Paardeberg (Second Boer War).

Fought February 18, 1900, between 5,000 Boers, under Cronje, and the British, numbering 4 Infantry Brigades, with 4 batteries, under Lord Kitchener. Cronje had taken refuge in the bed of the Tugela river, and an attempt was made to dislodge him. The absence of cover for the attacking force, however, rendered this impossible, but he was surrounded, and on the arrival of Lord Roberts, subjected to a sustained artillery fire, which lasted until he surrendered on the 27th. The British losses during the operations amounted to 98 officers and 1,437 men, of whom 1,100 fell in the battle of the 18th. The prisoners taken numbered 3,000 Transvaalers and 1,100 Free Staters, with 6 guns.

Pabon.

Fought September 17, 1861, between the troops of Buenos Ayres, under Mitre, aided by an Italian legion, under Piloni, and the army of the Argentine Confederation, under Urquiza. The latter were defeated.

Pagahar (First Burmah War).

The only occasion during the war when the Burmans met the British in the open. In 1825 Sir Archibald Campbell, with 1,300 men, encountered 15,000 Burmans, under Zay-ya-Thayan but the battle was almost a bloodless one, for the Burmans failed to make any stand, their general being the first to flee.

PagasÆan Gulf (Sacred War).

Fought B.C. 352, between the Phocians, under Onomarchus, and the Macedonians, under Philip. Philip's infantry was about equal in numbers to that of the Phocians, but he was far superior in cavalry, and in the end the Phocians were completely defeated, with the loss of a third of their number. Onomarchus was slain.

Palais Gallien (War of the Fronde).

Fought September 5, 1649, between the Royal troops, 8,000 strong, under the Marshal de la Meilleraic, and 7,000 Bordelais, under the Ducs de Bouillon and de la Rochefoucauld. The Bordelais successfully repulsed four or five assaults, but by nightfall were driven from their entrenchments into the city, with a loss of about 120. The assailants lost over 1,000 killed and wounded.

Palermo (Italian Rising).

Fought May 26 and 27, 1848, when Garibaldi, with 750 of his "Thousand Volunteers," and about 3,000 Sicilian "Picciotti," succeeded in surprising one of the gates of Palermo, which was garrisoned by 18,000 Neapolitans, under General Lanza. The "Picciotti" fled at the first shot, but Garibaldi penetrated into the city, where, being joined by the citizens, he erected barricades, and after some severe fighting, in which the Neapolitans suffered heavily, General Lanza surrendered. The last of the Neapolitan troops were withdrawn on June 20.

Palestrina (Italian Rising).

Fought May 9, 1849, between 4,000 Italian Patriots, under Garibaldi, and 7,000 Neapolitans, under King Ferdinand. After three hours' fighting, the Neapolitans were totally routed. Garibaldi was wounded in the action.

Palestro (Unification of Italy).

Fought May 30, 1859, between the Sardinians, under General Cialdini, and the Austrians, under General Stadion. The Austrians attacked the Sardinians while they were crossing the Sesia, but were repulsed, and Cialdini effected the passage successfully and drove the Austrians out of Palestro with considerable loss.

Palmyra (Expedition to Palmyra).

This city was besieged by the Romans, under Aurelian, after the defeat of Zenobia at Emesa in 272. An obstinate defence was made by the Queen, but Aurelian being reinforced by Probus early in 273, Zenobia fled from the city and the place was captured. Zenobia failed to escape, and was brought into Aurelian's camp. During his return march, Aurelian learnt that the citizens had risen, and massacred the Governor and the garrison he had left in the place. He thereupon retraced his steps, and destroyed the city, sparing neither young nor old.

Palo Alto (Americo-Mexican War).

Fought May 8, 1846, between the Americans, under General Taylor, and the Mexicans, under Arista. The Mexicans were completely routed, at very small cost to the victors.

Panama (Raids of the Buccaneers).

On December 16, 1670, Morgan the Buccaneer sailed from Hispaniola with 37 ships and about 2,000 men to plunder this town. Having captured the castle of San Lorenzo, at the mouth of the Chagre, an exploit which cost the assailants 170 out of 400 men engaged, while two-thirds of the garrison were killed, Morgan started to cross the Isthmus, at the head of 1,200 men, January 18, 1671. The garrison of Panama, 2,400 strong, met him outside the city, and were defeated with heavy loss, the Buccaneers losing 600 men. Morgan then sacked the place, and on February 24, withdrew with 175 mule loads of plunder, and 600 prisoners.

Panama (Raids of the Buccaneers).

Fought April 23, 1680, between the Buccaneers, with three ships, under John Coxon, and three Spanish vessels. The Spaniards were defeated, after a hard fight in which two Spanish vessels were captured by boarding. The Spanish commander was killed. The Buccaneers then entered the Bay, and captured six vessels lying in the roads.

Pandosia.

Fought 331 B.C., between the Italian Greeks, under Alexander of Epirus, and the Lucanians. During the battle Alexander was stabbed by a Lucanian exile serving in the Greek army, and the Greeks were in the end defeated.

Pandu Naddi (Indian Mutiny).

Fought July 15, 1857, between a British relieving force, under Havelock, and the mutineers who were opposing his advance to Cawnpore. By a forced march in the heat of the day, Havelock succeeded in seizing the bridge over the Pandu Naddi, which the mutineers were engaged in mining, thus securing an open road to Cawnpore. The rebels were driven off after a short engagement.

Pandu Naddi (Indian Mutiny).

Fought November 26, 1857, between 1,400 British, under General Windham, and the advance guard of the mutineers and the Gwalior contingent, under the Nana Sahib. The rebels were posted beyond the river, and the British crossing the dry bed, drove them from their entrenchments, capturing 3 guns. Windham, then finding himself close to the main body of mutineers, retired towards Cawnpore.

Panipat (Third Mongol Invasion).

Fought April 20, 1526, between the Delhi Mohammedans, 10,000 strong, with 100 elephants, under Ibrahim, and the Mongols, about 2,000 picked men, under Baber, the first of the Great Moguls. Ibrahim was totally defeated, being himself among the slain. The battle marked the end of the Afghan dynasty of Delhi, and the commencement of the Mogul Empire.

Panipat.

Fought November 5, 1536, between Akbar, the Great Mogul, with about 20,000 troops, and the forces of the revolted Hindu Rajahs, 100,000 strong, under Hemu. The Hindus attacked, and the onslaught of the elephants being repulsed, their ranks were thrown into disorder, and the Moguls gained a complete victory. Hemu was wounded and captured. By this victory Akbar recovered Delhi, which had fallen into the hands of the rebels.

Panipat.

Fought 1759, between the Mahrattas, 85,000 strong, under Sedashao Rao Bhao, cousin of the Peshwa, and the Duranis, numbering, with Hindu allies, about 90,000. The Bhao attacked, and dispersed Ahmed's Indian troops, but on the Duranis coming into action, the Mahrattas were broken and utterly routed, with enormous loss. The Bhao, and the son of the Peshwa were among the slain.

Panormus (First Punic War).

Fought B.C. 250, between 25,000 Romans, under L. CÆcilius Metellus, and the Carthaginian army in Sicily, under Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal offered battle in front of Panormus, and Metellus sent out his light troops to engage him. They ran back into the town before a charge of the elephants, which, following closely, were driven into the ditch surrounding the place, where many were killed. Meanwhile Metellus sallied out with his legionaries, and taking Hasdrubal in flank completely routed him. The whole of the Carthaginian elephants in Sicily were killed or captured in this battle.

ParÆtakene Mountains (Wars of Alexander's Successors).

Fought 316 B.C., between the Macedonians, 30,000 strong, under Antigonus, and an equal force of Asiatics, under Eumenes. Eumenes attacked the Macedonian camp, and after a severe engagement, in which the Asiatics held the advantage, Antigonus, by successful manoeuvring, withdrew his army without serious loss, leaving Eumenes a barren victory.

Parana (Paraguayan War).

Fought 1866, between the Paraguayans, under Lopez, and the Brazilians, under Porto Alegre. Lopez was victorious.

Paris (Allied Invasion of France).

On March 30, 1814, Paris, which was defended only by 20,000 regulars and National Guard, under Marmont, was attacked by the Grand Army of the allies, under Schwartzemberg. Three columns assaulted the French positions at Vincennes, Belleville and Montmartre, while a fourth attacked the extreme left of the French line in order to turn the heights of Montmartre. The two first positions were carried, and Montmartre turned, whereupon Joseph having fled, Marmont surrendered. The French lost over 4,000 men; the allies about 8,000.

Paris (Franco-German War).

Paris was invested by the main German army, under the King of Prussia and von Moltke, September 19, 1870. The garrison, under the command of General Trochu, made a gallant defence, many serious sorties taking place, but the Germans gradually mastered the outer defences, and finally, being much straitened by famine, the city surrendered January 28, 1871.

Parkany (Ottoman Wars).

Fought August, 1663, between 200,000 Turks, under the Grand Vizier, Achmet KÖprili Pasha, and the Hungarians, in far smaller force, under Count Forgacz. The Hungarians were defeated, and driven into NeuhÄusel, which town, after a valiant resistance of six weeks, capitulated September 24.

Parma (War of the Polish Succession).

Fought June 29, 1734, between the French, under Marshal de Coigny, and the Imperialists, 60,000 strong, under General de Mercy. The Imperialists were defeated with a loss of 6,000, including de Mercy. The French loss was almost as heavy.

Paso de la Patria (Paraguayan War).

Fought 1866, between the Paraguayans, under Lopez, and the Brazilians, under Porto Alegre. The Paraguayans gained a signal victory.

Patay (Hundred Years' War).

Fought June 18, 1429, between the French, under Joan of Arc and the Duc d'AlenÇon, and the English, under Talbot and Sir John Fastolfe. The English were retiring after the siege of Orleans, and their advanced guard under Talbot, being attacked by the French, was seized with a panic, and refusing to meet the charge of the French cavalry, broke and fled. The main body, under Fastolfe, however, maintained its formation, and made good its retreat to Etampes. Talbot was made prisoner.

Fought 1394, between the Tartars, under Tamerlane, and the Persians, under Shah Mansur. The Persians vigorously attacked the Tartar centre, and Tamerlane was nearly overwhelmed, but rallying his troops he led a charge which restored the battle, and gained a complete victory. The complete subjugation of Persia followed.

Pavia (Invasion of the Alemanni).

Fought 271, between the Romans, under Aurelian, and the German invaders. Aurelian gained a signal victory, and the Alemanni recrossed the frontier.

Pavia (Lombard Conquest of Italy).

This city was besieged in 568 by the Lombards, under Alboin, and after a gallant defence, lasting over three years, was at last subdued, rather by famine than by force of arms, and surrendered to the besiegers. Pavia then became the capital of the Lombard kingdom of Italy.

Pavia (Italian Wars).

Fought May 22, 1431, on the Ticino, near Pavia, between 85 Venetian galleys, under Nicolas Trevisani, and a somewhat superior number of galleys in the pay of the Milanese. The Venetians were defeated, with a loss of 70 galleys and 3,000 men.

Pavia (Wars of Charles V).

Fought February 25, 1525, between the French, under Francis I, and the Imperialists, under Lannoy. Francis, who was besieging Pavia, awaited the attack of the Imperialists on his lines, and his artillery wrought great havoc in their ranks, then, charging at the head of his cavalry, he was repulsed by Lannoy's infantry, and the Swiss mercenaries being taken in flank, and thrown into disorder, the battle was lost. Francis was captured. This is the occasion on which he wrote to his mother, "Rien ne m'est demourÉ, exceptÉ l'honneur et la vie qui est sauve."

Peach Tree Creek (American Civil War).

Fought July 22, 1864, in the course of the operations round Atlanta, between the Federals, under General Sherman, and the Confederates, under General Hood. Hood attacked the Federal position, and drove off their left wing, capturing 13 guns and some prisoners; being reinforced, however, the Federals rallied, and recovered the lost ground. The Confederates, however, claimed the victory. The Federals lost 3,722, including General McPherson. The Confederate losses were about the same.

Pea Ridge (American Civil War).

Fought March 7 and 8, 1862, between 16,000 Confederates, under General von Dorn, and the Federals, in equal force, under General Curtis. On the 7th the Confederates drove back the Federal right wing, and nearly succeeded in cutting their communications, though they lost General M’Culloch in the course of the action. On the 8th the Federals drove back the Southerners, and recovered the ground they had lost, the battle ending without decisive result. The losses on each side were about 1,000. This is also called the Battle of Gek Horn.

Peiwar Kotal (Second Afghan War).

Fought December 2, 1878, between a British force, 3,200 strong, under Sir Frederick Roberts, with 13 guns, and about 18,000 Afghans, with 11 guns, strongly posted in the Kotal. By an able, but difficult turning movement, the pass was crossed, and the Afghans completely defeated, with heavy loss, all their guns being captured. The British lost 20 killed and 78 wounded.

Peking (Tartar Invasion of China).

This city was besieged by the Tartars, under Genghiz Khan, in 1210, and after a long and obstinateobstinate defence, which so exhausted the besiegers that Genghiz Khan is said to have decimated his men in order to feed the rest, the city was taken by stratagem.

Pelekanon (Ottoman Conquest of Asia Minor).

Fought 1329, between the Turks, under Orkhan, and the forces of Andronicus the Younger, Emperor of the East. The Imperialists were defeated. This is the first occasion in which the Byzantines met the Ottoman invaders in battle.

Pelischat (Russo-Turkish War).

Fought August 30, 1877, when the Turks, 25,000 strong, with 50 guns, made a sortie from Plevna, and attacked the Russian lines in front of Poradim. The Russians, 20,000 strong, under General Zotoff, succeeded in repulsing all the Turkish attacks, with a loss of about 3,000 killed and wounded. The Russians lost 1,000.

Pelusium (Persian Conquest of Egypt).

Fought 525 B.C., between the Persians, under Cambyses, and the Egyptians, under Psammeticus. The Egyptians were totally defeated, and this victory was followed by the complete subjugation of Egypt, which became a Persian satrapy.

Pelusium (War of Alexander's Successors).

Fought B.C. 321, between the Macedonians, under the Regent, Perdiccas, and the Egyptians, under Ptolemy Lagus. Perdiccas attacked the fortress, but was driven off with heavy loss, including 1,000 drowned in the Nile.

PeÑa Cerrada (First Carlist War).

This fortress, held by a Carlist garrison, under Gergue, was captured by Espartero with 19,000 Cristinos, June 21, 1838. After shelling the place for 7 hours, Espartero attacked the Carlists, who held the heights outside the town, and dispersed them, capturing 600 prisoners, and all their guns. The remainder of the garrison then abandoned the place.

Penobscot Bay (American War of Independence).

Fought July 14, 1779, when a British squadron of 10 ships, under Sir George Collier, completely destroyed an American squadron of 24 ships, and captured the 3,000 men who formed their crews.

Fought 1016, between the English, under Edmund Ironside, and the Danes, under Knut, shortly after Edmund's election as King by the Witanegemot. This was the first of the series of engagements between the two rivals, which ended with the Peace of Olney.

Pered (Hungarian Rising).

Fought June 21, 1849, between the Hungarians, 16,000 strong, under GÖrgey, and the Austrians and Russians, under Prince WindischgrÄtz. The allies attacked the Hungarian position, and after severe fighting, drove them out, with a loss of about 3,000.

Perembacum (First Mysore War).

Fought September 10, 1780, when a Mysore force, 11,000 strong, under Tippu Sahib, surrounded and cut to pieces a detachment of Sir Hector Monro's army, 3,700 in number, under Colonel Baillie. Only a few, including Baillie himself, escaped the massacre.

Perisabor (Persian Wars).

This fortress, defended by an Assyrian and Persian garrison, was captured, May, 363, by the Romans, under Julian. The fortress was dismantled and the town destroyed.

Perpignan.

This fortress was besieged by the French, 11,000 strong, under the Seigneur du Lude, at the end of 1474, and was defended by a Spanish garrison. The Spanish army could not succeed in relieving the place, and after holding out with great gallantry until March 14, 1475, the garrison, reduced to 400 men, surrendered, and were allowed to march out with the honours of war. The capture of Perpignan gave France possession of Rousillon.

Perryville (American Civil War).

Fought October 8, 1862, between 45,000 Federals, under General Buell, and a somewhat smaller Confederate army, under General Bragg. The Confederates attacked, and drove back the Federals, but no decisive result was arrived at, and during the night Bragg withdrew, having inflicted a loss of 4,000 on the enemy, and captured an artillery train. The Confederates lost about 2,500 killed and wounded.

Persepolis (Wars of Alexander's Successors).

Fought B.C. 316, between the Macedonians, 31,000 strong, with 65 elephants, under Antigonus, and 42,000 Asiatics, with 114 elephants, under Eumenes. At the first onslaught, Antigonus' infantry was overwhelmed, but his cavalry retrieved the day, and seizing the enemy's camp, threw Eumenes' phalanx into confusion. Upon this the Macedonian infantry rallied, and gained a complete victory, Eumenes being captured.

Peshawar (Second Mohammedan Invasion of India).

Fought 1001, between 10,000 Afghans, under Sultan Mahmud of Ghuzni, and 42,000 Punjabis, with 300 elephants, under the Rajah Jaipal of Lahore. The Rajah was totally defeated, and captured with 15 of his principal chiefs.

Fought June 15 to 18, 1864, forming an episode in the Federal attack on Richmond. General Beauregard, with 8,000 men, was charged with the defence of Petersburg, and at the same time had to contain General Butler at Bermuda Hundred. His entrenchments before Petersburg were attacked on the 15th by General Smith, and a portion of the first line carried. On the 16th Beauregard withdrew the force masking Bermuda Hundred, and concentrated his troops in front of Petersburg, but after holding out till the afternoon, a panic seized the defenders, and they were driven from the first line. Beauregard, however, rallied them, and retook the entrenchments. During the night he withdrew to a second and stronger line of defences, and on the 17th and 18th repulsed, with terrible slaughter, all the efforts of the Federals to carry it.

Petersburg (American Civil War).

On June 30, 1864, a mine was exploded under the Confederate defences in front of Petersburg, and an attempt was made by the Federals to carry the entrenchments during the confusion that ensued. The Confederates, however, stood their ground, repulsing all attacks with heavy loss, and of the Federals who succeeded in entering the breast-works, 5,000 were killed or captured. Both the generals commanding, Lee and Grant, were present during the action.

Peterwaradin (Ottoman Wars).

Fought August 5, 1716, when Prince Eugene, with 80,000 Imperialists, mostly veterans from the Flanders campaign, signally defeated 150,000 Turks under Darnad Ali Pasha. The Turks lost 30,000 killed, 50 standards and 250 guns. The Imperialists lost about 3,000.

Petra (Persian Wars).

This strong fortress, garrisoned by 1,500 Persians, was besieged by the Romans, 8,000 strong, under Dagisteus, in 549. After a series of unsuccessful assaults the Romans succeeded in bringing down a large portion of the outer wall by mining. By this time the garrison was reduced to 400, but Dagisteus, delaying to storm the fortress, the Persians succeeded in throwing in reinforcements, which brought the garrison up to 3,000. Meanwhile all the breaches had been repaired, and the Romans had to undertake a second siege. At last a breach was effected, and after very severe fighting the besiegers effected a lodgement. Of the defenders 700 fell in the second siege, and 1,070 in the storm, while of 700 prisoners, only 18 were unwounded. Five hundred retreated to the citadel, and held out to the last, perishing in the flames when it was fired by the Romans.

Pharsalus (Civil War of CÆsar and Pompey).

Fought August 9, B.C. 48, between the Pompeians, 60,000 strong, under Pompey, and CÆsareans, 25,000 strong, under CÆsar. The Pompeian cavalry drove back that of CÆsar, but following in pursuit, were thrown into confusion by the legionaries, whereupon they turned and fled from the field; the infantry followed and the battle became a rout, in which 15,000 Pompeians, and only 200 CÆsareans fell. After the battle, 20,000 Pompeians surrendered.

Pharsalus (Greco-Turkish War).

Fought May 6, 1897, when Edhem Pasha, with three Turkish divisions, drove the Greeks from their entrenchments in front of Pharsalus, at a cost of about 230 killed and wounded. The Greek loss was not very heavy.

Philiphaugh (Civil War).

Fought September 13, 1645, when 4,000 Lowland horse, under David Leslie, surprised and cut to pieces Montrose's force of Highlanders, encamped near Selkirk. Montrose escaped with a few followers.

Philippi (Rebellion of Brutus).

Fought B.C. 42, between the Republicans, under Brutus and Cassius, 100,000 strong, and the army of the Triumvirs, about equal in numbers, under Octavius and Mark Antony. Brutus on the right repulsed the legions of Octavius, and penetrated into his camp. Cassius, however, was overthrown by Antony, and would have been overwhelmed but for the arrival of aid from the successful right wing. The action was renewed on the second day, when the Triumvirs were completely victorious, and the Republican army dispersed. Brutus committed suicide on the field of battle.

Philippopolis (First Gothic Invasion of the Empire).

This city was besieged, 251, by the Goths, under Cniva, and after a gallant defence, and the defeat of an attempt by Decius to relieve it, was stormed and sacked. It is said that 100,000 of the garrison and inhabitants perished in the siege and subsequent massacre.

Philippopolis (Russo-Turkish War).

Fought February 17, 1878, between the Russians, under General Gourko, and the Turks, under Fuad and Shakir Pashas. The Turks made a stubborn defence of the approaches to Philippopolis, but were overpowered by superior numbers, and forced to retreat with a loss of 5,000 killed and wounded, 2,000 prisoners, and 114 guns. The Russians lost 1,300.

Philipsburg (War of the Polish Succession).

This fortress, held by the Imperialists, was besieged 1734, by the French, under the Duke of Berwick. The Duke was killed by a cannon ball while visiting the trenches, but the place fell soon afterwards, notwithstanding the efforts of Prince Eugene to relieve it.

Pieter's Hill (Second Boer War).

The scene of the severest fighting in the course of Sir Redvers Buller's final and successful attempt to relieve Ladysmith. The operations commenced by the capture of Hlangwane, on February 19, 1900, which gave the British command of the Tugela, which was crossed on the 21st. On the 22nd a steady advance was made up to the line of Pieter's Hill, which was attacked by the Irish Brigade, under General Hart, on the 23rd. At a cost of nearly half their numbers, they succeeded in establishing themselves under cover, close to the Boer trenches, but could not dislodge the defenders. It was not till the 27th, when Buller had turned the Boer left, that a general assault was successful, and the Boers evacuated the position. The British losses during the operations were 1,896 killed and wounded.

Pingyang (Chino-Japanese War).

Fought September 15, 1894, between the Japanese, 14,000 strong, under General Nodzu, and 12,000 Chinese, entrenched in a strong position. After severe fighting the Chinese were driven from their entrenchments with heavy loss. The Japanese lost 650 killed and wounded.

Pinkie Cleugh (Scottish Wars).

Fought September, 1547, between the Scots, under the Earl of Huntly, and the English, under the Protector Somerset. The Scots crossed the Esk, and attacked the English lines, at first with success, but they were thrown into confusion by a charge of cavalry, and in the end fled from the field with heavy loss.

Pirot (Servo-Bulgarian War).

Fought November 26 and 27, 1885, between 40,000 Servians, under King Milan, and 45,000 Bulgarians, under Prince Alexander. After some desultory fighting, the Bulgarians seized the town of Pirot in the course of the afternoon. At dawn on the 27th, the Servians, by a surprise attack, recovered Pirot, which was later retaken by the Bulgarians, though the Servians continued to hold a position to the south of the town till nightfall. Early next morning an armistice was concluded. The Bulgarians lost 2,500, the Servians 2,000 killed and wounded.

Pittsburg Landing.

See Shiloh.

Placentia (Invasion of the Alemanni).

Fought 271, between the Romans, under Aurelian, and the invading Alemanni. The barbarians attacked the Romans in the dusk of evening, after a long and fatiguing march, and threw them into disorder, but they were rallied by the Emperor, and after severe fighting, succeeded in beating off their assailants.

Plains of Abraham (Seven Years' War).

Fought September 13, 1759, when Wolfe, who was lying on shipboard in the St. Lawrence above Quebec, with 4,000 troops, effected a landing secretly in the night of the 12th to the 13th, and took up unperceived a strong position on the Plains of Abraham. Next morning he was attacked by Montcalm, with about equal numbers, but notwithstanding the most desperate efforts, the French were unable to carry the position, and were driven back into Quebec with a loss of about 1,500. Both Wolfe and Montcalm fell mortally wounded. The British loss amounted to 664 killed and wounded. The French immediately afterwards evacuated Quebec.

Fought 1757, between the British, 3,000 strong, with 8 guns, under Clive, and the army of Surabjah Daulah, Nawab of Bengal, aided by a small force of Frenchmen. Clive was encamped in a grove of mango-trees, where he was attacked by the Nawab. He beat off the attack, and then stormed the Nawab's lines, totally routing his army, which fled in panic, with a loss of about 500. The British lost 72 only.

PlatÆa (Third Persian Invasion).

Fought B.C. 479, between the Greeks, about 100,000 strong, under Pausanias the Spartan, and 300,000 Persians, with 50,000 Greek auxiliaries, under Mardonius. The Persians fought bravely, but were overborne by the superior discipline and heavier armour of the Greeks, and Mardonius falling, a panic ensued, and they fled to their entrenched camp. This was stormed by the Athenians, and no quarter was given, with the result, it is said, that with the exception of a body of 40,000 which left the field early in the battle, only 3,000 Persians escaped.

PlatÆa (Peloponnesian War).

In 429 B.C., this city, held by a garrison of 400 PlatÆans and 80 Athenians, was besieged by the Spartans, under Archidamus. All the useless mouths were sent out of the place, only 110 women being retained to bake bread. The garrison repulsed numerous assaults, and the siege soon resolved itself into a blockade, but provisions becoming scarce, an attempt was made to break through the enemy's lines, which half the garrison succeeded in doing, with the loss of one man. The remainder held out till 427, when being on the verge of starvation, they surrendered. The survivors were tried for having deserted Boeotia for Athens, at the outbreak of the war, and 200 PlatÆans, and 25 Athenians were put to death.

Plescow (Russo-Swedish Wars).

This fortress was besieged by the Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, August 20, 1615, and defended by a Russian garrison. It is notable as marking a departure from the established practice of surrounding a besieged city with walls of circumvallation. For these Gustavus substituted a series of entrenched camps, communications between which were maintained by strong patrolling forces. Little progress was made, owing to a delay in the arrival of the Swedish breaching guns, and through the mediation of England, negotiations were opened with Russia, and the siege raised, October 14, 1615.

Plevna (Russo-Turkish War).

Four battles were fought in the course of the siege of Plevna, the first three being attacks on the Russian defences, and the fourth, Osman Pasha's final attempt to cut his way through the besieger's lines.

On July 20, 1877, the advance guard of KrÜdener's corps, 6,500 strong, under Schilder-Schuldener, attacked the defences to the north and east of Plevna. The Russians advanced with impetuosity, and carried some of the advanced trenches, driving the defenders back to the outskirts of the town, but their heavy loss, and a failure of ammunition compelled a retreat, and the Turks rallying, drove them from the positions they had captured, and pursued them for some distance. The Russians lost two-thirds of their officers, and nearly 2,000 men.

The second battle took place, July 30, when General KrÜdener, with 30,000 Russians in two divisions, assailed the Turkish redoubts to the north and east of the town. Schakofsky had command of the latter attack, KrÜdener himself leading the assault on the Gravitza redoubt on the north. KrÜdener was absolutely unsuccessful. Schakofsky by 5.30 p.m. was in possession of two of the eastern redoubts, but before nightfall these were retaken by the Turks, and the Russians retired, defeated all along the line. Their losses amounted to 169 officers and 7,136 men, of whom 2,400 were left dead on the field. On the 11th and 12th of September, the investing army, 95,000 strong, under the Grand Duke Michael, attacked Plevna on three sides, Osman Pasha having now 30,000 men under his command. On the 11th an attack on the Omar Tabrija redoubt was repulsed with a loss to the Russians of 6,000 men. The attack on the Gravitza redoubts resulted in the capture of the "Bloody Battery," which the Russians held till the end of the siege. On the south-west, Skobeleff captured two of the six inner redoubts which protected that angle of the fortress. On the 12th, the attack on the second Gravitza redoubt was repulsed, and the two redoubts captured by Skobeleff were retaken, after a terrible struggle. The losses in the two days' fighting amounted to 20,600 including 2,000 prisoners, on the Russian side, on that of the Turks to 5,000. Of these, 8,000 Russians, and 4,000 Turks fell in Skobeleff's attack.

On December 10, Osman Pasha, at the head of 25,000 Turks, accompanied by 9,000 convalescents and wounded in carts, attempted to cut his way through the Russian army, now 100,000 strong, under the King of Roumania, with Todleben as Chief of the Staff. The attempt was made on the east of Plevna, and was directed against the Imperial Grenadiers, under General Ganetzki. Having successfully crossed the Vid, Osman charged down upon the Russians, on a line two miles in length, and carried the first line of entrenchments. Todleben, however, hurried up reinforcements, and the Turks were in turn attacked, and driven back in confusion across the river, Osman being severely wounded. Here they made their last stand, but were overpowered, and driven into Plevna, which before evening capitulated, after a defence lasting 143 days. In this engagement, the Turks lost 5,000, and the Russians 2,000 killed and wounded.

Podhaic.

Fought 1667, between 10,000 Poles, under John Sobieski, and 80,000 Cossacks and Tartars who were besieging Kaminiec. The Cossacks were totally routed and forced to evacuate Poland.

Podol (Seven Weeks' War).

Fought June 26, 1866, between the advance-guard of Prince Frederick Charles' army, and the Austrians, under General Clam-Gallas. The Austrians were defeated and driven out of Podol, after severe fighting, in which they lost heavily. The Prussians took 500 prisoners.

Poitiers (Gothic Invasion of France).

Fought 507, between the Franks, under Clovis, and the Visigoths, under Alaric II. Clovis and Alaric met in single combat, and Alaric was slain, following which the Goths were utterly routed. By this decisive victory, the province of Aquitaine was added to the Frankish dominions.

Poitiers (Hundred Years' War).

Fought September 19, 1356, between 8,000 English, under Edward the Black Prince, and 80,000 French, under King John of France. The English occupied a strong position behind lanes and vineyards, in which their archers were posted. The French cavalry, charging up the lanes, were thrown into confusion by the bowmen, and were then taken in flank by the English knights and men-at-arms, who completely routed them, with a loss of 8,000 killed, and numerous prisoners, including the King. The English losses were very small.

Pola (War of Chiozza).

Fought 1380, when Doria, with 22 Genoese galleys, offered battle to the Venetian fleet, under Pisani, which was lying at Pola. Pisani sallied out with 20 galleys, and captured the Genoese flag-ship, Doria being killed. The Genoese, however, rallied, drove Pisani back, and defeated him with a loss of 2,000 killed, and 15 galleys and 1,900 men captured.

Pollentia (First Gothic Invasion of Italy).

Fought March 29, 403, between the Goths, under Alaric, and the Romans, under Stilicho. Stilicho attacked the Gothic camp while they were celebrating the festival of Easter, and owing to the surprise, the charge of the Roman cavalry threw them into confusion. They were, however, soon rallied by Alaric, and the Romans driven off with heavy loss, but Stilicho advancing at the head of the legionaries, forced his way into the camp, and drove out the Goths with enormous slaughter. Alaric's wife was among the captives.

Pollicore (First Mysore War).

Fought August 27, 1781, between 11,000 British, under Sir Eyre Coote and the Mysoris, 80,000 strong, under Haidar Ali. Coote seized the village of Pollicore, turning Haidar's flank and forcing him to retreat, after an action lasting eight hours. The British lost 421 killed and wounded, the Mysoris about 2,000.

Polonka (Russo-Polish Wars).

Fought 1667, between the Russian invaders, and the Poles, under CzarnieÇki. The Russians were totally routed, a defeat which was largely instrumental in bringing about the signature of peace in the same year.

Polotsk (Moscow Campaign).

Fought August 18, 1812, between 33,000 French and Bavarians, under General Saint Cyr, and 30,000 Russians, under Count Wittgenstein. The Russians were taken by surprise, and after an action which lasted two hours only, were driven back with a loss of 3,000 killed, 1,500 prisoners and 14 guns. The French lost a little over 1,000 killed and wounded.

Polotsk (Moscow Campaign).

Fought October 18, 1812, when General Saint-Cyr, with 30,000 French and Bavarians, was attacked and defeated by the Russians, in slightly superior force, under Count Wittgenstein, and forced to evacuate Polotsk.

Ponani (First Mysore War).

Fought November 19, 1780, when a force of British and native troops, about 2,500 strong, under Colonel Macleod, entrenched near Ponani, were attacked before daybreak by a strong force of Mysoris, under Tippu Sahib. The Mysoris were repulsed at the point of the bayonet, with a loss of 1,100. The British loss was 87 only.

Pondicherry.

This place was invested by the British, under Admiral Boscawen, with a fleet of 30 sail, and a land force of 6,000 men, August 30, 1748, and was defended by a French garrison of 4,800, under Dupleix. The siege was grossly mismanaged, and in October Boscawen was forced to withdraw, having lost by sickness or in action nearly a third of his land force. The French lost 250 only during the siege.

Pondicherry (Seven Years' War).

In August, 1760, Colonel Coote, with about 8,000 British and native troops, invested this place, which was held by a French garrison, 3,000 strong, under Lally-Tollendal. Coote was almost immediately superseded by Colonel Monson, but the latter having been wounded, Coote resumed the command. Fire was not opened from the breaching batteries till December 8th, and on the 31st a terrific hurricane wrecked all the land batteries, and drove ashore six ships of the blockading squadron. On January 10, 1761, however, fire was reopened, and the town surrendered on the 15th.

Pondicherry.

Having been surrendered to the French by the Peace of Paris, Pondicherry was again besieged by a British force, under Sir Hector Monro, in conjunction with a squadron of ships, under Sir Edward Vernon, August 8, 1778. It was gallantly defended by the French, under M. Bellecombe, until the middle of October, when after a month's bombardment the place surrendered.

Pondicherry.

A naval action was fought off Pondicherry, August 10, 1778, during the third siege, when a French squadron of 5 ships, under M. Tronjolly, issued from the roads, and offered battle to the 5 ships of Sir Edward Vernon. The French were worsted, and driven back to their anchorage.

Pondicherry.

A second naval action off this place was fought June 20, 1783, between a British squadron of 18 ships of the line, and 12 frigates, under Sir Edward Hughes, and a French squadron, under de Suffren. The battle was undecided, the British ships suffering considerably in masts and rigging, and being unable to chase when de Suffren sheered off. The British loss was 520 killed and wounded.

Pontevert (Gallic War).

Fought 57 B.C., between 50,000 Romans, under CÆsar, and the Suevi, 300,000 strong, under Galba. The Suevi attacked the Roman entrenched camp, but were repulsed with very heavy loss and their army dispersed.

Pont Valain (Hundred Years' War).

Fought 1370, between the French, under du Guesclin, and the English, under Sir Thomas Granson. The French surprised the English camp, but the English rallied, and a severe conflict followed, in which the French attack was at first repulsed. A flank movement of the French, however, threw the English into disorder, and they were defeated with a loss of nearly 10,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, among the latter being Sir Thomas Granson.

Poonah (Second Mahratta War).

Fought October 25, 1802, between the forces of Jeswunt Rao, and the united armies of the Peshwa and Sindhia of Gwalior. After an evenly contested action, Jeswunt Rao got the upper hand, and gained a complete victory, Sindhia fleeing from the field, leaving behind him all his guns and baggage.

Port Arthur (Chino-Japanese War).

This place, held by a Chinese garrison of 9,000 men, was attacked and stormed by the Japanese, after a short bombardment. The Chinese made but a feeble resistance, the assailants losing only 270 killed and wounded.

Port Arthur (Russo-Japanese War).

Fought February 8, 1904, between a Japanese fleet of 16 warships, under Vice-Admiral Togo, and the Russian fleet of 6 battleships and 10 cruisers, under Vice-Admiral Stark, lying at anchor off Port Arthur. The Japanese attacked with torpedo boats, and succeeded in seriously damaging 2 battleships and a cruiser, which were beached at the mouth of the harbour. They then opened a bombardment, in which they injured a third battleship and four more cruisers sustaining no damage to their own ships. The Russians lost 56 killed and wounded, the Japanese, 58, chiefly in the torpedo boats.

On April 13, the Japanese torpedo flotilla attacked the Russian squadron, under Makaroff. The battleship Petropavlovsk was torpedoed and sunk, Makaroff and 700 officers and men being drowned. The battleship Pobieda, and a destroyer were also torpedoed, but managed to reach the harbour. The Japanese suffered no material loss.

After numerous only partially successful attempts to block the fairway, the Japanese, on May 2, sent in a fleet of merchant steamers, accompanied by the torpedo flotilla. Of these, eight succeeded in reaching the outer harbour, and two of them broke the boom guarding the inner harbour, and were blown up by their commanders in the fairway. Several others were sunk near the harbour entrance. Of the 179 officers and men forming the crews of the merchant steamers, only 42 were rescued by the Japanese, though a few survivors fell into the hands of the Russians. This is one of the most daring exploits in the history of naval warfare.

Porte St. Antoine (Wars of the Fronde).

Fought July 2, 1652, between the Royal troops, under Turenne, and 5,000 insurgents, under CondÉ. CondÉ occupied a position round the gate, protected by barricades and fortified houses, where he was attacked by Turenne. The barricades were taken and retaken several times, but at last, after heavy fighting, CondÉ abandoned all idea of penetrating into Paris, and retired. His losses were heavy, especially in officers, among the severely wounded being the Duc de Nemurs, and the Duc de la Rochefoucauld.

Port Hudson (American Civil War).

This fortress was invested, May 25, 1863, by five Federal divisions, under General Banks, and defended by 6,000 Confederates, under General Gardner. An assault on the 27th was repulsed, and a regular siege commenced. After a second unsuccessful assault, on June 14, the garrison, having no hope of relief, surrendered, July 9, having lost 800 men during the siege. The losses of the besiegers were far heavier, the two unsuccessful assaults showing a heavy list of casualties.

Portland (Dutch Wars).

Fought February 18, 1653, between an English fleet of about 70 sail, under Blake, Deane and Monk, and a Dutch fleet of 73 ships, convoying 300 merchantmen, under Van Tromp, de Ruyter and Evetzen. In the early part of the engagement, which was very severely contested, three English ships were carried by the board, and that portion of the fleet which had come into action was nearly overwhelmed. At this crisis, however, the rest of the English ships engaged, the battle was restored, and the captured ships retaken. On the 19th the battle was renewed off the Isle of Wight, 5 Dutch ships being captured or destroyed. On the 20th the Dutch sheered off defeated, having lost during the three days' fighting, 11 men-of-war, 60 merchant ships, 1,500 killed and wounded and 700 prisoners. The English losses were also heavy.

Porto Bello (Raids of the Buccaneers).

This Spanish-American fortress was captured in 1665 by 460 Buccaneers, under Morgan. The walls were scaled, and the town sacked, unheard-of cruelties being perpetrated by the Filibusters.

Porto Bello (War of the Austrian Succession).

This place was captured from the Spaniards, November 21, 1740, by a British fleet of 6 ships, under Admiral Vernon. The British loss was trifling.

Porto Novo (First Mysore War).

Fought July 1, 1781, between 8,500 British troops, under Sir Eyre Coote, and about 65,000 Mysoris, under Hyder Ali. Hyder occupied a strongly entrenched camp, blocking the British advance upon Cuddalore. Here he was attacked by Coote, and after a day's hard fighting the position was stormed, and Hyder forced to retreat. The British lost 306 only, while the Mysoris are computed to have lost 10,000.

Porto Praya Bay.

Fought April 16, 1781, when Commodore Johnstone, in command of a British squadron of 5 ships of the line and 5 frigates, repulsed a determined attack of a French squadron of 11 sail, under de Suffren. The loss in the British squadron amounted to 36 killed and 147 wounded.

Port Republic (American Civil War).

Fought June 9, 1862, between the Federals, 12,000 strong, under General Shields, and an equal force of Confederates, under General Jackson. The Federals were completely defeated, a portion of their army being driven from the field in disorder and with heavy loss.

PotidÆa.

This city was besieged by a force of about 3,000 Athenians, B.C. 432, and was defended by a small garrison of Corinthians, under AristÆus. The town held out until the winter of 429, when the garrison surrendered, and were permitted to go free.

Potosi. (South-American War of Independence).

Fought April, 1825, between, the Bolivians, under Bolivar, and the Spanish Royalists, under Olaneta. The Spaniards were completely defeated.

Prague (Thirty Years' War).

Fought November 8, 1620, when the Imperialists, under Maximilian of Bavaria and Count Tilly, drove 22,000 Bohemians, under Frederick of Bohemia, up to the walls of Prague, and signally defeated them, with a loss of 5,000 men and all their artillery. Frederick was obliged to take refuge in the city, and soon afterwards capitulated. The battle only lasted an hour, and the Imperialists lost no more than 300 men.

Prague (Seven Years' War).

Fought May 6, 1757, between 70,000 Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine, and 60,000 Prussians, under Frederick the Great. The Austrians occupied a very strong position on the Moldau, which was attacked and carried by Frederick, Charles being driven back into Prague with a loss of 8,000 killed and wounded and 9,000 prisoners. Marshal Braun was among the killed. The Prussians lost 13,000, including Marshal Schwerin.

Prairie Grove (American Civil War).

A sanguinary but indecisive action, fought December 7, 1862, between the Confederates, under General Hindman, and the Federals, under General Herron. The losses were about equal.

Preston (Civil War).

Fought August 17, 1648, when Langdale, with 4,000 Royalists, was deserted by the main body of the Scottish invading army, and left to face the attack of about 8,000 Parliamentarians under Cromwell. The Royalists fought desperately for four hours, but were overpowered, and the whole force killed or captured.

Preston (Rebellion of the Fifteen).

Fought November 12, 1715, between 4,000 Jacobites, under General Forster, and a small force of Royal troops, chiefly dragoons, under General Wills. The Jacobites had barricaded the approaches to the town, and held their ground throughout the day, but reinforcements arriving, Wills was able to invest the place completely; and early on the morning of the 14th Forster surrendered. Many of the rebels having left the town on the night of the 12th, the prisoners numbered 1,468. The Jacobite loss in killed and wounded was 42, that of the Royalists about 200.

Prestonpans (Rebellion of the Forty-five).

Fought September 21, 1745, between 2,300 Royal troops, under Sir John Cope, and a slightly superior force of Jacobites, under the Young Pretender. Cope's infantry failed to stand up against the charge of the Highlanders, and fled in confusion, losing heavily in killed and wounded, and 1,600 prisoners, including 70 officers. The Highlanders lost about 140 killed and wounded. This action is also known as the Battle of Gladsmuir.

Primolano (Napoleon's Italian Campaigns).

Fought September 7, 1796, when Napoleon surprised and totally routed the vanguard of Wurmser's army. The Austrians lost over 4,000 killed, wounded and prisoners.

Princeton (American War of Independence).

Fought 1776 between the Americans, under Washington, and the British, under General Gage. The British were defeated, and this victory enabled Washington to regain possession of New Jersey.

Pruth, The (Ottoman Wars).

Fought August 2, 1770, when the Russians, under General Romanzoff, stormed the triple entrenchments held by the main Turkish army, 120,000 strong, under Halil Bey, and drove out the Turks with a loss of 20,000 killed and wounded.

Puente (South American War of Independence).

Fought February 16, 1816, between the Colombian Patriots, under Lorrices, andand the Spanish Royalists, under Morillo. The Royalists gained a complete victory.

Puente de la Reyna (Second Carlist War).

Fought October 6, 1872, between 50,000 Carlists, under Ollo, and about 9,000 Republicans, under Moriones. The Republicans were defeated after hard fighting, and were at last driven in disorder from the field by a bayonet charge. The Carlists lost 113 only; the losses of the Republicans were far heavier.

Pultowa (Russo-Swedish Wars).

Fought July 8, 1709, between the Swedes, 24,000 strong, under Charles XII, and the Russians, 70,000 in number, under Peter the Great. After some successes early in the battle the Swedes were overwhelmed by the Czar's great superiority in artillery, and were defeated with a loss of 9,000 killed and wounded and 6,000 prisoners. Charles with difficulty made his escape from the field by swimming the Borysthenes.

Pultusk (Russo-Swedish Wars).

Fought 1703, between 10,000 Swedes, under Charles XII, and an equal force of Saxons, under Marshal von Stenau. The Saxons made practically no resistance, but fled from the field, losing only 600 killed and 1,000 prisoners.

Pultusk (Campaign(Campaign of Friedland).

Fought December 26, 1806, between 43,000 Russians, under Bennigsen, and 18,000 French, under Lannes. Lannes endeavoured to pierce the Russian left and cut them off from the town, but he did not succeed in getting through, and in this part of the field the action was indecisive. On the left the French did little more than hold their own, but the Russians retired during the night, having lost 3,000 killed and wounded, 2,000 prisoners, and a large number of guns. The French admitted a loss of 1,500 only, but this is probably an understatement, Russian accounts estimating the French losses at 8,000.

Puna (Raids of the Buccaneers).

On April 27, 1687, three Buccaneering vessels, under Captain Davis, engaged two Spanish men-of-war off Puna. The action was entirely one of long-range firing, and lasted till May 3, when the Spanish commander withdrew his ships. In the seven days only three or four Buccaneers were wounded.

Punniar (Gwalior Campaign).

Fought December 29, 1843, between the left wing of Sir Hugh Gough's army, under General Grey, and a force of 12,000 Mahrattas, with 40 guns. The Mahrattas were totally routed.

Pydna (Third Macedonian War).

Fought June 22, 168 B.C., between the Romans, under Æmilius Paulus, and the Macedonians, under Perseus. The Macedonian phalanx attacked the Roman line, and drove them back on their camp, but becoming disordered by the uneven ground, was broken by the legionaries and cut to pieces. The result was a total defeat of the Macedonians, with a loss of 20,000 killed and 11,000 prisoners. The phalanx here fought its last fight and perished to a man.

Pyramids (French Invasion of Egypt).

Fought July 21, 1798, when the Mameluke army, under Murad Bey, endeavoured to arrest Napoleon's march on Cairo. The Mameluke infantry, numbering about 20,000, took no part in the fight, but their cavalry, perhaps at that time the finest in the world, charged the French squares with the utmost gallantry. They were, however, repulsed time after time, with great slaughter, and were eventually driven into the Nile, where the shattered remnants escaped by swimming.

Pyrenees (Peninsular War).

The engagements fought between Wellington's lieutenants and Soult's army, which was endeavouring to relieve San Sebastian, are known as the Battles of the Pyrenees. They include the fighting from July 25 to August 2, 1813, and specially the actions of Roncesvalles, Maya, Santarem and Buenzas. The British loss in these battles amounted to 7,300, while the French lost fully double that number.

Pylos and Sphacteria (Peloponnesian War).

The promontory of Pylos, which is separated by a narrow channel from the island of Sphacteria, was seized and fortified by an Athenian force under Demosthenes, B.C. 425. Here he was besieged by the Spartans under Thrasymelidas, with a land force and a fleet of 43 ships, the crews of which occupied Sphacteria. Demosthenes repulsed an attack on Pylos, and Eurymedon, arriving with 50 Athenian vessels, defeated the Spartan fleet, and blockaded Sphacteria. After a protracted siege, the arrival of reinforcements, under Cleon, enabled the Athenians to land 14,000 men in the island, and the garrison, reduced from 420 to 292, surrendered.