A revolutionary song, highly popular in Paris, composed in 1789 for the FÊte de la FÉdÉration.

Caaba.

The sacred shrine of Mecca, the holy place of the whole Moslem world. A Mohammedan who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca is known as a Hadji.

Cabal.

The Ministry which succeeded to power when Charles II dismissed Clarendon in 1667. Its members were Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley (afterwards Lord Shaftesbury), and Lauderdale, the initials of these names forming the word “Cabal.”

Cabal, American.

A low intrigue in the American Congress in 1777, directed against Washington. Those concerned in it were mostly representatives of the Northern States, and its object was the advancement of Lee. It is also known as Conway’s cabal, from the name of its leader.

Cabanagem.

The rebels who overran the Amazon Valley and other parts of Brazil, in 1833 to 1836, after the abdication of Pedro I. The name means cottagers.

Cabinet Noir.

A department of the French Post Office, established in the reign of Louis XIV, for the surveillance of the correspondence of suspected persons. Napoleon III availed himself of its services freely, and it was only abolished in 1886.

Cabochiens.

The guild of butchers in Paris, so called from Caboche, one of their leaders. They were bitter opponents of the Armagnacs, and were guilty of terrible atrocities on the persons of their political foes. The corporation was dissolved in 1416.

Cacos.

A political party in Guatemala in 1820, who favoured complete separation from Spain, and the establishment of a republic. The word means pickpockets.

Cadan, Treaty of.

A treaty between the leading German Princes, signed in 1534, by which Ferdinand of Austria acknowledged Ulrich, Duke of WÜrtemberg, with the proviso that WÜrtemberg was to be considered an arriÈre-fief of the Empire, dependent on Austria. The League of Schmalkald acknowledged Ferdinand as King of the Romans, but stipulated that in future that dignity should only be conferred by the unanimous vote of the electors.

Caen, Treaty of.

A treaty between William Rufus and Robert of Normandy, signed in 1091, by which Robert renounced all claim to England, and recognized William’s feudal rights over certain Norman Seigneuries, among others those of Cherbourg, FÉcamp, and Mont St. Michel.

Cahiers de DolÉances.

The instructions given to the Deputies of the States-General, as to the grievances to be laid before the King in 1789. The principal demands were: equality in punishments; suppression of the sale of public offices; suppression of seignorial judicial powers, of the Gabelle, the corvÉe and the militia ballot; religious toleration, and amelioration of the condition of the parish clergy.

Caisse de Poissy.

A species of bank, established at Poissy, near Paris, under municipal control, to secure the proper provisioning of the Paris market. It proceeded by way of loan to the butchers, charging interest on the advances and a percentage on all meat purchased, and as none could enter the markets without a certificate of the payment of this fee, it had absolute control of the trade. It was abolished in 1791, re-established in 1810, under the control of the Prefect of the Seine, and finally abolished in 1858.

Calatrava, Knights of.

A Spanish order of religious chivalry, established by Papal Bull in 1164. The rules of the order were similar to those of the Benedictines, the knights being bound, among other vows, to perpetual celibacy. The object of the order was the expulsion of the Mussulman power from Spain.

Calendar Act.

An Act passed in 1751 substituting the Gregorian for the Julian Calendar. With the exception of Sweden and Russia, England was the last country to adopt the new style.

Calixtines.

The more moderate of the two sections into which the Hussite sect was divided after the death of Jerome of Prague. The more fanatical section was that of John Zisca, known as the Taborites.

Calvin, Institutes of.

The profession of the Calvinistic doctrine, issued by Calvin, 1535.

Camarilla.

The name given to the favourites and admirers of Ferdinand VII of Spain, after his restoration in 1814. They were in reality the rulers of Spain, distributing justice and office throughout the kingdom to the highest bidder.

Cambray, League of.

An alliance between Louis XII and the Emperor Maximilian, formed in 1508, for the partition of the Venetian provinces between the contracting parties. The Venetian armies were forced to retreat before the allies, but the partition was never carried into effect, and the league was dissolved by the Treaty of Noyon in 1516.

Cambray, Treaty of.

A treaty between Charles V and Francis I, signed in 1529, confirming the main provisions of the Treaty of Madrid (1526), which had been found unacceptable by the French notables. This treaty is generally known as the Paix des Dames.

Camel-driver of Mecca.

A nickname of Mohammed.

Cameronians.

An extreme section of the Covenanters who followed Richard Cameron in 1679. They were afterwards (1689) formed into a regiment, and served against the Jacobites in the Highlands in that year. The regiment later became the Twenty-sixth Regiment of the Line, and is now known as the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles).

Camissards.

The Protestants of the Cevennes, who rose in rebellion in 1702. The revolt was suppressed in 1704.

Camorra.

A secret society in Naples, which for many years terrorized the kingdom. An attempt was made by Francis II of Naples to suppress the society, and many of its members were deported, but the remainder joined the Garibaldians and were largely instrumental in the expulsion of the Bourbons in 1867.

Campo Formio, Treaty of.

A treaty between France and Austria, following Napoleon’s successful campaign in Northern Italy, signed in 1797. France secured possession of the Belgian provinces, the left bank of the Rhine, and the Ionian Islands, and recognized the Cisalpine Republic, formed out of the territories conquered from Austria, Venice and the Pope. Austria resigned the city of Venice, and her eastern provinces, Dalmatia, Friuli and Istria.

Canada Act.

An Act passed in 1774, giving a constitution to Canada.

Canada, Confederation of.

An Act was passed in 1867, for the purpose of confederating the two provinces of Canada with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and providing a federal constitution. Provision was also made for the admission into the Dominion of such other of the North American Colonies as might desire to come in. Under this clause Manitoba joined the confederation in 1870, British Columbia and Vancouver’s Island in 1871, and Prince Edward’s Island in 1873. The Hudson’s Bay Territory having been acquired in 1869, the whole of the British possessions in North America are now included in the Dominion, with the exception of Newfoundland.

Canadian Fisheries Question.

A long-standing dispute between Canada and the United States, dating from the treaty of peace of 1783, when American fishermen were given fishing rights on the coast of Canada. The Americans claimed that this right was inalienable, England that it was forfeited during the second war. In 1818 a modus vivendi was arrived at by which the Americans were allowed to fish outside the three mile limit, but friction still continued till 1871, when a treaty was signed at Washington giving the two countries reciprocal rights. Canada maintained that the right to fish off the American coast was of little value to her, and in 1877 a commission was appointed, which met at Halifax, to assess the damage she had sustained. The award of the commission was that Canada and Newfoundland should receive five and a half million dollars as compensation.

Canons of 1604.

The new canons, issued by Convocation in 1604, contained regulations for the conduct of public worship. They excommunicated all who attacked the Prayer Book, the Thirty-nine Articles, or the Supremacy of the Crown, as also those who seceded from the Church. They were, however, held by the Courts at Westminster to be binding only on the clergy.

Canons of 1640.

A series of seventeen canons, supplementary to the canons of 1604, issued by Convocation, and confirmed by the King, under the Great Seal. Parliament subsequently passed a measure giving them full canonical validity, but not the force of an Act of Parliament.

Canossa.

The castle of Matilda of Tuscany, where Gregory VII was staying when the Emperor Henry IV made a pilgrimage to Italy, in 1077, to make his submission to the Pope, who had excommunicated him. He was treated in the most humiliating fashion by Gregory, who left him for three days in the snow in the courtyard of the Castle before consenting to receive him. It is to this incident that Bismarck referred in the famous phrase, “Nach Canossa gehen wir nicht” (We are not going to Canossa), uttered in the Reichstag in 1872, during the Kulturkampf.

Canossa Bill.

A bill introduced into the Prussian Landstag in 1880, making great concessions to the Catholic clergy, but maintaining the supremacy of the State over the Church.

Capitularies.

The edicts of the early French Kings were so called.

Capitulations.

Arrangements by which foreigners are subject to the jurisdiction of their own consuls, and not to the tribunals of the country in which they are residing. These are generally in force in Mohammedan and other non-Christian states, where Western ideas of justice are non-existent.

Caporal Violet.

Napoleon was so called by his adherents in France, during his exile in Elba in 1814-15.

Cappel, Treaty of.

A treaty between the five Catholic Cantons of Switzerland, and Zurich and Berne, following the defeat of the two latter States at Cappel, and the death of Zwingli, in 1531. Zurich and Berne consented to tolerate Catholicism in their dominions.

Carbonari.

A Sicilian secret society, utilized by the Bourbons of Naples against Murat. The name was afterwards adopted by the ultra-royalist secret societies in France, which conspired against Louis XVIII in 1822.

Carlisle, Statute of.

A statute of 1307, enacting that no Papal instruments should be permitted in England.

Carlists.

The supporters of Don Carlos and his branch of the Bourbon family, as claimants to the Spanish throne. Don Carlos was the younger brother of Ferdinand VII, and under the constitution of 1812 should have inherited the throne, as the female succession was excluded. In 1832, however, Ferdinand, who had already, by a decree which he subsequently withdrew, readmitted the principle of female succession, finally settled the crown on his daughter Isabella, who succeeded in the same year, with her mother, Christina, as regent. Don Carlos was exiled, but various risings have since taken place in support of his claims, chiefly in the Biscayan provinces, including the first Carlist War, which lasted till 1840.

Carlowitz, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1699, by which Turkey finally surrendered the various provinces of the Ottoman Empire conquered by the Allies during the wars of the preceding forty years. Austria retained Transylvania, Sclavonia and Hungary; Poland took Podolia and part of the Ukraine; Russia, her conquests on the Black Sea, and Venice, the Morea.

Carlsbad, Congress of.

A congress of Austria, Prussia, and other German States, held in 1819, to consider measures for dealing with the growth of democratic movement in Germany. It issued the Carlsbad Decrees.

Carlsbad Decrees.

A series of proposals submitted to the German Diet by the Congress of Carlsbad, and accepted by the Diet. They included the establishment of a strict censorship of the press, and the suppression of the Burschenschaft.

Carmagnole.

The favourite song of the Paris mob, during the Reign of Terror (1792-3.)

Carmelites.

A religious order, originally formed by associating the hermits living on the slopes of Mount Carmel about 1156. They were recognized as a monastic order by Honorius III, in 1224. They were driven out of Palestine by the Saracens in 1238, and were made a mendicant order by Innocent IV. in 1247.

Carolina, Proprietaries of.

The original landowners of Carolina, to whom the Colony was granted by Charles II in 1643. They were eight in number, among whom were Clarendon, Monk and Lord Craven. Their authority was practically absolute, Charles exacting a bare allegiance to the English crown.

Caroline Islands Arbitration.

In 1885 Germany endeavoured to establish a protectorate over the Caroline Islands, which Spain claimed to have been under her dominion since the seventeenth century. Germany disputed this claim and occupied Yap. Matters became very serious, and the two countries were on the verge of war. It was, however, finally agreed to submit the question to the Pope, who gave his award in favour of Spain, as to the sovereignty, but allowed to Germany free trading and colonizing rights.

Caroline Ordinance.

A codification of the criminal laws of Germany, issued by the Diet of Ratisbon, in the name of Charles V, in 1532.

Carpet-baggers.

Northerners who came into the Southern States after the Civil War, many of them with the object of getting returned for Congress by the aid of the negro vote. The name was intended to convey the idea that they had no stake or interest in the country, beyond the baggage they carried with them.

Cartel System.

A system prevailing in Germany and Austria, by which a ring of sugar manufacturers, aided by heavy import duties, combine to obtain very high prices for all sugar consumed at home. They utilize the large profits thus secured to ship the surplus sugar below cost price, thus securing for themselves all unprotected markets.

Cartellpartie.

A party in the German Reichstag, formed in 1888, by a coalition of the Conservatives and the old National Liberals, and pledged to support Bismarck.

Carthage of the North.

LÜbeck was so called when the head of the Hanseatic League.

Carthusians.

A monastic order, with very severe rules, founded by St. Bruno, during the papacy of Urban II in 1086. The order was recognized by Alexander III in 1176. Their most famous convent is that of La Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble. The Charterhouse, in London, was formerly one of their monasteries.

Carucage.

A tax imposed by the early English Kings on every carucate or hundred acres of land. It was first levied by Richard I in 1198, when the tax amounted to five shillings on the carucate.

Cas Royaux.

All cases in which the sovereign and his interests were concerned were so called in France. By the “Etablissements” of Louis IX, all such cases were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of feudal courts, and could be decided only by the Royal Bailiffs, or by the Parlement.

Casenbrotspel.

See Bread and Cheese War.

Casket Letters.

A series of letters and sonnets, purporting to be written by Mary Queen of Scots to Bothwell, and left behind by him when he fled from Edinburgh in 1567. If genuine, these letters undoubtedly prove Mary to have been privy to the murder of Darnley.

Cassini Convention.

A secret treaty between Russia and China, supposed to have been signed in 1896, by which Russia secured certain definite rights over Manchuria. She has since made several attempts to replace this agreement by a public treaty, but has been prevented by the opposition of the Powers. Russia’s present position in Manchuria, therefore, is correct so far as China is concerned, but has not been acknowledged by the other Powers.

Castle Council.

A council established in Dublin by Lord Wentworth in 1633.

Catamaran Expedition.

An unsuccessful attempt on the part of the British to burn Napoleon’s flotilla in Boulogne harbour in 1804.

CÂteau CambrÉsis, Treaty of.

A treaty between Henry II of France and the Emperor, Charles V. Both parties agreed to return the conquests made by them during the war of the previous eight years, and bound themselves to maintain the Catholic faith throughout their dominions.

CatÉgories de La Bourdonnaye.

A list of Imperialists whose proscription he advocated, drawn up by La Bourdonnaye, in 1815. They were divided into three categories.

Catherine, Conspiracy of.

A conspiracy entered into by Catherine II of Russia, with the Orloffs and Princess Dashkoff, to remove her husband, Peter III, and ascend the throne as his successor. She succeeded in getting herself recognized by the nobles as Catherine II, and in 1762 the conspirators, headed by one of the Orloffs, strangled Peter III at a house near Peterhof.

Catholic Association.

An association formed by Daniel O’Connell in 1823, to press the claims of the Irish Catholics upon Parliament. It held entirely aloof from all the secret societies, and endeavoured to keep strictly with the limits of the law, but in 1825 it had become so powerful that an Act was passed declaring it an illegal association.

Catholic Emancipation Act.

An Act passed in 1829, substituting for the old formula, which included abjuration, a new form of oath, and thus enabling Catholics to sit in either House. It opened to them all offices under the state, except those of Regent, Lord Chancellor, Viceroy of Ireland, and Royal Commissioner of the General Assembly of Scotland. The Roman Catholic Church was to remain a dissenting church, and restrictions were placed on the immigration of members of the monastic orders, and especially of Jesuits, while the use of ecclesiastical titles was forbidden.

Catholic League (France).

See League.

Catholic League (Germany.)

A league of the Catholic Princes of Germany, formed at Frankfort in 1651, to carry out the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia.

Catholic Relief Act.

An Act passed in 1793, admitting Catholics to the magistracy, grand juries, and the franchise.

Catholic Rent.

An unauthorized tax or cess levied upon Irish Catholics by O’Connell’s Catholic Association in 1823, and afterwards. The funds thus obtained were placed in O’Connell’s hands, to be used at his absolute discretion for furthering the objects of the Association.

Cato Street Conspiracy.

A plot to murder the Ministers, during Lord Liverpool’s administration in 1820, at a dinner which they were to attend at Lord Harrowby’s house. The plot was discovered by a police agent named Edwards, who posed as one of the conspirators, and Thistlewood, the ringleader, and four others were executed.

Caucus.

A private meeting of members of a political party to decide upon the adoption of candidates, or the platform of the party. The name is of American origin.

Cautionary Towns.

The Dutch towns of Flushing, Walcheren, Rammerkins and Briel, which were handed over to Elizabeth in 1585, to be held as security for the payment of the English troops in the Netherlands. They were restored to Holland by James I.

Cavalier Parliament.

See Pensioned Parliament.

Cavaliers.

The supporters of Charles I against the Parliament. The name was first applied to them in the course of the frequent disturbances which arose in London between the King’s party and the City party, the “Roundheads,” in 1641.

Cave.

See Adullamites.

Cawnpore, Massacre of.

The massacre by Nana Sahib of the English Garrison in Cawnpore, during the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The garrison had surrendered under a pledge of being permitted to retire unharmed. Of those massacred, 560 were women and children.

Cecil’s Fast.

The name given to an Act passed by Cecil, Lord Burleigh, after the Reformation, enjoining the eating of fish on certain days. Fish had almost ceased to be an article of diet in England, as it was looked upon as a badge of Romanism.

Cent Jours.

See Hundred Days.

Centralists.

A party in Mexico, who support the centralized republican government, and are opposed to undue extension of the autonomy of the various states. The party came into existence about 1823.

Centralists.

A party in Switzerland in 1800, who supported the Helvetic Constitution, which established a uniform republican government, and abolished the old cantonal liberties.

Centennial State.

Colorado is so called, as having been admitted a State in 1876, the year of the centenary of the Union.

Centro-Americana, Confederacion.

A league of Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador, formed in 1842, with the object of uniting the Central American States into a federal republic. Guatemala opposed the scheme and it fell to the ground.

Centrumsfraction.

The Centre, or Clerical, party in the first German Reichstag in 1871, under the leadership of Dr. Windhorst. They were strong supporters of the Papal claims in the subsequent Kulturkampf.

Centum Gravamina.

The list of grievances and charges against the Roman Catholic clergy, drawn up by the Diet of Nuremburg in 1523.

Ceorl.

In Saxon times, a freeman owning his own land, and independent of any overlord.

Chambre Ardente.

A court, specially composed of bigoted Catholics, established by Henri II in 1551, for the trial of heretics.

Chambre Introuvable.

The French Assembly elected in 1815, and dissolved in the following year, was so named by Louis XVIII.

Champ de Mars.

The annual meetings of the Franks for military purposes during the early times were held during the month of March. At a later period the month of meeting appears to have been altered to May, when the assembly was called a Champ de Mai. The great parade-ground in Paris is known as the Champ de Mars.

Chaperons Blancs.

The White Capes, the popular party in Ghent in 1379, under the leadership of Jan Yoens.

Chapter of Mitton.

The name given by the Scots to the defeat of the Archbishop of York’s forces at Mitton, in 1319, by a Scottish invading army. It was so called on account of the number of ecclesiastics in the Archbishop’s army.

Charte La.

The charter issued by Louis XVIII on ascending the French throne in 1814. He proclaimed the equality of all Frenchmen before the law, liberty of opinion and liberty of the press, and confirmed the inviolability of all property sold by the state. He established an hereditary peerage, and fixed, as the qualification for electors to the Chamber of Deputies, the payment of direct taxes amounting to 300 francs per annum.

Charter of 1826.

A constitution promulgated by Pedro IV of Portugal, on the model of the English Parliamentary system.

Charters.

See Acte Additionel, Aragon, Confirmatio, First, Forests, Fuero, Groote Privilegie, Irish, Joyeuse EntrÉe, Justice, Maryland, Magna, Massachusetts, People’s, Pfaffenbrief, Priests’, Virginia.

Chartism.

An agitation which broke out in 1837 and culminated in the Chartist riots of 1839. It was probably due to the declaration by the Liberal party that they were satisfied with the results of the Reform Bill of 1832, and did not intend to press for further reform in this direction. The movement takes its name from the “People’s Charter,” a manifesto setting forth the aims of the agitators. This Charter demanded manhood suffrage, annual Parliaments, the ballot, abolition of the property qualification for a member of Parliament, payment of members, and equal electoral districts. The most prominent Chartists were Feargus O’Connor, Frost, and Williams.

Chartres, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1299, by Edward I of England and Philip IV of France, after Edward’s abortive Flemish expedition. England recovered Guienne, and undertook to give up the Flemish alliance, while France renounced the alliance with Scotland.

Chastisement of Novgorod.

The massacre, by Ivan the Terrible, of over 1,500 prominent citizens of Novgorod, owing to his suspecting the aristocracy of the city of a design to open the gates to the Poles.

ChÂteaubriand, Edict of.

An edict issued by Henri III, enacting severe measures against heresy. Among its provisions was one forbidding all argument on religious matters, and another confiscating the property of any person who went to Geneva. This edict also established the Chambre Ardente.

ChÂtillon, Congress of.

A congress opened at ChÂtillon on February 5, 1814, to treat with Napoleon as sovereign of France. The allies, however, found his demands impossible, and before the Congress was dissolved, the Treaty of Chaumont had been signed, by which Napoleon lost all chance of obtaining the terms that the allies were at first prepared to grant.

Chauffeurs.

Bands of brigands, who in 1793 infested the northern and afterwards the central departments of France. They took their name from their habit of roasting the feet of their victims, to force them to disclose the whereabouts of their valuables.

Chaumont, Treaty of.

A treaty signed by England, Austria, Russia and Prussia, in March, 1814, after the allies had entered France. The signatories bound themselves for twenty years to unite in resisting the designs of France. Each of the contracting parties was to provide 150,000 men, and England in addition a subsidy of £5,000,000. It was the knowledge of the signature of this treaty which induced Joseph, in Napoleon’s absence, to order the Marshals to capitulate, and the army to leave Paris, thus entailing the abdication of the Emperor.

Chauvinism.

Originally an unreasoning admiration for Napoleon, the name being taken from Chauvin, a character in Scribe’s “Le Soldat Laboureur.” At the present time, the word has lost its dynastic significance, and is used to express a perfervid patriotism, somewhat corresponding to the English Jingoism.

Chefoo Convention.

A convention between Great Britain and China, negotiated by Sir Thomas Wade in 1876, by which China recognized the right of foreigners to travel in the interior, and to be duly protected while so doing.

Chester, County Palatine of.

A County Palatine, established by William the Conqueror, who bestowed it on his nephew, Hugh Lupus. The earldom was seized by Henry III in 1237, and has since been an appanage of the crown.

Chevalier Sans Peur et sans Reproche.

Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de Bayard (1476-1524), is called by his biographer “the fearless and stainless knight.”

Chevaliers du Poignard.

A band of royalists, who, armed with daggers and hunting knives, assembled at the Tuileries on February 28, 1791. They were dispersed and disarmed by Lafayette, and being charged with a conspiracy to carry off the king, maintained that they were assembled only for his protection.

Chiltern Hundreds.

The Hundreds of Bodenham, Desborough, and Stoke, in Buckinghamshire, the stewardship of which is a sinecure, in the gift of the crown, originally established to keep down the bands of robbers which infested the Chiltern Hills. It is now used as a means of enabling a member of Parliament to vacate his seat, as by accepting the office he becomes disqualified for a seat in Parliament, unless re-elected.

Chimney Money.

See Hearth Money.

Chinandega, Pacto de.

A name given to the Confederacion Centro-Americana, which was formed at Chinandega in 1842, with the object of uniting the Central American States.

Chinese Gordon.

The sobriquet of General Charles Gordon, the conqueror of the Taepings.

ChÔnin.

In old Japan the wardsmen or trading class, the lowest in rank of the four Japanese classes.

Chouans.

The royalist party in La VendÉe and other parts of Brittany, who held out against the revolutionary armies until 1779. Among their most celebrated leaders were Larochejaquelin and Cadoudal.

Chouiski.

See Belski.

Christ, Order of.

A Portuguese order of knighthood, founded circ. 1318.

Christian Alliance.

An offensive and defensive alliance entered into in 1529 by Austria and the Canton of Zurich. It was also known as the Treaty of Ferdinand.

Christinos.

The Spanish party supporting the Regency of Queen Christina in 1833, in opposition to the Carlists.

Chupatties.

Small cakes of unleavened bread, which were sent through the villages of British India just before the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny in 1857. It is supposed that they were a signal to prepare for a rising, though other explanations have been given of their meaning.

Cicero, The British.

A sobriquet of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (1708-1778).

Cid, The.

Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, a celebrated Spanish chieftain, in the reigns of Ferdinand I, Sancho II, and Alfonso VI, was known as the Cid Campeador, or Campaigning Chief. He died in 1099.

Ci-devants.

The name given during the French Revolution to those who, owing to the abolition of all titles of honour, were no longer known by their titles, but by their family names. Thus Marie Antoinette was brought to trial as the “Widow Capet.”

Cincinnatus, The American.

A sobriquet of George Washington.

Cinq-Mars, Conspiracy of.

A conspiracy directed against Richelieu, the leaders of which were Cinq-Mars, the favourite of Louis XIII, the Duc d’OrlÉans and De Thou. An arrangement was made with Spain, by which she was to support the conspirators with men and money. This agreement was discovered by Richelieu in 1642, and Cinq-Mars and De Thou were arrested and executed.

Cinque Cento.

The sixteenth century, the later period of the Italian Renaissance.

Cinque Ports.

These were originally Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich, to which were afterwards added Rye and Winchilsea. They were incorporated at a very early, though uncertain date, to provide and man ships for the defence of the Channel, and in return enjoyed certain privileges, judicial and other. Their earliest known charter was granted by Edward I, but they were summoned to send Barons to Parliament by Henry III in 1265, there is no doubt that they were incorporated in some form at a considerably earlier period. Their privileges were finally abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act in 1835.

Cintra, Convention of.

A convention signed by Junot and Sir Hew Dalrymple in 1808, after the defeat of the French at Vimeira. It permitted Junot to evacuate Portugal, England providing transport, with liberty to him and his troops to serve elsewhere. The convention caused great indignation in England, and led to the recall of the three English generals, Dalrymple, Burrard, and Wellesley.

Circe of the Revolution.

Madame Roland was so called from the influence exercised by her fascinating manner over the leaders of the French Revolution, and especially over the Girondins.

Circumspecte Agatis, Statute.

A statute of Edward I, issued in 1205, to put a stop to the pretensions of the ecclesiastical courts, which were gradually encroaching more and more upon the functions of the civil courts.

Cisalpine Republic.

A republic formed by Napoleon out of the provinces conquered by him in Northern Italy in 1796-1797.

Cispadane Republic.

A republic, with Bologna for its capital, established by Napoleon in Italy in 1797.

Civil Marriage Bill.

A Bill introduced into the Hungarian Diet in 1893, by Dr. Wekerle. It made civil marriage compulsory, permitted marriage with a deceased wife’s sister, and made sundry changes in the divorce laws in the direction of greater freedom. It was violently opposed by the Catholics, and only passed the Upper House through the personal interposition of the King Emperor.

Civil Rights Act.

An Act of Congress, passed in 1875, conferring equal rights on all citizens, black or white, in the matter of public conveyances, inns, places of amusement and jury service.

Claim of Right.

A declaration by the Scottish Convention of 1689, accompanying the offer of the crown to William III. It was similar in character to the Declaration of Rights of the English Parliament, but in addition it proclaimed the abolition of the Episcopacy.

Claimant, The.

Thomas Castro, alias Arthur Orton, a butcher of Wagga-Wagga, New South Wales, who in 1871 brought an action with intent to prove that he was Sir Roger Tichbourne, the rightful owner of the Tichbourne estates in Hampshire. His case broke down, after a long trial, and in 1874 he was convicted of perjury and sentenced to fourteen years’ penal servitude.

Clair-on-Epte, Treaty of.

A treaty between Charles the Simple of France, and the Northmen under Rolf the Ganger, in 912. In order to obtain immunity from the Viking raids, Charles ceded to the Northmen the coast of Normandy.

Clan Act.

An Act passed in 1715, providing (1) that if a feudal chief rebelled, all his vassals who remained loyal should in future hold direct from the crown. (2) That a loyal tenant whose landlord was convicted of treason should have two years gratuitous possession added to his lease. (3) That the lands of a disloyal tenant should revert to his chief if loyal. (4) That settlements of estates after August 1, 1714, should be no bar to their forfeiture for high treason.

Clan Chattan and Clan Quhele.

A combat between thirty picked men of each of these clans was fought at Perth in 1396. It is supposed to have been for the purpose of deciding a dispute as to the chieftainship of the Clan Chattan.

Clan-na-Gael.

An Irish secret society, an offshoot of the Fenians, formed in 1881. It was composed of the extreme physical force men among the Fenians, and was also known as the United Brotherhood.

Clarendon Code.

The name given to the four Acts composing the repressive ecclesiastical legislation of Clarendon, in the reign of Charles II, namely the Corporation, Uniformity, Conventicle, and Five Mile Acts.

Clarendon, Council of.

See Constitutions of Clarendon.

Classes, Act of.

An Act of the Scots Parliament, passed in 1649, disqualifying from public office and seats in Parliament, all Malignants, enemies of the Covenant, Engagers, etc.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1850, providing for the construction of a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was stipulated that in the event of such canal being constructed, neither party should erect fortifications on the line of the canal, nor assume any sovereign rights over any portion of Central America. The United States afterwards repudiated the treaty, and it is now superseded by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.

Clean the Causeway.

The name given to a brawl in the streets of Edinburgh in 1519, in which the Douglas faction were attacked by the supporters of the Government. The Douglasses swept their opponents from the streets, killing their leader, Sir Patrick Stuart.

Cleargrits.

The extreme democratic party in Canada in 1850 were so called. They were in favour of secession from England and annexation to the United States.

Clemency Canning.

A nickname given to Lord Canning, Governor-General of India, in consequence of what many considered his undue leniency in the treatment of the rebels, after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny in 1858.

Clementine League.

See Holy League.

Clergy of France, Declaration of the.

A manifesto issued by Bossuet in 1682, declaring that the Pope had no power in France in temporal affairs, and that his spiritual authority was subject to that of a General Council, as proclaimed by the Council of Constance; that the constitution of the Gallican Church was not to be subverted, and that, in questions of faith, the Pope’s opinion was not binding unless supported by the Church. This declaration was, by Royal Edict given the force of law.

Clericis Laicos, Bull of.

A Bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII in 1296, forbidding the clergy to pay tribute to a temporal sovereign. The result of this Bull in England was that the clergy refused to pay taxes. They were consequently outlawed, and much church property was confiscated by Edward I.

Clermont, Council of.

A Council summoned by Urban II in 1095, at which the Pope proclaimed the duty of Christians to free the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of Saracens. At the Council Godefroi de Bouillon and other notable personages assumed the red cross, and the First Crusade followed.

Clicquot, King.

The nickname by which Frederick William IV of Prussia was known in England.

Clontarf Meeting.

The name given to an incident which marked the collapse of O’Connell’s Repeal agitation. A monster meeting was fixed to be held at Clontarf on October 8, 1843. The Government proclaimed the meeting, and O’Connell did his best to prevent the peasants assembling. In this he was successful, but the proof that he did not mean under any circumstances to resort to strong measures was the death blow to his movement.

Clouds, Battle above the.

The name given to the attack on Lookout Mountain by the Federal troops at the battle of Chattanooga in 1863, during the American Civil War. They advanced to the attack through a heavy mist, and the battle was fought in a clear atmosphere, with the fog below.

Closter Seven, Convention of.

A convention, signed in July, 1757, between the French and the Duke of Cumberland, who had advanced to the Weser in command of an English force, and had been driven back by a French army, under D’EstrÉes, to the mouth of the Elbe. The Duke agreed to disband his army.

Club, The.

A section of the Whig party in Scotland, who, at the accession of William and Mary, advocated extreme views as to the limitations to be set to the power of the king. Notwithstanding their opinions, they did not hesitate to ally themselves with the Jacobites in their opposition to William.

Club Parliament.

The Parliament of 1346, so called because the Barons attended it accompanied by their retainers armed with clubs. It is also called the Parliament of Bats (or Batons.)

Clubmen.

The name assumed by bands of peasants who, in 1644, assembled in various parts of England, but especially in the West, to protect their lands from the ravages of the civil war. They sided with neither party, but attacked both impartially when their property was threatened.

Coalition Ministry.

A Ministry formed under Lord Aberdeen in 1853, composed of Liberals and Peelites, and including among its members, Lord John Russell, Lord Palmerston and Mr. Gladstone.

Cockburn’s Act.

The Betting Act, passed in 1853, is so called after its introducer, Sir Alexander Cockburn. It did away with betting houses, and rendered the exhibition of betting lists illegal. In 1874 the Act was extended to Scotland.

Cockerton Judgment.

A judgment in the Court of Queen’s Bench in the case of Regina v. Cockerton. Mr. Cockerton, the auditor of the Local Government Board, had surcharged certain expenditure of the London School Board, and the correctness of his action being called in question, the court held that it was illegal to make a payment out of the rates (1) for advanced instruction in art and science in elementary day schools, (2) for any instruction to adults at evening continuation classes.

Cockpit of Europe.

The name given to Belgium on account of the numerous important battles which have been fought there.

Code Napoleon.

The Code of Law issued by Napoleon in 1803. It was based on the old French law, with such alterations as had been rendered necessary by the Revolution, and certain new provisions, introduced by Napoleon, notably those relating to the law of succession and to the marriage law. For the purpose of this codification, which remains the law of France, he called to his councils the most eminent French lawyers, irrespective of party, among others Tronchet, CambacÉrÈs, Portalis and Roederer.

Codes.

Allgemeines Landrecht, Brehon, Bretts and Scots, Burgos, Caroline Ordinance, Clarendon, Consolato, Doom-Book, Etablissements, FrÉdÉric, Frostathing, Fuero Juzgo, GrÁgÁs, Gulathing, Jus Magdeburgicum, Jutland, Landrecht, Louis, Libro de Tasas, LÜbeck, Ludlow, Martian, Mulmutine, Noir, Oleron, Recess of Colding, Regiani Majestatem, Savary, Siete Partidas, Thirty-three Articles, Wisbuy, Wisliza.

Codini.

The Pigtail Party, a name given by the supporters of the House of Savoy to the Papal party in Rome, the suggestion being that they are behind the times.

Coercion Act.

An Act of Parliament passed in 1833, giving the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland power to prohibit any meeting of whatever nature which he regarded as dangerous to the peace, and to declare any district to be in a disturbed state. The bill gave the right to search for arms and suspended the Habeas Corpus Act in the proclaimed districts, substituting martial law for the regular tribunals.

Coeur de Lion.

The sobriquet of Richard I of England.

Cognac, League of.

See Holy League.

Collectivism.

A form of socialism, the leading tenet of which is that capital and the means of production should be in the hands of associations of workers, and not be privately owned.

College of Justice.

The supreme court of Scotland in civil cases. It was established by James V in 1533, and was composed of fourteen judges and a president. At the same time the body of Advocates was created.

Colonial Conference.

A conference held in London in 1902, between Mr. Chamberlain and the Colonial Premiers. The principal recommendations of the conference were an increase in the Colonial contribution to the navy, increased facilities for Colonial cadets to enter the services, that preferential duties between Great Britain and the Colonies should be kept in view, that the metric system should be adopted, and that postage rates should be lowered.

Colonies, Council for the.

A Council appointed by Charles II in 1660, to supervise all the affairs of the oversea plantations.

Coloquy of Poissy.

A conference of divines summoned by Catherine de’ Medici in 1561, and attended, among others, by Peter Martyr and Beza. It was hoped that a modus vivendi with the Huguenots might be arrived at, but the divergences between the two religions were perhaps unduly emphasized by the reformers, and the conference proved abortive, though in the following year an edict was issued permitting the Huguenots to worship outside the towns.

Colorados.

See Blanquillos.

Coloured League.

A confederation of the coloured people of the Southern States of America, formed after the war, with the object of securing for the negroes the free exercise of their political rights.

The Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the French Convention in April, 1893, to exercise the functions of a Ministry. The first object was to drive the Girondists from power. The members of the first ComitÉ were comparatively moderate men, but it was reorganized in July of the same year, from which time it was composed almost entirely of the extremists, and became a mere instrument in the hands of Robespierre.

Comitia Paludata.

The Diet which met in Poland during an interregnum only. The whole body of nobles attended, the meeting taking place on an open plain, and the members appearing armed and mounted.

Comitia Togata.

The ordinary Polish Diet of representatives of the nobles. It was summoned by the king, and the members attended unarmed.

Commando.

The military system established by the English in South Africa in 1806. The country was split up into districts, each under a field cornet, whose duty it was to summon the burghers when called out for military service. The burghers were divided into three classes, according to age, and every male was liable to service from sixteen to sixty. The system was maintained by the independent Dutch States, till the close of the Boer War in 1902, but compulsory service was abolished in Cape Colony in 1834.

Commendation.

In feudal times the personal submission of a man to a feudal lord, by which he became his vassal, was so called.

Commercial Treaty of 1786.

A treaty between France and England, abolishing prohibitive duties and establishing a moderate tariff between the two countries. The Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal, which had been very prejudicial to French interests, was abrogated.

Commission of Government.

A Commission of Peers, authorized by Richard II in 1386, to inquire into abuses in the Government, and to prepare a scheme of reform.

Commission of Grace.

A proclamation under the Great Seal by James I in 1604, securing Irish landowners from all claims of the Crown, and empowering the governor, in all cases of precarious tenure, to grant indefeasible titles.

Commissions of Array.

Commissions given by the English Kings to certain commissioners to impress men for military service. They were first issued under Edward I.

Committee of Religion.

A committee appointed by the Long Parliament in 1641 to consider the question of religious reform.

Commune, Paris.

An outbreak of the extreme revolutionary party in Paris in 1871, after the withdrawal of the Germans. Its leaders were Assi, Billioray, Blanqui, Cluseret, Paschal Grousset, FÉlix Pyat, and other noted extremists. They obtained complete possession of Paris, and were guilty of terrible atrocities, including the cold-blooded murder of the so-called hostages, amongst whom was the Archbishop of Paris. The city underwent a second siege at the hands of the Provisional Government, but after severe fighting the Government troops, under the Marquis de Gallifet, surmounted the last barricade, and those of the Communist leaders who failed to escape were brought to trial, and executed or transported. Many of the public buildings, including the Tuileries, were set fire to during the fighting by the “PÉtroleuses.”

Communeros, Revolt of the.

See Santa Junta.

Compactata of Prague.

An agreement between the Hussites and their religious opponents in 1433. This agreement afterwards formed the basis of the Treaty of Iglau.

Compagnies d’Ordonnance.

The first French regular army, called into existence by Charles V in 1370.

Complaints of the Commons of Kent.

A document submitted to the Government in 1450 by the insurgents under Jack Cade. It set forth the causes of the unpopularity of Suffolk, and demanded the restoration to favour of the Duke of York.

Composition of Connaught.

An arrangement between Sir James Perrot, Governor of Ireland, and the landowners of Connaught in 1585, by which the landowners agreed to pay a fixed ground rent, in consideration of a patent from the Crown, and relief from all other taxes and imposts. At the same time all members of the clans were released from their allegiance to their chiefs, and placed directly under the Crown.

Compound Householder.

The occupier of a small tenement who did not pay poor rates directly, but compounded with his landlord, who was responsible for the rate to the authorities. During the debates on the Reform Bill of 1867, the question of his enfranchisement was very hotly contested, and in the end the compound householder was abolished, and every name put on the rate book.

Compounders.

The name given to the more moderate section of the English Jacobites in 1692. They desired a restoration of the Stuarts, but accompanied by a general amnesty. The non-compounders, who would listen to no suggestions of moderation, were, however, more powerful at St. Germains.

Compromise, The.

A document signed in 1566 by some 2,000 nobles and gentlemen of the Netherlands, by which the signatories bound themselves to offer the most strenuous resistance to the Inquisition, while loyally supporting the sovereignty of Philip II.

Compromise Act.

An Omnibus Act passed by Congress in 1850. It provided for the admission to the Union of California as a state, and of New Mexico and Utah as territories, for the settlement of the boundaries of Texas, the return of fugitive slaves to the owners, and the suppression of the slave trade in the district of Columbia.

Compte Rendu.

A manifesto by the Moderate party in the French Chamber, drawn up by Odilon Barrot in May, 1832. It denounced the Ministry for continuing the Restoration rather than the Revolution, and complained of the institution of hereditary peerages, the excessive civil list, and the extravagant expenditure on the army. With regard to foreign policy it pointed out that, through lack of firmness, the Government was abandoning Italy to Austria and Poland to Russia.

Compurgation.

The acquittal of an accused person, in consequence of an oath taken by his kinsmen to the effect that he was innocent of the charges brought against him. This was abolished by the Assize of Clarendon in 1166.

Concentration Camps.

Camps formed in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, during the Boer War, for the reception of women and children who could not be protected in their own homes in the disturbed parts of the two colonies. Charges were made of gross mismanagement of these camps, but a commission appointed to investigate pronounced that the complaints were absurd, and that everything had been done for the refugees that the circumstances permitted.

Conclave.

An assembly of the Cardinals summoned for the purpose of electing a Pope. The regulations governing the Conclave were issued by Gregory X in 1275.

Conclusions.

An argument drawn up by the Puritans of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1629, and circulated among the Puritans of England, setting forth the desirability of strengthening the Colony of Salem.

Concordat.

An agreement entered into in 1801 between Napoleon and the Pope, providing for the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism, which had been proscribed during the Revolution, as the religion of the majority of the French nation. It was agreed, among other provisions, that bishops were to be nominated by the State, but instituted by the Pope. The nomination of parish priests was vested in the bishops, the State having a right of veto. The State undertook to see that adequate stipends were provided for the clergy, to replace the ancient revenues which had been confiscated during the Revolution.

Concordat of 1516.

An agreement between Francis I of France and Leo X, by which the King obtained the right of nominating archbishops, bishops and mitred abbots, the inferior clergy being appointed by the bishops as before. In return for this, Francis granted the Pope annates and the right to levy a yearly tribute.

Concordat of 1855.

An agreement between Francis Joseph of Austria and Pius IX, by which the control of public education was entrusted to the priesthood, and all offences against canon law were sent for trial before ecclesiastical courts. This concordat was abrogated in 1870.

Concordats.

See Aschaffenburg, Bec, German, Worms.

Condottieri.

Soldiers of fortune who hired themselves out to the various petty states of Italy, during the wars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Confederate Catholics.

A federation of Irish Catholics formed in 1642, at the commencement of the Great Rebellion. They formed a provisional government, consisting of a general assembly, with two houses, and appointed a judicial body for each county under their control, with an appeal to a supreme council of twenty-four persons.

Confederate States.

The independent republic formed, under the presidency of Jefferson Davis, by the states which seceded from the Union prior to the American Civil War of 1860.

Confederation of 1573.

An enactment of the Polish Diet, granting to all sects liberty of conscience and equal rights and privileges. This is the first instance of the establishment of complete religious toleration.

Confederation, Treaty of.

An agreement entered into in 1643, by Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Haven, and later joined by Plymouth, uniting the four communities under the title of the United Colonies of New England.

Confines, Audiencia de los.

During the Spanish domination, the Supreme Court of Central America. It was established in 1542.

Confirmatio Cartarum.

The confirmation by Edward I in 1297 of Magna Charta and the Charter of Forests, to which was added an article known as “De Tallagio non Concedendo,” sometimes referred to as a separate statute, and denying the right of the king to levy Tallages without the consent of Parliament.

Conflans, Treaty of.

A treaty between Louis XI and his nobles, signed in 1465, putting an end to the Guerre du Bien Public. Louis ceded the Duchy of Normandy to his brother, the Duc de Berri, to be held as a fief of France, and made certain concessions to the Duc de Bretagne, the Comte de Charolais, and others.

CongÉ d’Elire.

The invitation sent by the Crown to a cathedral chapter to elect a certain person as bishop of the diocese.

Congo Conference.

A conference of the Powers held at Berlin in 1884-5. It declared for freedom of commerce in the basin and mouths of the Congo, and along the coast from Gaboon to Angola, and appointed an international commission to regulate the navigation of the Congo and the Niger. It recognised the neutrality of the Congo Free State, decreed the abolition of slave gangs and slave markets, and all monopolies, and insisted that foreigners should enjoy equal rights with the subjects of the sovereign state.

Congregation, Lords of the.

The leaders of the reforming party in Scotland, who issued the First Covenant in 1557, took this title.

Congress.

The Parliament of the United States, consisting of two Chambers, a House of Representatives, and a Senate. The former consists of a certain number of members from each state, elected by direct popular vote. The number of representatives of each state is in proportion to the population, as shown in the decennial census. The Senate is composed of two members from each state, irrespective of population, elected by the respective state legislatures. One third of the Senate retires annually.

Congresses.

See Aix-la-Chapelle, Arras, Berlin, Brussels, Carlsbad, ChÂtillon, Congo, General, Hague, Heilbronn, Kilkenny, Laibach, Troppau, Vienna, Verona.

Conservative.

This name came into use to designate the Tory party about 1837. It was first employed by John Wilson Croker, in an article in the Quarterly Review.

Consistoriali.

A secret society, established in Naples, with the Papal authorization, during the first decade of the nineteenth century, to oppose the Carbonari and support the Church.

Consistorium.

A tribunal established in Geneva by Calvin in 1541, to deal with offences against religion and morals. Its rule was terribly severe, all amusements being proscribed and all criticism of the Calvinist doctrine being sternly repressed. In five years the Consistorium imprisoned over 800 persons, and put to death fifty-eight.

Consistory.

An assembly of the Cardinals, in the presence of the Pope; summoned for the transaction of business.

Consolato del Mare.

A code of maritime law, said to have been compiled, from Roman and Rhodian laws, by the trading communities of Barcelona about the middle of the thirteenth century. Other authorities attribute it to the Venetians or the Pisans.

Conspiracies, Plots, etc.

See Alexander, Amboise, AnkarstrÔm. Army, Assassination, Atterbury, Babington, Biron, Booth, Bridal of Norwich, Burr, Bye, Catherine, Cato Street, Cinq Mars, Craigmillar, Despard, Dutch, Emmett, Falieri, Fieschi, Gowrie, Gunpowder, Hunting of Braemar, Incident, Jerviswood, Malet, Meal Tub, Orsini, Overton, Pablen, Pazzi, Pichegru, Popish, Porcari, Strelitzi, Ridolfi, Rye House, Queensberry, Throgmorton, Tiepoli, Venner, Vowel, Waller.

Constance, Council of.

A council summoned by John XXIII, at the instance of the Emperor Sigismund in 1415. It was concerned with the Hussite heresy, and John Huss, who attended under a safe-conduct, was declared a heretic and, notwithstanding the safe-conduct, burnt at the stake. The council further dealt with the schism, deposing two popes, and electing Martin V.

Constance, Peace of.

A treaty, signed at Constance in 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Italian cities, after the successful revolt of the Lombard League. It provided for the re-establishment of self-government in the cities, including the right of electing their magistrates, subject to certain unimportant reservations of the Imperial prerogative.

Constantinople, Conference of.

A conference of the Great Powers, summoned in 1876, with the object of preventing war between Russia and Turkey. The terms agreed upon by the Powers were, however, rejected by the Porte, and war followed.

Constantinople, Council of.

A council of the Church, held at Constantinople in 754, under the auspices of Leo the Iconoclast. It proscribed the use of images and religious pictures in worship. The decrees of this council were anathematised by the Synod of Rome in 769, and reversed by the Council of NicÆa in 787. It is not regarded by the Church as an Oecumenical Council.

Constantinople, Fourth Council of.

An Oecumenical Council, held in 869, which declared that no Metropolitan could enter upon his functions until he had received the pallium from the Pope. This decision practically placed the nomination of the higher church dignitaries in the Pope’s hands.

Constitution of 1812.

The Constitution drawn up by the Spanish Cortes which met at Cadiz in 1810. Ferdinand VII, on his restoration in 1814, refused to subscribe to the instrument, and continued to govern the country on absolute principles, but a military pronunciamiento forced him finally to give way and agree to its conditions in 1820.

Constitutions.

See Body of Liberties, Canada, Eadgar, Estatuto Real, Federal Pact, May, Mediation, Model, Nine Articles, Waldemariana.

Constitutions of Clarendon.

A recital of the ancient customs of England, defining the relations between the Church and the Crown, drawn up by order of Henry II, and accepted, after much opposition, by Thomas Á Becket on behalf of the Church. It made the criminous clerk subject to the civil jurisdiction, provided that questions relating to land claimed by the Crown should be submitted to a jury, constituted the King the final court of appeal, and limited the power of the bishops. By these and other provisions, the supremacy of the Crown was assured. The constitutions were promulgated at the Council of Clarendon in 1164.

Consulta.

The committee of three members of the Council of State of the Netherlands, during the regency of Margaret of Parma, 1559 to 1567. The three were Viglius, Barlaymont, and the Bishop of Arras.

Continental Blockade.

A system established by Napoleon, in 1806, by the Berlin Decree. In this instrument he declared the whole of the British Isles to be in a state of blockade, and forbade any correspondence with them on the part of the countries dependent on him. He further declared all Englishmen found in any country occupied by French troops to be prisoners of war, and ordered all English merchandise and all private property of English subjects wherever found to be confiscated. So impracticable was it to carry out this system that, within the year, Napoleon found it necessary to purchase English cloth to clothe his own troops.

Contra-Remonstrants.

The Gomarists, the opponents of the Arminians in the Netherlands, were so called from their having presented to the States-General a counter-remonstrance, protesting against the five articles set out in the remonstrance of the Arminians in 1610.

Contracting Out.

The chief point at issue in the Employers’ Liability Bill of 1893. The difference of opinion between the two Houses on this point wrecked the bill. See Employers’ Liability.

Conventicle Act.

An Act passed in 1664, rendering illegal any meeting for religious purposes which was attended by more than five persons beyond the family, unless held in accordance with Church of England practice.

Conventicles.

Open air meetings for public worship held by the dispossessed Scotch ministers, after the establishment of the Episcopal Church in Scotland at the Restoration. They were declared illegal, were then permitted by Indulgence, and finally again made illegal, and suppressed whenever possible.

Convention Parliament.

Two Parliaments are known by this title, being irregular assemblies, as not having been summoned by Royal Writ—(1) The Parliament which restored the Crown to Charles II in 1660. (2) The Parliament which offered the throne to William and Mary in 1689.

Conventions Bill.

An Act passed by the Irish Parliament in 1793. It forbade the holding of meetings for the purpose of petitioning the King or Parliament, and also the election of delegates to attend such meetings.

Convicts Prevention Act.

An Act passed by the Victorian Legislature in 1852, forbidding the immigration into the colony of any but free men, thus shutting out ticket-of-leave men from the penal settlements. The Queen at first refused her assent, but the bill was passed a second time and became law.

Conway’s Cabal.

See Cabal, American.

Co-operation.

The first Co-operative Society was started in 1844 by twenty-eight Rochdale weavers. They began their operations with a capital of £28 only, and in sixteen years the Society was worth over £120,000.

Copperheads.

A name given by the Federals, during the American Civil War, to the Peace Party in the Northern States. The copperhead is a peculiarly venomous snake, as deadly as the rattlesnake and more dangerous, because not provided with the warning rattle.

Coppernose.

A nickname of Henry VIII. derived from the silver coinage of his reign, which was made of an alloy containing a quantity of copper.

Copyhold.

A tenure by service, as opposed to freehold or leasehold. In most cases the service has long since been commuted for a small annual payment. In the event of a copyholder dying intestate and without issue, the copyhold reverts to the Lord of the Manor.

Cordeliers.

A revolutionary club in Paris, in the early days of the French Revolution, composed mainly of the partisans of Danton. It took its name from an old monastery of the Cordelier order, where its meetings were held.

Corn Law of 1804.

An Act establishing a prohibitive duty on foreign corn while the price of English wheat stood at 63s. per quarter or under, and fixing the duty at 3s. 6d. per quarter with the price between 63s. and 66s., and at 6d. per quarter with the price above 66s.

Corn Law of 1815.

An Act prohibiting the importation of foreign corn, until the price of English wheat stood at 80s. per quarter.

Corn Law of 1824.

An Act reaffirming the principle of the sliding scale of duties on imported grain, as in the Corn Law of 1804.

Corn Laws, Repeal of the.

An Act passed by Sir Robert Peel’s Government in 1846, reducing immediately the tax on foreign grain, and providing for its ultimate abolition, with the exception of a registration duty amounting to 1s. per quarter. This Act was mainly the result of the efforts of the Anti-Corn Law League.

Cornwall, Duchy of.

Cornwall was created a Duchy by Edward III, and its revenues were assigned to the maintenance of his eldest son, the Prince of Wales. Since that period the eldest son of the Sovereign has borne the title of Duke of Cornwall, and enjoyed the revenues of the Duchy. Alterations in the internal administration were made by Acts passed in 1863 and 1893.

Coronation Stone.

The ancient Scottish Coronation Stone of Scone was brought to England by Edward I, after his defeat of Balliol at Dunbar in 1296, and is now in Westminster Abbey.

Corporal John.

The great Duke of Marlborough was so called by his soldiers.

Corporation Act.

An Act passed in 1661, compelling all holders of office in corporations to swear to their belief in the doctrine of Passive Obedience, to receive the sacrament according to the rites of the English Church, and to renounce the Covenant. This Act was not repealed until 1828.

Corsican Ogre.

A nickname of the great Napoleon.

Cortes.

The Spanish Parliament is so called.

Corti Compromise.

A compromise proposed by Count Corti, Italian Ambassador to the Porte in 1880, to meet the difficulties raised by Turkey in carrying out the provisions of the Berlin Treaty, relative to Montenegro. He proposed that Turkey should retain Gussinje and Plava, ceding instead Kutschi-Kraina and Podgoritza.

CorvÉe.

Enforced labour on the roads and other public works, exacted from the French peasant before the Revolution. The same system prevailed in Egypt prior to the English occupation.

Cossacks.

The inhabitants of the debateable land between the Russian frontier and the Crim Tartars. The most important of these communities were those of the Dnieper and the Don. They retained a certain degree of independence until the reign of Catherine II of Russia. The soldiers of the military cordon established by the Russians and Poles along their southern frontiers were also known as Cossacks.

Cottereaux.

Bands of mercenaries in the French service during the twelfth century.

Cotton Famine.

The name given to the distress in Lancashire in 1862, in consequence of the cessation of cotton shipments from America during the Civil War, by which thousands of operatives were thrown out of employment. Large sums were received by subscriptions in aid, and in August of that year the Relief Act was passed, by which loans were granted to the guardians to enable them to establish relief works.

Council of State.

A council of forty-one members, in whom Parliament vested the executive power, on the proclamation of the Commonwealth in 1649. They were appointed for one year.

Councils.

See Ancients, Anziani, Aulic, Blood, Castle, Clarendon, Consulta, Colonies, Federal, Fifteen, Five Hundred, Hlutdaw, Indies, Kilkenny, Magnum, North, Policy, Reason, Sixteen, Ten, Thirty-six.

Councils, Church.

See Bari, Basle, Clermont, Constance, Constantinople, Dort, Lateran, Lyons, NicÆa, Œcumenical, Pisa, Trent, Vatican, Vienne.

Country Party.

A political party, formed about 1673, under the leadership of Lords Russell and Cavendish. They were in full sympathy with the demands of the Dissenters for toleration, and made it their special business to keep a watch on the religious and political designs of the Court. They afterwards became known as Whigs.

County Palatine.

A county possessing certain Royal privileges, created originally for defence of the frontier against the Welsh, the Scotch and the French. They were Chester, Lancaster, Durham, Kent, Shropshire, Pembrokeshire, and Hexhamshire. Only the three first named retained any of their privileges beyond the sixteenth century.

Coup d’Etat.

A term applied to any overthrow of free institutions by military intervention, but used especially to denote the bold stroke of Louis Napoleon, who by a display of military force in the Paris streets in December, 1851, and the imprisonment of the Republican members of the Chamber, succeeded in getting himself proclaimed Consul, and, later, Emperor.

Cour d’HÉritage.

An ancient feudal court in Jersey, having jurisdiction over all disputed questions as to landed property.

Cours PlÉniÈres.

Assemblies of the Barons, called, on the great festivals of the year, by the early kings of France and England.

Court Baron.

A court of the old Norman Manor, summoned to settle all questions arising out of the cultivation of the demesne land of the Manor.

Court Customary.

A baronial court in feudal times held to decide questions arising out of the tenure of land by villeins.

Court Leet.

Under Henry I the Hundred Court was so called, when it sat for the purpose of trying criminal cases under the presidency of the Sheriff.

Courte Paix.

See Longjumeau.

Courts.

See Audiencias, Augmentations, Aulic, AustrÄgal, College of Justice, Chambre, Confines, Consistorium, Curia Regis, Four Burghs, Great Session, Haute Cour, Heemraden, High Commission, Jews, Manor, Parlement, PiÉs PoudrÉes, Reichskammergericht, Requests, Salford, Star Chamber, Tribunal, Tynwald, Vehmgericht, Wales.

Coventry Act.

An Act passed in 1671 declaring nose-slitting or other mutilation of the person to be a felony. It was passed in consequence of a dastardly attack upon Sir James Coventry, a Member of Parliament, who, having incurred the enmity of the Court party by some comments in the House on Charles the Second’s liaison with Nell Gwynne, was waylaid on his way home by Sir Thomas Sandys and some of the King’s friends, who dragged him from his coach and slit his nose to the bone.

Cowboys.

Bands of British marauders who infested the banks of the Hudson River during the American War of Independence. The name is now applied to the cattlemen on the ranches in the Far West.

Cowper-Temple Clause.

A clause inserted in the Education Act of 1870, embodying an amendment moved by Mr. Cowper-Temple. It provides that unsectarian Bible teaching shall be given during school hours in all rate-aided schools under the School Boards.

Coyne and Livery.

The right of an Irish chieftain to quarter his soldiery on the tenants. It was forbidden by the Statute of Kilkenny in 1307, and was finally stopped in 1603. It was called by the Irish “Bonaght.”

Cradle of Liberty.

The name given to Faneuil Hall, Boston, which was the place of meeting of the American patriots during the period of the Revolution.

Craigmillar, Bond of.

An agreement entered into in 1566, at the instigation of Bothwell, by Argyle, Huntly, Maitland and Sir James Balfour, with the object of compassing the death of Darnley.

Crapaud, Jean.

A Frenchman is so called, probably from the fleur-de-lys of the old French standard, which bears a faint resemblance to a toad (crapaud).

Creole State.

The State of Louisiana is so called because of the large number of its inhabitants who are descendants of the original French and Spanish settlers.

Creoles.

In Spanish America this term is applied to all persons of pure European descent, born in South America. Those with an admixture of Indian blood are known as Mestizos. The word Creole was also applied in Louisiana to those of pure French descent who were born in the Colony.

Cretan Convention.

A convention between the Porte and the Powers, signed in September, 1896. It provided for the appointment of a Christian Governor, and for the summoning of an Assembly within six months. Two-thirds of the official appointments were to be held by Christians and one third by Mohammedans. The Cretan Government was to retain one half of the Customs duties, the other half being taken by the Sultan, in lieu of the old tribute.

Crimes Act, 1882.

An Act empowering the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to suspend jury trial in disturbed districts, and to send agrarian cases for trial by a commission of three judges, with an appeal to the Court of Criminal Cases Reserved. Power of search was given to the police in proclaimed districts, and, further, power to arrest and remove strangers thought dangerous to public safety.

Crimes Act, 1887.

An Act to repress the lawlessness of the Irish Land League. It gave power to the Lord Lieutenant to proclaim the affected districts, and to suppress seditious gatherings and unlawful associations. It also provided for change of venue, in cases where a fair trial could not be relied upon under ordinary conditions.

Croppies.

A name given to the Roundheads during the Civil War. The Irish rebels of 1798 were also called by this name.

Crown, Treaty of the.

A treaty signed at Vienna in 1700, between the Emperor Leopold I, and Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, by which Leopold recognized Frederick as King of Prussia. Frederick undertook to place 10,000 men in the field for the service of the empire, if required, to support Austria in the German Diet, and to vote, as Elector, for Leopold’s son, Joseph, and his successors as occupants of the Imperial throne.

Crusade of Children.

In 1212, some 90,000 children, mostly from Germany, inspired by the crusading spirit of the times, left their homes for the Holy Land. Many who embarked at Marseilles were carried to Alexandria and there sold as slaves. Others got no further than Genoa, where they were enslaved by the Genoese.

Cum ex Apostolatus Officio, Bull.

A Bull of Pope Paul IV, issued in 1559, declaring all Protestant Princes incapable of reigning, and giving Catholics the right to levy on their possessions.

Cumbernauld, Bond of.

An agreement signed by John Graham, Earl of Montrose, and his associates, prior to their invasion of England in August, 1640, by which they bound themselves to oppose any dictatorship vested in the hands of subjects.

Cupar Justice.

See Jedburgh Justice.

Curfew, or Couvrefeu.

The famous enactment of William the Conqueror, ordering all persons in the country districts to be in their houses, with all lights extinguished, by eight o’clock in winter and sunset in summer. It was presumably designed to prevent secret meetings and conspiracies directed against the King, of which there were many, owing to his unpopularity with the Saxon element of the population.

Curia Regis.

A court of law established by William the Conqueror as the Final Court of Appeal of the realm. At its head was the Justiciary, as the King’s representative. It was re-organised in the reign of Henry I, when the Exchequer Court was established by Roger of Salisbury, the Barons of the Curia Regis sitting as Barons of the Exchequer for financial purposes. It was again reconstituted by Henry II, who limited its numbers to five, and by Magna Charta, when it was divided into three courts, those of the Exchequer, the Common Pleas, and the King’s Bench. It thus took the form which lasted, with minor modifications, until the Judicature Acts of 1873-5.

Curt-Mantle.

The nickname of Henry II of England, from his wearing the short cloak of Anjou instead of the longer mantle worn by his predecessors.

Custer Massacre.

The destruction by a body of Sioux Indians of the whole of General Custer’s force, on the Little Big Horn, Montana, in 1876.

Custos Rotulorum.

The keeper of the rolls of the County Sessions. The office is generally held by the Lord Lieutenant of the County.

Cyprus Treaty.

A treaty between Great Britain and Turkey, signed in 1788, whereby the Sultan recognized the occupation and administration of Cyprus by Great Britain, with the following provisos: that a Mussulman religious tribunal should be established; that all surplus revenue should be paid to him; that the Porte should retain the right to sell or lease lands belonging to the Crown, and that Cyprus should be restored to the Porte in the event of Russia restoring Kars.