, discovered and suppressed in Sierra Leone in 1896. The members of the society, which had been in existence for about twenty years, practised cannibalism, and had murdered and eaten several hundred persons. The leaders were hanged.

Hundred.

In early Saxon times this name was given to a subdivision of the tribe which corresponded to the ancient German pagus (so called by Tacitus.) It seems to have consisted of a hundred heads of families, and it furnished a hundred warriors to the tribal army, and a hundred assessors to the judicial court.

Hundred Days.

The period between Napoleon’s return from Elba and his second abdication.

Hundred Years’ War.

The name given to the series of wars between France and England which lasted from 1338 to 1449 and ended by the expulsion of the English from France, with the exception of Calais, which they held till 1558.

Hungarian Martyrs.

The thirteen Hungarian generals executed at Arad, after the War of Independence in 1849.

Hungarian War of Independence.

A rising of the Hungarian national party under Kossuth, in 1848, owing to the refusal of the Austrians to give any redress for the outrages of the Croatian troops under Jellachich in the valleys of the Theiss and the Danube. Kossuth was appointed Dictator by the Hungarian Diet, and the rising was at first successful, but in 1849 the Austrians received the assistance of a large Russian army, and in August of that year, the Magyars were forced to surrender, and their leaders left the country. General Hainau made himself notorious by his cruelties after the collapse of the armed resistance.

Hunkers.

The extreme pro-slavery section of the New York Democrats from 1844 to 1848. They were known after the latter date as Hardshell Democrats.

Hunting of Braemar.

A meeting of the Jacobite leaders, ostensibly for sport, summoned by the Earl of Mar, in 1715, to concert measures for the rising which took place in the autumn of that year.

Hussites.

The followers of John Huss, a professor of the University of Prague, who had imbibed the Wycliffite doctrines. Though excommunicated by Pope Alexander V in 1412, he continued to disseminate these doctrines, and was consequently summoned to the Council of Constance in 1414, where, though under the Emperor’s safe-conduct, he was thrown into prison, and subsequently burnt at the stake. His principal disciple, Jerome of Prague, suffered the same fate in 1416, but his followers, under John Zisca, rose in revolt against the Church, to the number of 40,000. They destroyed some five hundred convents, and defeated the Emperor Sigismund, but were broken up into sections in 1424, following upon Zisca’s death. They still, however, remained in insurrection until 1436, when the revolt was ended by the treaty of Iglau.

Hyde Park Riots.

A riot which broke out in 1866, after the defeat of the Russell Ministry over the Reform Bill of that year. A meeting had been summoned by the Reform League, to meet in Hyde Park, but the Government prohibited the meeting, and closed the park gates, whereupon the mob pulled down the railings. Little other damage, however, was done, and the riot was easily quelled.