Cabala (Second Carthaginian Invasion of Sicily).

Fought B.C. 379, between the Syracusans under Dionysius, and the Carthaginians under Mago. The latter were totally defeated and Mago slain.

Cabria (Third Mithridatic War).

Fought B.C. 72, between three Roman legions under Lucullus, and the Pontic army under Diophantus and Taxiles. The Pontic cavalry, on which Mithridates chiefly relied, was overwhelmed by Fabius Hadrianus, and the king was driven out of Pontus, which was erected into a Roman province.

Cadesia (Moslem Invasion of Persia).

Fought 636, between 30,000 Moslems under Said, the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, and 120,000 Persians under Rustam. Throughout the first day the Persians, superior in numbers, but far inferior in warlike qualities, sustained the attacks of the Moslems without losing ground, but on the following day Rustam was slain, and his followers, losing heart, were driven headlong from the field, with fearful slaughter. The Moslems lost 7,500 in the battle.

Cadiz.

On April 19, 1587, Sir Francis Drake, with between 30 and 40 English ships, entered Cadiz Bay, and destroyed over 100 Spanish vessels. This exploit Drake described as "Singeing the King of Spain's beard."

Cadsand (Hundred Years' War).

Fought November 10, 1357, between 2,500 English under the Earl of Derby, and 5,000 Flemings in the French service. The Flemings were defeated with a loss of 1,000 men.

Cairo (Ottoman Wars).

Fought 1517, between the Turks under Selim I, and the Egyptians under the Mameluke Sultan, Toomaan Bey. The Egyptians were utterly routed and Cairo taken, 50,000 of the inhabitants being massacredmassacred. Toomaan Bey, the last of the Mamelukes, was hanged before the city gates, and Egypt annexed to the Ottoman Empire.

Cajwah.

Fought January 8, 1659, between the Moguls of Delhi, under Aurungzebe, the Great Mogul, and the army raised by his brother Shuja, in support of Dara, the rightful heir to the throne. After an obstinate conflict, Shuja was driven from the field with heavy losses in men, leaving behind him 114 guns.

Calafat (Crimean War).

This position, strongly entrenched and held by 30,000 Turks under Ahmed Pasha, was invested by the Russians, 40,000 strong, under General Aurep, about the middle of February, 1854. The Russians delivered assault after assault upon the place, without effect, and finally withdrew their forces in May; having suffered a loss from disease, privation, and battle of 20,000 men. The Turks lost 12,000.

Calais (Hundred Years' War).

Siege was laid to this fortress in August 1346 by the English under Edward III. The citizens made a gallant defence, holding out for nearly a year, but at last were forced to surrender August 4, 1347. In the course of the siege, six burgesses offered themselves to the king as ransom for their fellow citizens; but their lives were spared on the intercession of Queen Philippa.

Calais.

The last English stronghold in France was captured by the French under the Duc de Guise, January 8, 1558, after a siege of seven days only. Mary is said to have exclaimed, on hearing the news, that at her death the word "Calais" would be found engraven on her heart.

Calatafimi (Unification of Italy).

Fought May 15, 1860, between Garibaldi's "Thousand Volunteers," with a few thousand Sicilian "Picciotti" and 4,000 Neapolitans under General Landi. The Neapolitans were driven back with heavy loss, and retreated in disorder to Palermo. Garibaldi lost, of his thousand, 18 killed and 128 wounded.

Calcutta.

Siege was laid to the city June 16, 1756, by Sarabjah Daulah, Nawab of Bengal, with a large force. The garrison, consisting of 514 regulars and militia, and 1,000 matchlock men, under Captain Minchin, was quite inadequate to man the defences, and it was decided to abandon the city, remove all non-combatants to the ships, and only defend the fort. The Governor, Mr. Drake, was among those who left the place, and he was accompanied by Captain Minchin, who deserted his post, as did many of the militiamen, with the result that only 190 remained for the defence of the fort. An assault was repulsed, with a loss to the defenders of 95 killed and wounded, but on the 20th the little garrison surrendered. The survivors were thrust into a small room, known as the Black Hole, and used as a soldiers' prison, and out of 146 only 23 survived the horrors of the night.

Caldiero (Napoleon's Italian Campaigns).

Fought November 11, 1796, between the French under Napoleon and the Austrians under Alvinzi. Napoleon attacked the Austrian position, and, for the first time in the campaign, suffered a reverse, being unable to carry the enemy's lines, and eventually, after severe fighting, retiring with a loss of 3,000. Within the week, however, this defeat was avenged by the victory of Arcola.

Caldiero (Napoleon's Italian Campaigns).

On November 30, 1800, MassÉna, with 50,000 French, encountered the Austrians, 80,000 strong, under the Archduke Charles, strongly posted in the village and on the heights of Caldiero. MassÉna attacked and carried the heights, but the village held out until nightfall. During the night the Archduke removed his baggage and artillery, leaving a corps of 5,000 men, under General Hillinger, to protect his retreat, which force was on the following day captured en bloc. The Austrians lost 3,000 killed and wounded, and, including Hillinger's corps, 8,000 prisoners; the French about 4,000 killed and wounded. Thus, though the battle was indecisive, MassÉna gained a considerable strategic victory.

Calicut (Second Mysore War).

Fought December 10, 1790, between 9,000 Mysore troops under Hussein Ali, and a British force of one European and two native regiments under Colonel HartleyHartley. Hussein Ali occupied a strong position in front of Calicut, which was attacked and carried by Hartley with a loss of 52 only. The enemy lost 1,000 killed and wounded, and 2,400 prisoners, including their commander.

Callao (South American War of Independence).

On the night of November 5, 1820, Lord Cochrane, who with three Chilian frigates was blockading the Spaniards in Callao, rowed into the harbour with 240 seamen and marines, and cut out the Spanish frigate Esmeralda from under the 300 guns of the shore batteries. He lost in the enterprise 41 killed and wounded, while the whole of the crew of the Esmeralda, including the Spanish Admiral, was captured or killed.

Callao.

The town was bombarded by the Spanish fleet of 11 warships, May 2, 1866. The Peruvian batteries replied vigorously, and, after severe fighting, drove off the Spanish ships with a loss of 300. The Peruvians lost 1,000 killed and wounded.

Calpulalpam (Mexican Liberal Rising).

Fought December 20, 1860, between the Mexican Government troops under Miramon, and the Liberals under Juarez. The Liberals won a signal victory, which opened the way to Mexico, and brought about the downfall of Miramon's administration.

Fought March 22, 1499, between 6,300 men of the Grisons under Benedict Fontana, and 15,000 Imperialists under Maximilian I. The Swiss carried the Austrian entrenchments, and drove them out with heavy loss.

Cambuskenneth.

See Stirling.

Camden (American War of Independence).

Fought August 16, 1780, between the British under Cornwallis, and the Americans under Gates and de Kalb. Cornwallis had concentrated about 2,000 men at Camden, and though the Americans numbered 5,000, they were of very inferior quality. After a small affair of outposts, the British attacked the American levies, who were unable to face the steady attack of the regulars, and fled with heavy loss. Among the killed was de Kalb. The British lost 312 killed and wounded.

Camelodunum (Second Invasion of Britain).

Fought 43, between the Romans under the Emperor Claudius, and the Britons under Caractacus. The Britons were routed, and Camelodunum, Caractacus' capital, taken.

Camerinum (Third Samnite War).

Fought B.C. 298, between two Roman legions under Lucius Scipio, and the Samnites under Gellius Equatius, aided by a force of Gauls. Scipio, who had been stationed near Camerinum to watch the pass through which the Gauls were expected to cross the Apennines, was unable to prevent the junction of the two armies, and was totally defeated, one of his legions being cut to pieces.

Campaldino (Guelfs and Ghibellines).

Fought June 11, 1289, between the Guelfs of Florence and the Ghibellines who had been expelled from the city. The latter were utterly routed, and this defeat put an end to their power in Florence. The battle is notable for the presence of Dante in the ranks of the victors.

Campen (Seven Years' War).

Fought October 18, 1759, between the Prussians under the Prince of Brunswick, and the French under General de Castries, when the Prussians were defeated with a loss of 1,600 men.

Campo Santo (War of the Austrian Succession).

Fought February 8, 1743, between the Spaniards under Mortemar, and the Imperialists under Count Traum. Mortemar was endeavouring to effect a junction with the army of the Prince de Conti, and though the action was undecided, its results were in favour of the Imperialists, who prevented the two armies from joining hands.

Campus Castorum (Revolt of Vitellius).

Fought in 69 between the revolted legionaries, 70,000 strong, under Valens and CÆcina, and the army of the Emperor Otho under Suetonius Paulinus. The Imperial troops gained some advantage, but Suetonius did not consider himself strong enough to follow it up, and was relieved of his command by Otho.

Camperdown (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought between the British fleet, 16 line-of-battleline-of-battle ships, under Admiral Duncan, and the Dutch, in equal force, under Admiral de Winter, October 11, 1797. The Dutch fleet was on its way to co-operate with the French in a landing in Ireland, and was intercepted by Duncan, who at once gave battle. The British fleet, in two lines, broke through the Dutch line, and, in the general action which followed, captured eight ships, including the flagship, the Vrijheid. The British lost 1,040 killed and wounded, the Dutch 1,160 and 6,000 prisoners.

Candia (Candian War).

Siege was laid to this place by the Turks under Jussuf, the Capitan Pasha, in 1648, and was defended by a small garrison of Venetians, under Luigi Moncenigo. So vigorous was the defence that the Turks lost 20,000 men in the first six months of the siege. The siege lasted over twenty years, the place being from time to time revictualled and reinforced by the Venetians and the French, but it was finally surrendered by Morosini, September 27, 1669.

Canea (Candian War).

This place was besieged June 24, 1644, by 50,000 Turks under Jussuf, the Capitan Pasha, and defended by a small force of Venetians and Candians, who held out until August 22, repulsing numerous assaults, which cost the Turks 20,000 men.

CannÆ (Second Punic War).

Fought August 2, B.C. 216, between 90,000 Romans under Varro, and about 50,000 Carthaginians under Hannibal. Hannibal, though outnumbered in infantry, was much superior in cavalry. The Romans were drawn up with the sea in their rear, and were attacked and broken by the Carthaginian horse. The infantry followed up the attack, and, flight being impossible, the Romans were slaughtered where they stood, 80,000 falling, including the Consul Æmilius, 25 superior officers, and 80 senators. The Carthaginians lost 6,000.

Cape Bona (Invasion of the Vandals).

Fought 468, between the Roman fleet of 1,100 galleys and transports under Basiliscus, and the fleet of the Vandals under Genseric. The Romans were lying at anchor, having landed their troops, and Genseric, taking advantage of a favourable wind, sent in a fleet of fireships, following them up by a determined attack. More than half the Roman ships were destroyed, Basiliscus escaping with difficulty.

Cape Finisterre (War of the Austrian Succession).

Fought May 3, 1747, between a British fleet of 16 sail under Admiral Anson, and a French fleet of 38 sail under Admiral de la JonquiÈre. The French were completely defeated, losing 10 ships and nearly 3,000 prisoners.

Cape Finisterre (War of the Austrian Succession).

Fought October 14, 1747, when a British fleet of 14 ships under Admiral Hawke attacked a French fleet of 9 battleships under Admiral de Letendeur. The French were signally defeated, losing four ships. The British lost 598 killed and wounded.

Cape Finisterre (Napoleonic Wars).

Fought July 22, 1805, between a British fleet of 15 sail of the line under Sir Robert Calder, and the combined French and Spanish fleets returning from the West Indies, under Admiral Villeneuve. The French fleet, consisting of 20 battleships, was attacked by Calder, who captured 2 ships. Fogs and light airs prevented him from following up his advantage next day, for which he was tried by court-martial and most unjustly censured. The British loss was 183 killed and wounded, the French losing 149 killed and 327 wounded.

Cape Henry (American War of Independence).

Fought March 16, 1781, between a British fleet of eight ships of the line and three frigates under Vice-Admiral Arbuthnot, and a French squadron stronger by one frigate. The French were forced to retire, the British losing 30 killed and 64 wounded.

Cape Passaro (War of the Quadruple Alliance).

Fought July 31, 1718, between a British fleet of 21 ships under Sir George Byng, and a Spanish fleet of 29 ships under Don Antonio CastaÑeta. Admiral Byng attacked the Spaniards in the Straits of Messina, and, after a very severe action, in which both sides lost heavily, captured or destroyed no less than 15 of the Spanish ships. CastaÑeta died of wounds received in the action. This battle is also known as the Battle of Messina.

Cape St. Vincent (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought February 14, 1797, between a British fleet of 15 ships of the line and 5 frigates under Sir John Jervis, and a Spanish fleet of 26 sail of the line and 12 frigates. In spite of their superior numbers, the Spaniards were totally defeated, losing 4 ships and over 3,000 prisoners, in addition to heavy losses in killed and wounded. The British lost 74 killed and 227 wounded. For this signal victory, Jervis was created Lord St. Vincent.

Caprysema (First Messenian War).

Fought B.C. 743, between the Spartans and Corinthians, and the Messenians with their allies from other Peloponnesian states under Cristomenes. The Spartans were routed, and, but for the eloquence of Tyrtacus, would have abandoned the struggle.

Capua (Second Punic War).

This place was besieged in the autumn of B.C. 212, by 60,000 Romans under Q. Fulvius and Appius Claudius. The Romans formed a double wall of circumvallation round the city, and, early in the winter, their defences were attacked by the garrison from within and Hannibal from without, but with no success. Hannibal then attempted to draw the besiegers from their position by marching upon Rome, but only a small portion of the besieging force followed him. It being thus found impossible to relieve the city, it shortly afterwards surrendered.

Carabobo (South American War of Independence).

Fought June 24, 1821, between the Colombian patriots, 8,000 strong, under Bolivar, and the Spanish Royalists, about 4,000 in number, under La Torre. The Royalists were utterly routed, barely 400 reaching Porto Cabello. This battle determined the independence of Colombia.

Caracha (South American War of Independence).

Fought 1813, between the Colombian Patriots under Bolivar and the Spanish Royalists, Bolivar gaining a complete victory.

Caraguatay (Paraguayan War).

Fought August 1869, between the Paraguayans under Lopez, and the Brazilians under the Comte d'Eu. After a stubborn engagement the Brazilians were victorious.

Carbisdale (Civil War).

Fought April 27, 1650, between the Royalists of Orkney, 1,000 strong, with 500 Swedish mercenaries, and a small Parliamentary force under Colonel Strachan. Montrose, who commanded the Royalists, saw his troops broken by the Parliamentary horse, only the Swedes offering any serious resistance. The Royalists lost 396 killed and wounded and over 400 prisoners, while Strachan only had lost 2 wounded. This was Montrose's last fight, and he was soon afterwards captured.

CarÉnage Bay (American War of Independence).

Fought 1778, between the French under the Comte d'Estaing, and the English under Admiral Barrington and General Meadows. After a severe encounter, the French were defeated, and the British took possession of the island of St. Lucia.

Carigat.

See Arikera.

Carlisle (Rebellion of the Forty-five).

This city was besieged by the Jacobites under the Young Pretender, November 9, 1745, and was defended by the Cumberland and Westmoreland Militia, with small force of regulars, under Colonel Durand. The besiegers opened fire on the 13th, and on the evening of the 14th, under pressure of the inhabitants, Durand surrendered.

Carnoul (Persian Invasion of India).

Fought 1739, between the Persians under Nadir Shah, and the Moguls under the Emperor Mohammed Shah and his Grand Vizier, Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Persian veterans completely defeated the raw Mogul levies, and Nadir Shah shortly afterwards occupied and sacked Delhi, carrying off, it is said, jewels and coin to the value of thirty millions sterling.

Carpi (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought July 1701, between the Imperialists under Prince Eugene, and the French army in Lombardy, under Marshal Catinat. The French were signally defeated, and, in consequence, Catinat was recalled from the command.

CarrhÆ (Parthian War).

Fought B.C. 53, between the Romans, 52,000 strong, under Publius Crassus, and the Parthians under Sillaces. The Parthians, who were entirely cavalry, adopted their usual tactics of retiring and drawing their foes in pursuit. As the heavily armed legionaries became strung out across the plain, they turned upon them and cut them down in detail. Of the division, 6,000 strong, which actually came into action, 500 were made prisoners, and the rest, including Crassus, slain.

Carrical (Seven Years' War).

An action was fought off this place August 2, 1758, between a British squadron under Admiral Pococke, and the French under Comte d'AchÉ. After a severe engagement, the French fleet drew off, but the English pursuit, owing to damaged rigging, was ineffectual, and d'AchÉ reached Pondicherry without the loss of a ship.

Carthage (Third Punic War).

In B.C. 152 siege was laid to this city by a Roman consular army under Manius Manilius, aided by a fleet under L. Censorinus. The Carthaginian army under Hasdrubal was encamped outside the walls, and greatly hindered the operations of the Romans, who would have made little progress but for the efforts of Scipio Æmilianus, then a military tribune. In B.C. 148, Scipio was made consul, and appointed to the command, and he succeeded in completely blockading the city, which, after an obstinate resistance lasting six years, was captured B.C. 146 and razed to the ground.

Carthage (Invasion of the Vandals).

Fought September 14, 533, between the Vandals under Gelimer, about 160,000 strong, and the Romans under Belisarius, far inferior in numbers. Gelimer divided his army into three, of which he led one portion to attack the main body of the Romans. The action was precipitated, however, by the hasty attack by Ammatas of the vanguard, wherein he was routed with heavy loss. Gelimer then fell upon the pursuing Romans, but Belisarius coming up, the Vandals were put to flight, and the Romans gained a complete victory. On the following day Carthage opened her gates to the victors.

Carthagena (War of the Austrian Succession).

This port was blockaded March 9, 1741, by a British fleet under Admiral Vernon. An unsuccessful attack was made upon the forts, and eventually Vernon, having lost 3,000 men during the operations, withdrew April 9.

Casal (Wars of Louis XIV).

Fought April 1640, between the French, 10,000 strong, under Harcourt, and the Spaniards, numbering 20,000, who were besieging Casal. Harcourt pierced the Spanish lines and totally defeated them, with a loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, 800 prisoners, and 18 guns.

Casilinum (Second Frank Invasion of Italy).

Fought 554, between 18,000 Imperial troops under Narses, and the Franks and Alemanni, 30,000 strong, under Buccelin. The Romans won a signal victory, and are said by the chroniclers to have exterminated the invading army with a loss to themselves of 80 only. Buccelin fell in the battle.

Cassano (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought August 16, 1705, between the French under the Duc de VendÔme, with 35 battalions and 45 squadrons, and the Imperialists under Prince Eugene. The Prince, with greatly inferior numbers, attacked the French in a strong position, which he succeeded in carrying as the night fell. The Imperialists lost about 4,000; the French about 5,000.

Castalla (Peninsular War).

Fought April 13, 1813, between 17,000 allied troops under Sir John Murray, and 15,000 French under Suchet. The French were defeated. The allies lost 600 killed and wounded; the French, according to Suchet, 800, according to Murray, 3,000, but the former figure is probably nearer to the truth.

Castelfidardo (Unification of Italy).

Fought September 18, 1860, between the Papal troops under General La MoriciÈre, about 8,000 strong, and the Sardinians, 40,000 strong, under General Cialdini. The Papal army was totally routed, and, after the action, La MoriciÈre was only able to assemble about 300 infantry, with which remnant he made his way to Ancona.

Castelnaudary.

Fought September 1, 1632, between the troops of Louis XIII and the rebel nobles under the Duc de Montmorenci, son of the Constable. The rebels were utterly routed, and Montmorenci taken prisoner.

Castiglione (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought September 8, 1706, between the Imperialists under the Prince of Hesse, and the French under General de Medavi. The Prince was besieging Castiglione, when he was attacked by the French, and totally defeated, with a loss of 8,000 killed, wounded, and missing.

Castiglione (Napoleon's Italian Campaigns).

Fought August 3, 1796, between the French under Napoleon, and the Imperialists under Wurmser. Napoleon, with 25,000 men, advanced upon Lonato, while Augereau moved upon Castiglione. Lonato was carried by assault, and the Austrian army cut in two. One part under General Bazalitch effected a retreat to the Mincio, but the other section was cut up by a French division under Guyeaux and Junot's dragoons, near Salo, losing 3,000 prisoners and 20 guns.

In the portion of the action fought near Castiglione, the Austrians were defeated with a loss of 2,000 men, after a desperate encounter, and driven back upon Mantua. On the 4th, Napoleon at Lonato, with only 12,000 men, was summoned to surrender by a portion of Bazalitch's force, 4,000 strong. Napoleon, however, succeeded in making the messenger think that he was in the middle of the main French army, and consequently the whole Austrian detachment laid down their arms.

Castillejos (Moroccan War).

Fought January 1, 1860, when the advance guard of the Spanish army, under General Prim, defeated a strong force of Moors, after severe fighting. The victory opened the road to Tetuan.

Castillon (Hundred Years' War).

This was the last battle of the Hundred Years' War, and was fought July 17, 1453. The English under Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, marched to the relief of Castillon, and attacked the lines of the besiegers, but were taken in flank by a sortie from the French entrenchments and totally defeated, Talbot being slain. On October 19 following, Bordeaux opened her gates to the French.

Catana (Second Carthaginian Invasion of Sicily).

Fought B.C. 387 between 200 Syracusan galleys under Leptines, and a vastly superior Carthaginian fleet. The Syracusans were utterly routed, partly owing to their inferior numbers, but also in part to the bad generalship of Leptines, who dispersed his ships too widely, allowing them to be overwhelmed in detail. The victors at once entered upon the siege of Syracuse.

Caudine Forks (Second Samnite War).

Fought B.C. 322, when four Roman legions, under T. Veturius Calvinus and Spurius Postumus were entrapped by the Sabines under Pontius, in the narrow pass of Caudium. The Romans fought till nightfall, suffering heavy loss, and next day, finding every exit from the pass barred, the survivors surrendered.

Cawnpur (Indian Mutiny).

The Residency of Cawnpur was invested by the mutineers June 6, 1857, and defended by a small garrison until June 24, when the survivors, about 450 in number, surrendered under promise from the Nana Sahib of a safe conduct to Allahabad. They were, however, fired upon as they took to the boats, and only a few escaped. The survivors of this massacre were afterwards murdered in cold blood by order of the Nana Sahib.

Cawnpur (Indian Mutiny).

Fought December 6, 1857, between the British under Sir Colin Campbell, and 25,000 rebels, including the Gwalior contingent. The mutineers were routed at all points, and fled, pursued by the cavalry for 14 miles, suffering heavy loss. Out of 36 guns, 32 were captured. The British lost 99 only.

Cecryphalea (Third Messenian War).

A naval action, fought B.C. 458 between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, in which the latter were victorious.

Cedar Creek (American Civil War).

Fought October 17, 1864, between 10,000 Confederates under General Early, and about 40,000 Federals under General Sheridan. Under cover of a fog, Early turned Sheridan's right, capturing 18 guns, but Sheridan, rallying his broken right wing, totally routed the Confederates, who had been engaged in plundering the captured camp. The Federal losses were the heavier, but Sheridan captured 22 guns, besides retaking the 18 he had lost at the beginning of the action.

Cedar Mountain (American Civil War).

Fought August 9, 1862, between 15,000 Confederates under Jackson, and about 20,000 Federals under General Pope. The strong Confederate position was assailed at 5 p.m., and successive attacks were repulsed until late in the evening, when the fighting ceased. The Federals lost about 2,800 killed, wounded, and missing; the Confederates, 800 or 900.

Cepeda.

Fought October 23, 1859, between the troops of the Argentine Confederation under Urquiza, and those of the State of Buenos Ayres, under Mitre. Urquiza was victorious, and in the following month Buenos Ayres entered the Confederation.

Cephisus.

Fought 1307 between the Catalan "Great Band," 9,500 strong, and the troops of Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, 15,000 in number. The Catalans surrounded their camp with an artificial inundation, into which the Duke's cavalry rode unsuspectingly, and were cut to pieces, de Brienne being amongst the slain.

Cerignola (Neapolitan War).

Fought 1503 between the Spaniards under Gonsalvo de Cordova, and the French under the Duc de Nemours. The French were totally defeated and Nemours slain.

Cerisolles (Wars of Charles V).

Fought 1544, between the French under FranÇois de Bourbon, and the Imperialists under du Gast, the French gaining a complete victory.

Chacabuco (South American War of Independence).

Fought February 12, 1817, between the Chilian patriots under San Martin, and the Spanish royalists. The Chilians won a complete victory.

ChÆronea (Amphictyonic War).

Fought August B.C. 338 between the Macedonians under Philip, and the Athenians and Thebans under Chares and Theagenes respectively. Philip had 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, the latter led by Alexander, then a lad of eighteen; the allies were slightly fewer in number. Philip reinforced his right wing, which was opposed by the Athenians, and sent his heavy cavalry against the Thebans, on the allied right. Their charge broke the Theban ranks, and they then attacked the Athenians in flank and rear. A hopeless rout ensued, the Theban "Sacred Band" dying where they stood. The Athenians lost 6,000 killed and 2,000 prisoners. The Thebans were almost annihilated.

Fought B.C. 86, between the Romans under Sulla, 30,000 strong, and the troops of Pontus, 90,000 in number, under Archelaus. The Romans were completely victorious.

Chalcedon (Third Mithridatic War).

Fought B.C. 74, between the Roman Fleet, under Rutilius Nudo, and that of Pontus. The Romans sallied out of the harbour, but were driven back, and the Pontic fleet then broke the chain protecting the entrance and destroyed the whole of the Roman ships, 70 in number.

Chalgrove Field (Civil War).

A cavalry skirmish fought June 18, 1643, between the Royalists under Prince Rupert, and the Parliamentarians under Hampden, and notable only for the fact that Hampden was killed in the affair.

ChÂlons (Revolt of the Legions of Aquitaine).

Fought 271, between the troops of the Emperor Aurelian, and the revolted legions under Tetricus. Tetricus, who was only a puppet in the hands of his soldiers, concerted measures with Aurelian for their destruction, and so posted his forces as to give the Emperor the advantage, after which he deserted, with a few followers. The revolted legionaries fought desperately, but were cut to pieces.

ChÂlons (Invasion of the Alemanni).

Fought July 366 between the Romans under Jovinus, and the Alemanni under Vadomair. After an obstinate engagement, lasting throughout the day, the Alemanni were routed with a loss of 6,000 killed and 4,000 prisoners. The Romans lost 1,200.

ChÂlons (Invasion of the Huns).

Fought 451 between the Romans and the Visigoths under Actius and Theodoric respectively, and the Huns under Attila. The battle was fought on an open plain, and while the right and centre of the allies withstood Attila's onslaught, the Visigoths on the left made a furious charge, in which Theodoric fell, and totally routed the right of the Huns. Attila then withdrew to his camp, having suffered heavy loss, and prepared to resist the attack of the allies on the following day. Actius, however, did not renew the conflict, and allowed Attila to retreat unmolested.

ChÂlons.

Arising out of a tournament in 1274, in which the life of Edward I was endangered by foul play, a fight in earnest took place between the English and French knights present. The French were worsted, and a considerable number slain. This fight is called the "Little" Battle of ChÂlons.

Champ-Aubert (Allied Invasion of France).

Fought February 10, 1814, when Napoleon with his main army, by an extraordinary forced march through a difficult country, fell upon Blucher's army marching upon Paris, vi ChÂlons. Blucher was advancing in three divisions, and Napoleon attacked the second of these, under Alsusieff, and completely dispersed it, taking 2,000 prisoners and all the guns. On the following day he encountered Sachen, who with 20,000 men formed the advance guard, and defeated him at Montmirail, with a loss of 6,000, forcing him to abandon the main road and retire on ChÂteau Thierry. On the 13th he encountered General d'York, with 30,000 Russians and Prussians at ChÂteau Thierry, driving him out with heavy loss, including 3,000 prisoners, while finally on the 14th he turned on the main body under Blucher himself, who, not being sufficiently strong to face the main French army, was compelled to retire, which he did in good order, after losing 3,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. This flank march is considered one of Napoleon's most brilliant achievements.

Chancellorsville (American Civil War).

Fought May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between 53,000 Confederates under Lee, and 120,000 Federals under Hooker. Lee, though largely outnumbered, detached half his force under Jackson to turn Hooker's right, while he contained the Federals with the rest of his army. Jackson's march was successfully carried out, and on the afternoon of the 2nd he commenced his attack, routing the Federal 11th Corps. This success, however, cost the Confederates dear, for Jackson's staff was mistaken in the dusk for that of a Federal general, and was fired into by a South Carolina regiment, and Jackson mortally wounded. On the 3rd the attack was renewed in front and flank, with further success for the Confederates, while on the 4th the Federals were driven off, and Hooker forced to recross the Rappahannock on the 5th. The Confederates lost about 10,000 men; the Federals about 18,000, including 7,650 prisoners.

Chanda (Third Mahratta War).

This fortress, the chief stronghold of the Rajah of Nagpur, was besieged by a British force under Colonel Adams, May 9, 1818. It was defended by over 3,000 of the Rajah's troops, but after two days' bombardment the place was taken by storm, with small loss to the assailants, while the garrison had 500 killed, including the commandant.

Chandernagore (Seven Years' War).

This place was besieged March 14, 1757, by Clive, with 2,000 Company's troops, and defended by 600 Frenchmen and 300 Sepoys. On the 19th three British ships under Admiral Watson arrived, and on the 24th a joint attack by sea and land resulted in the capture of the place.

Charasiab (Second Afghan War).

Fought October 6, 1879, when Sir Frederick Roberts attacked a force of Afghans and Ghilzais, who were massed on the road by which a convoy was approaching from Zahidabad, under General Macpherson. The enemy was routed and dispersed, and the convoy reached camp safely.

Charenton (War of the Fronde).

Fought February 8, 1649, between the Royal troops, 8,000 strong, under the Great CondÉ, and the forces of the Paris Parliament under ClanleuClanleu. CondÉ gained a complete victory, driving the Frondeurs from all their entrenchments, and forcing them back upon Paris with heavy loss, including 100 officers. Among the slain was Clauleu.

Charleston (American Civil War).

The siege of this place may be considered to have commenced April 6, 1863, on which day the Federal fleet crossed the bar. On the 7th an attack was made upon fort Sumter by nine ironclads under Admiral Dupont, which was repulsed with a loss of 1 ship and the disabling of several others. The defenders lost 2 men only. On July 10th and 11th a land force attacked Fort Wagner, but was repulsed with loss. On the 18th an assault by three brigades under General Seymour was also repulsed with enormous loss; and preparations were then made for a sap. On September 5, after a very heavy bombardment, Fort Wagner proved to be untenable, and, with the works on Morris Island, was abandoned, but the besiegers failed in all their attempts on Fort Sumter, and the inner defences. From this time the siege became a mere blockade of the port, until, on the approach of Sherman's army, the garrison, then 9,000 strong, evacuated the city, February 18, 1865.

ChÂteauguay (Second American War).

Fought 1813, between the Americans, 7,000 strong, under General Hampton, and a force of Canadian Militia, far inferior in numbers, who were strongly posted near ChÂteauguay. The Americans attempted to storm the Canadian lines, but the Canadians made a most gallant defence, and repulsed them with heavy loss.

ChÂteauneuf-Raudon (Hundred Years' War).

This fortress was besieged 1380 by the French under Du Guesclin, and was defended by an English garrison under de Ros. After an obstinate defence the town surrendered, July 4, but the siege was fatal to Du Guesclin, who succumbed to his fatigues and privations.

ChÂteau Thierry.

See Champ-Aubert.

Chattanooga (American Civil War).

Fought November 24 to 27, 1863, between 80,000 Federals under Grant, and the Confederate Army of the West, 40,000 strong, under Bragg. The attack on the Confederate lines commenced on the 27th, the Federals capturing Look Out Mountain, on their extreme left. They advanced unseen through a thick fog, to the upper slopes, and drove out the defenders, whence this action is known as the "Battle above the Clouds." On the following day Bragg's centre was pierced, while the fighting of the 26th and 27th was in the nature of severe rearguard actions. The Federals lost 5,286 killed and wounded, and 330 missing. The Confederates lost fewer in killed and wounded, but they left in the hands of the Federals 6,142 prisoners, 40 guns and 7,000 rifles. Also called the "Battle of Missionary Ridge."

Fought February 8, 1904, between a Japanese squadron of four protected cruisers, convoying transports, under Admiral Uriu, and a Russian cruiser and gunboat which sought to oppose the landing. After a smart action the cruiser was blown up to avoid capture, and the gunboat destroyed, the Russians losing 504 killed and wounded. The Japanese suffered no material damage.

Cheriton (Civil War).

Fought March 29, 1644, when the Royalists under Lord Firth were defeated by the Parliamentarians under Waller. This defeat prevented the threatened Royalist incursion into Kent and Sussex.

ChetatÉ (Crimean War).

Fought January 6 to 9, 1854. On the 6th the advanced Russian post of 6,000 men at ChetatÉ under General Fischbuch was attacked by 6,000 Turks under Ahmed Pasha, and after heavy fighting, in which the Russians lost 3,000 killed and wounded, and many prisoners, and the Turks 1,000, was driven out of the village. On the following days the Russians made desperate attempts to recover the position, General Anrep, on the 9th, bringing up some 20,000 men from Cragova. All their efforts, however, failed, and the three days' fighting cost them a further 2,000 men, the Turks losing about 1,000.

Chevilly (Franco-German War).

Fought September 30, 1870, when a sortie from Paris under General Vinoy was repulsed by the Sixth German Corps under Von TÜmpling, with a loss of 74 officers and 2,046 men. The Germans lost 28 officers and 413 men killed and wounded.

Chevy Chace.

See Otterburn.

Chiari (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought September 1, 1701, between the Imperialists, about 28,000 strong, under Prince Eugene, and the French and Spaniards under the Duke of Savoy. The Prince occupied the small town of Chiari, where he was attacked by the allies, who, after two hours' hard fighting, were repulsed with a loss of nearly 3,000. Owing to the strength of their position, the Imperialists lost 117 only.

Chickahominy (American Civil War).

Fought June 3, 1864, between the Federal Army of the Potomac under Grant, and the Confederate army of Virginia under Lee. Grant attacked the Southerners' entrenchments, with the object of forcing the passage of the Chickahominy, and his first onslaught met with some success, but the Confederates, rallying, drove back their assailants to their original position with heavy loss. All further attempts on Lee's lines failed, and the Federals were finally repulsed with a loss of over 13,000 killed, wounded and missing. The Confederates lost about 6,000.

Chickamauga (American Civil War).

Fought September 19 and 20, 1863, between the Confederate Army of the West under General Bragg, and the Federals under General Rosecrans. On the 19th the Confederates attacked along the whole line and drove back their opponents, cutting them off from the river, and forcing them to bivouac for the night in a waterless country. On the 20th the attack was renewed, and though Bragg's right was repulsed, he was elsewhere successful, and by nightfall Rosecrans was in full retreat. Bragg however, failed to follow up his victory, and allowed Rosecrans to retire on Chattanooga unmolested. The Federals lost 16,351 men and 36 guns; the Confederates about 12,000.

Chillianwallah (Second Sikh War).

Fought January 14, 1849, between the British under Lord Gough, and the Sikhs, 40,000 strong, under Shere Singh. The battle was very evenly contested, and though in the end Lord Gough drove the Sikhs from the field, his own position was so insecure that he was himself compelled to retire after the action.

Chiloe (South American War of Independence).

On January 19, 1826, the small group of islands, held for the Spanish crown by a garrison under Quintanella, was surrendered to a force of Chilians, 4,000 strong, with a small squadron of warships under Freyre.

Chingleput (Seven Years' War).

This fortress, defended by a French garrison of 40 Europeans and 500 native troops, was captured, 1752, by Clive, with a force of about 700 recruits and Sepoys.

Chios (Social War).

Chios having risen against Athenian rule in B.C. 357, a fleet of 60 ships under Chabrias and Chares was sent to reduce it. A force having been landed, a joint attack was made by the fleet and the army, but in attempting to enter the harbour, the galley of Chabrias, which led the way, was surrounded and overpowered, Chabrias falling.falling. The troops were then withdrawn, and the attack abandoned.

Chios.

Fought B.C. 201 between the Macedonian fleet, 48 triremes and some smaller vessels under Philip, and the combined fleets of Rhodes and Pergamus under Theophiliscus and Attalus. Philip was defeated with the loss of half his ships, 3,000 killed and 5,000 prisoners. The allies lost 6 ships and 800 men.

Chiozza (War of Chiozza).

This city, which had been captured by the Genoese from Venice, was besieged by the Venetians under Pisani and defended by Doria, who was killed during the siege. The place made an obstinate resistance, but was forced to surrender June 24, 1380, the Venetians capturing 19 Genoese galleys and 4,000 prisoners. This disaster broke the power of the Genoese Republic for many years.

Chippewa (Second American War).

Fought July 6, 1814, between 4,000 Americans under General Jacob Brown, and 2,400 British, 1,500 being regulars, under General Riall. Riall attacked Brown in a strong position at Chippewa, and was repulsed with considerable loss.

Chitor.

Towards the end of the thirteenth century this fortress was besieged by the Pathans under Ala-ud-Din, and was defended by the Rana, Lakhsman. The first attack was repulsed, though the Rajputs suffered terribly, but at the second attempt the Pathans overpowered the defenders, who were mercilessly put to the sword. All the Rajput women in the place committed suttee, to avoid captivity. Lakhsman Singh and eleven out of his twelve sons fell in the defence.

The second sack of Chitor took place in 1535, when the Rana Bikrmajit made a gallant but unavailing defence against the Gujeratis under Bahadur Shah. Thirteen thousand women were slain by the remnant of the garrison, before they opened the gates, and rushed out to fall fighting. Only one small child of the Royal line escaped the massacre, namely Udai Singh. It was during the reign of this Udai Singh that the third sack took place in 1568, by the Delhi Moguls under Akbar. Udai Singh deserted his capital, which was defended by a garrison of 8,000 Rajputs under Jagmal. The siege was scientifically conducted, and, a breach having been effected, an assault was ordered. A mine, however, was exploded in the breach, killing 500 of the assailants, and the assault was repulsed. Shortly afterwards Jagmal was killed, and a second assault proved successful, the garrison, refusing to surrender, being put to the sword.

Chitral (Chitral Campaign).

On March 3, 1895, the Chitral garrison, consisting of 90 Sikhs and 280 Kashmir Imperial Service troops, with 7 British officers under Captain Campbell, was attacked by a large force of Chitralis and Bajauris under Shere Afzal, the Pretender to the Chitral throne, and Umrar Khan of Bajaur. A sortie was repulsed, with a loss of 58, including 2 British officers, and General Baj Singh, who commanded the Kashmiris, but in spite of a series of attacks, and continual mining operations, the garrison held out until April 18, when it was relieved by Colonel Kelly. One fifth of the garrison was killed or wounded.

Chizai (Hundred Years' War).

Fought July 1372, between the French under Du Guesclin, and the English under Thomas Hampton. Du Guesclin, who was engaged in the siege of Chizai, was attacked by the English, in about equal force to his own, and, after a long and bloody engagement, totally defeated them, and captured the town. The reverse cost Edward III Saintonge and Poitou.

Choczim (Ottoman Wars).

Fought 1769, between the Russians under Galitzin, and the Turks under Mohammed Emin Pasha. The Russians, who were endeavouring to capture Choczim by a coup de main, were met and defeated by the Turks with considerable loss.

The first encounter between the land forces of Russia and Japan, April, 1904, when the advanced guard of the First Japanese Army came in contact with a force of Cossacks under General Mischtchenko, and after a brisk engagement drove them back and occupied Chong-ju. The losses on both sides were small.

Chorillos (Peruvio-Chilian War).

Fought January 13, 1861, between the Chilians under General Baquedano and the Peruvians under General Caceres. The Peruvians were totally defeated with a loss of 9,000 killed and wounded, and 2,000 prisoners. The Chilians lost 800 killed and 2,500 wounded.

Chotusitz (War of the Austrian Succession).

Fought May 17, 1742, between the Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Prussians under Frederick the Great. The numbers were about equal, but the steadiness of the Prussian infantry eventually wore down the Austrians, and they were forced to retreat, though in good order, leaving behind them 18 guns and 12,000 prisoners. The killed and wounded numbered about 7,000 on each side, and the Austrians made 1,000 prisoners. The Prussian cavalry delivered several desperate and unsuccessful charges, and were almost destroyed.

Christianople (Dano-Swedish Wars).

The first military exploit of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, during the war of 1611, made a night assault on this fortress with 1,500 men, and blowing in the gate, captured the place without losing a man.

Chrysopolis (War of the Two Empires).

Fought 323 between 60,000 troops under Licinius, Emperor of the East, and a force detached by Constantine from the siege of Byzantium. Licinius was totally defeated, with a loss of 25,000, and surrendered. The result of this victory was the re-union of the whole of the Roman Empire under one head.

Chrystlers Farm (Second American War).

Fought November 11, 1813, between 800 British under Colonel Morrison, and about 3,000 Americans under General Boyd. The Americans were defeated with a loss of 249 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners. The British lost 203.

Chunar.

This fortress, which was held for Shir Khan Sur, Nawab of Bengal, was besieged by the Moguls under Humayun in 1538. This is the first siege in Indian history which was conducted according to the rules of war, and was notable for the use made of artillery by both sides. After a siege lasting several months, the garrison was forced by famine to surrender.

Cibalis (War of the Two Empires).

Fought October 8, 315, between Constantine the Great, with 20,000 men, and Licinius, Emperor of the East, with 35,000. Constantine was posted in a defile, where he was attacked by Licinius. The attack was repulsed, and Constantine followed the enemy into the open plain, where Licinius rallied his troops, and resumed the offensive. The day seemed lost, when a charge of the right wing, under Constantine in person, once more broke the Illyrians, and Licinius having lost 20,000 of his best troops, abandoned his camp during the night and retreated to Sirmium.

Ciudad Rodrigo (Peninsular War).

This town was invested by Wellington January 8, 1812, and carried by assault twelve days later. The besiegers lost during the siege 1,290 killed and wounded, of whom 710, including Generals Craufurd and Mackinnon, fell in the storm. The French lost 300 killed and wounded, 1,500 prisoners, and 150 guns.

Ciuna (Second Samnite War).

Fought B.C. 315, between the Romans under Caius MÆnius and the Samnites under Pontius. The Romans gained a signal victory.

Civitella (Norman Invasion of Italy).Italy).

Fought 1033, when 3,000 Normans under Robert Guiscard assailed and totally routed a miscellaneous force of Germans and Italians under Pope Leo IX. Only the Germans offered any serious resistance, but they were cut down to a man, and the Pope was overtaken in his flight and captured.

Clissau (Swedo-Polish Wars).

Fought July 13, 1702, between the Swedes, 12,000 strong, under Charles XII, and 24,000 Poles and Saxons under Frederick Augustus. The Saxons fought gallantly, but the Poles fled at the first onslaught, and in the end the Swedes gained a complete victory. Among those who fell was the Duke of Holstein, commanding the Swedish cavalry.

Clontarf (Norse Invasion of Ireland).

Fought April 24, 1014, when the Scandinavian invaders were totally routed by the Irish of Munster, Connaught, Ulster and Meath, under Brian Boru. The Norsemen are said to have lost 6,000 men. Brian Boru and his son fell in the battle.

Clusium (Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul).

Fought B.C. 225, when the Gauls utterly routed a Roman army with a loss said to have amounted to 50,000 men.

Cnidus.

Fought B.C. 394 between 120 Spartan triremes under Pisander and a largely superior Persian fleet under Pharnabazus, and Conon the Athenian. Pisander was defeated and slain, and his fleet destroyed. Persia thus re-established her power in the Greek cities of Asia, and the maritime power of Sparta was destroyed.

Cockerel (Hundred Years' War).

Fought May, 1364, between the Navarrese under Jean de Grailli, aided by a force of English mercenaries under John Joel, and the French, 10,000 strong, under Bertrand du Guesclin. Du Guesclin, who was executing a strategic retreat, was attacked by the English, who were surrounded and overpowered, Joel falling. De Grailli came to their aid, but was also overwhelmed and made prisoner, and the Navarrese, deprived of their leaders, laid down their arms.

Colenso (Second Boer War).

Fought December 15, 1899, being the first action in Sir Redvers Buller's campaign for the relief of Ladysmith. Buller attempted to carry by a frontal attack the Boer position on the opposite side of the Tugela, and notwithstanding the gallantry of the troops, was compelled to retire, with a loss of 71 officers and 1,055 rank and file. Of this total the Irish Brigade lost about half. The Boers captured 10 guns.

Colline Gate (Civil War of Marius and Sulla).

Fought B.C. 82 between the adherents of Sulla, and the Roman democrats and Samnites under Pontius, outside the walls of Rome. The battle was obstinately contested, but, after a fight lasting throughout the night, the insurgents were routed, and 4,000 prisoners taken. This victory of the aristocratic party ended the civil war.

Colombey (Franco-German War).

Fought August 11, 1870, between the retiring French army, and the advance guard of the First German Army Corps under von Steinmetz. The French maintained most of their positions, but two of their divisions were overthrown, and Bazaine's retreat on Verdun was seriously delayed. The French lost about 7,000; the Germans 222 officers and 5,000 men.

Colombo (Wars of the French Revolution).

This town was captured from the Dutch in 1796, by a squadron of four British warships, and a small force of troops under Admiral Peter Rainier and Colonel Stuart.

Concha Rayada (South American War of Independence).

Fought February 1818, between the Spanish Royalists, 5,000 strong, under General Osorio, and the Chilians and Colombians under San Martin. The Spaniards gained a complete victory.

Concon (Chilian Civil War).

Fought August 21, 1891, between 10,000 Congressists under General del Canto, and 11,000 Balmacedists under General Barbosa. Aided by the fire of three warships, the Congressists, who had landed unopposed on the 20th, stormed the entrenchments of the Balmacedists, and drove them out with a loss of 1,648 killed and wounded, and 1,500 prisoners. The victors lost 869.

Condorcanqui.

See Ayacucho.

Constantine (Conquest of Algeria).

This fortified city in Eastern Algeria, which, under Hadji Ahmad, had held out for six years against French rule, was invested by the French, 7,000 strong, under Marshal Clausel, in the autumn of 1836. Having no breaching pieces, Clausel essayed an assault, but was repulsed with a loss of 2,000 men, and abandoned the siege. In the following year General DamrÉmont sat down before Constantine October 6, with 10,000 men, and on the 12th, a breach having been effected, an assault was on the point of taking place, when DamrÉmont was killed. His successor, General ValÉe, however, took the place by storm on the following day.

Constantinople (Moslem Invasion of Europe).

This city was besieged in 668, by the Saracens under Sophian, the lieutenant of the Caliph Moawiyeh. The Moslem fleet passed the Hellespont unopposed, but their attack upon the city was met with a most determined resistance. After keeping the field from April to September, Sophian retired into winter quarters, but renewed active operations during the following and five succeeding summers, without success, until, in 675, he finally abandoned the siege, having lost in its progress over 30,000 men.

In 716, the Saracens again laid siege to the city, with 120,000 men under Moslemeh, brother of the Caliph Solyman. A fleet of 1,800 sail co-operated with the land forces, but was destroyed by the Greek fire ships, and thus obtaining the command of the sea, the citizens were relieved from all fear of famine, and repulsed all Moslemeh's assaults. After a siege of 13 months, the Saracens withdrew, after a defeat at the hands of a Bulgarian relieving army, in which they lost 22,000 men.

Constantinople (Fourth Crusade).

The city was besieged July 7, 1203, by the French and Venetian Crusaders under Count Thibaut de Champagne. After a feeble defence, it was surrendered July 18, by the Usurper, Alexius, and occupied by the Crusaders, who restored Isaac Angelus to the throne, and withdrew.

In January 1204 the Crusaders again laid siege to Constantinople, and at the end of three months, in the course of which Isaac Angelus died, and Mourzoufle assumed the purple, they stormed and pillaged the city. Baldwin was then proclaimed first Latin Emperor of the East.

On July 25, 1261, Constantinople was taken by surprise by the troops of the Greek Emperor, Michael PalÆologus, under his lieutenant, Alexius Strategopulus. The Latin Emperor, Baldwin II, made no attempt at resistance, but escaped to the Venetian galleys, and the restoration of the Greek Empire was accomplished without opposition.

Constantinople.

A naval action fought February 13, 1352, between 64 Genoese galleys under Doria, and 75 Greek and Venetian galleys under Pisani. The Genoese were victorious, taking or sinking 26 galleys, and forcing Pisani to retire into the fortified harbour. The Genoese lost 13 galleys.

Constantinople (Ottoman Invasion of Europe).

On June 10, 1422, Amurath II, with 200,000 Turks, laid siege to the city, which was defended by the Greek garrison under the Emperor Manuel. After a siege of two months, in which the Turks lost heavily in their numerous assaults, and in the defenders' sallies, Amurath, Amurath was called away to Boursa by a domestic revolt, and raised the siege.

On April 6, 1453, the Turks again laid siege to Constantinople with 258,000 men under Mohammed II. The garrison, consisting of 5,000 Greeks and 2,000 foreigners, though short of ammunition, made a gallant defence, but were overpowered by numbers in a general assault on May 25, and the city was captured. Constantine PalÆologus, the last Emperor of the East, was killed by an unknown hand, in the tumult which followed the storming of the ramparts.

Copenhagen (Napoleonic Wars).

Fought April 2, 1801, between the British fleet of 20 sail of the line, besides frigates, under Admirals Hyde Parker and Nelson, and the Danish fleet of 10 line-of-battle shipsline-of-battle ships, aided by the shore batteries. Nelson attacked with 12 ships, Parker remaining in reserve, but three of Nelson's vessels running aground, he met the Danish line with 9 only. The Danes offered a strenuous resistance, and Parker hoisted the signal to retire, but Nelson put the telescope to his blind eye, and refused to see the signal. The action continued until the Danish fire was silenced. The British lost 1,200 men, and had six vessels seriously damaged. The Danes had one ship destroyed, and the rest of their fleet completely disabled. The result of this victory was the dissolution of the league of the Northern Powers.

Copenhagen (Napoleonic Wars).

The city was captured September 5, 1807, by 20,000 British troops under Lord Cathcart, after a four days' bombardment of the forts and citadel by 27 ships of the line. The Danish fleet of 18 sail of the line, which was surrendered, would otherwise, under a secret clause of the Treaty of Tilsit, have been placed at the disposal of Napoleon.

Copratus, The (Wars of Alexander's Successors).

Fought B.C. 316, between the Macedonians under Antigonus, and the Asiatics under Eumenes. Each army was about 30,000 strong, and Eumenes fell upon the Macedonians as they were crossing the Copratus, and signally defeated them, though Antigonus was able to retreat in good order.

Cordova (Moorish Empire in Spain).

Fought August 1010, between the Berbers under Sulaiman, aided by the Spaniards under Sancho, Count of Castile, and the Moors of Cordova under Almudy. Almudy marched out of Cordova to meet the Berbers, but was utterly routed, with a loss of 20,000, including most of his principal Emirs.

Corinth (Peloponnesian War).

Fought B.C. 429, between 47 Peloponnesian ships under Cnemus, and 20 Athenian triremes under Phormio. Phormio, who was blockading the Gulf of Corinth, allowed Cnemus to pass into the open sea, and when disordered by the heavy weather prevailing, he attacked and completely defeated the Peloponnesians, capturing 12 ships.

Corinth (Corinthian War).

Fought B.C. 394 between 14,000 Spartans, and 26,000 Athenians, Corinthians, Thebans and Argives. The allies were defeated, losing twice as many men as their opponents, but the Spartans, in spite of their victory, were obliged to retire, leaving the Isthmus in their possession.

Corinth (American Civil War).

Fought October 3 and 4, 1862, between the Confederates under Van Dorn, and the Federals under Rosecrans. Rosecrans was strongly entrenched at Corinth, where he was attacked on the 3rd, and driven into his inner lines. The attack was renewed on the 4th, but an attempt to storm the entrenchments was repulsed, and the Federals, taking the offensive against the disordered Southerners, drove them from the field with a loss of 6,423 killed and wounded, and 2,248 prisoners. The Federals lost 2,359 killed, wounded, and missing.

Coroneia (Boeotian Wars).

Fought B.C. 447, when an Athenian army under Tolmides, which had entered Boeotia to reduce certain of the Boeotian towns which had thrown off their allegiance to Athens, was encountered and totally defeated by a largely superior force of Boeotians. Almost all the surviving Athenians were captured, and, to secure their release, Athens resigned her claims over Boeotia.

Coroneia (Corinthian War).

Fought August B.C. 394, between the Athenians, Argives, Thebans, and Corinthians, and the Spartans under Agesilaus. The Spartan right defeated the Argives, but their left fled before the Thebans, who then attacked the Spartan right, but, after a desperate struggle, were defeated. The Spartans, however, had suffered so severely that Agesilaus was compelled to evacuate Boeotia.

Corrichie (Huntly's Rebellion).

Fought 1562, between the troops of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Scottish rebels under the Earl of Huntly. The rebels, whose forces had been greatly reduced by desertions, were totally defeated, and Huntly slain.

Corte Nuova (Guelfs and Ghibellines).

Fought 1237, between the Imperialists under Frederick II, and the Lombard Guelfs under the leadership of the Milanese. Frederick won a signal victory, capturing the carroccio of Milan.

Corumba (Paraguayan War).

Fought 1877, between the Paraguayans and a Brazilian army corps which was endeavouring to enter Paraguay from the north-east. The Brazilians retired in disorder, being pursued for many miles, and suffering heavy loss. The battle is remarkable for the presence in the Paraguayan army of a corps of Amazons led by Eliza Lynch.

CoruÑa (Peninsular War).

Fought January 16, 1809, between 14,000 British under Sir John Moore, and 20,000 French under Soult, who was endeavouring to prevent the British from embarking. The French attacks were uniformly repulsed, and the troops safely embarked, with a loss of about 800, including Sir John Moore. The French lost about 2,000.

Compedion (Wars of Alexander's Successors).

Fought B.C. 281 between the Macedonians under Lysimachus, and the Syrians under Seleucus. The two generals met in single combat, in front of their armies, and SeleucusSeleucus, though 81 years of age, defeated and slew his ancient comrade in arms. The two armies then engaged, and the Syrians gained a complete victory.

Coulmiers (Franco-German War).

Fought November 9, 1870, between 20,000 Germans under Von der Tann, and a largely superior French force under General d'Aurelle de Paladines. After maintaining their position for the greater part of the day, the Germans were driven back, having lost 576 killed and wounded, 800 prisoners, an ammunition column and 2 guns. The French losses were about 1,500.

Courtrai (Flemish War).

Fought 1302, between the French under Robert d'Artois, and the Flemings under Guy de Namur. The French were utterly routed, and so great was the carnage among the French nobility and knighthood, that after the battle 4,000, some say 7,000, gilt spurs, were hung up as trophies in Courtrai cathedral. From this circumstance this battle is commonly known as the Battle of the Spurs.

Coutras (Eighth Civil War).

Fought 1587 between the Huguenots under Henry of Navarre (Henri IV) and the Catholics under the Duc de Joyeuse. The Catholic army was annihilated, Joyeuse being amongst the slain.

Covelong (Seven Years' War).

This fortress, held by a French garrison of 350, was captured by Clive in 1752, after a few days' siege. Clive had only 200 European recruits and 500 Sepoys, and had great difficulty in getting his men to face the French fire. Having, however, managed to erect a battery which commanded the place, the Governor surrendered. On the following day Clive ambushed and defeated, with a loss of 100 men, a relieving force approaching from Chingleput.

Coverypank (Seven Years' War).War).

Fought February 1752, between the British, 380 Europeans, and 1,300 Sepoys, under Clive, and the troops of Rajah Sahib, with 400 Frenchmen, in all about 5,000. Clive's advance guard marched into an ambush, and with difficulty held its ground against the fire of 9 guns. Meanwhile Clive passed round the enemy's position, and attacked them vigorously in the rear, whereupon they fled in panic. Most of the Frenchmen and the guns were captured.

Craonne (Allied Invasion of France).

Fought March 7, 1814, between 55,000 French under Napoleon, and about 90,000 of the allies under Blucher. Blucher occupied a very strong position on the heights about Craonne, which was attacked and carried by Victor's and Ney's corps at the point of the bayonet. The French lost 9,000, the allies 7,000 killed and wounded.

Cravant (Hundred Years' War).

Fought July 31, 1423. A force of Armagnacs under Buchan, Constable of France, with some Scottish mercenaries under Sir John Stewart, was advancing upon Craonne, the capture of which town would secure Charles VII's communications with Champagne. They were attacked by the Burgundians and English under the Earl of Salisbury, and defeated with heavy loss. Both Buchan and Stewart were captured.

Crayford (Jutish Invasion).

Fought 456 between the Jutes under Hengest, and the Britons under Vortigern. The Britons were defeated, and driven out of Kent.

Crefeld (Seven Years' War).

Fought June 23, 1758, between 32,000 Hanoverians, Hessians and Brunswickers under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and about 50,000 French under the Comte de Clermont. The French were totally defeated, with heavy loss.

Cremona (Second Gallic Invasion).

Fought B.C. 198, when the Romans defeated with heavy slaughter an invading army of Gauls under Hamilcar, a Carthaginian. Hamilcar was slain.

Cremona (Revolt of Vitellius).

Fought December 69, between the Vitellians, and the Flavians under Antonius Primus, 40,000 strong. The Vitellians, who were without a leader, having deposed their general, CÆcina, were attacked in their camp, and after a hard fight, which lasted throughout the night, were totally routed. The victors sacked and burnt Cremona.

Cremona (War of the Spanish Succession).

This city, held by a French garrison, was surprised by the Imperialists under Prince Eugene, February 1, 1702. The town was entered without the alarm being given, and many important officers, including Marshal Villeroy, were made prisoners. A portion of the garrison, however, still held out in the citadel, and made Eugene's tenure of the town precarious, and finally, on the approach of a relieving force under the Prince de Vaudemont, he was forced to withdraw his troops. The garrison lost 1,000 killed.

Cressy (Hundred Years' War).

Fought August 26, 1346, when a very inferior force of English under Edward III defeated the French under Philip VI. The battle is notable as being the first in which the English army was mainly composed of infantry, and as proving the powerlessness of mounted men against the English archers. The French losses were 11 princes, 1,200 knights, and 30,000 of lesser ranks, a total exceeding the whole English force.

Fought June B.C. 340, between 10,000 Sicilians under Timoleon, and 70,000 Carthaginians, including the "Sacred Band" of 2,500 Carthaginian citizens of good birth, under Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. Timoleon attacked the Carthaginians while they were crossing the Crimisus, and routed and dispersed the Sacred Band before the main army had crossed. A heavy storm of rain in the faces of the Carthaginians came to the aid of the Sicilians, and after a severe struggle, they gained a signal victory, and the Carthaginians fled, leaving 10,000 dead in the field, and 15,000 prisoners. Many more were drowned in their endeavour to recross the river.

Cronion (Second Carthaginian Invasion of Sicily).

Fought B.C. 379 between the Syracusans under Dionysius, and the Carthaginians. The Syracusans were defeated, with enormous loss, and Dionysius forced to accept unfavourable terms of peace.

Cropredy Bridge (Civil War).

Fought June 29, 1644, between the Royalists under Charles I, and a detachment of the Parliamentary army under Sir William Waller. Waller crossed the Cherwell near Banbury with the object of taking the Royalists in the rear, but was repulsed with considerable loss.

Crosskeys (American Civil War).

A rearguard action, fought June 8, 1862, between 8,000 Confederates under Ewell, and about 15,000 Federals under Tremont. Ewell was given the task of holding Tremont in check, while General Jackson marched to meet the Federals under Shields, who were endeavouring to effect a junction with Tremont. The Confederates held their ground, beating back their opponents with a loss of 664 killed and wounded. After the action, Ewell crossed the river, burning the bridge behind him, and Jackson was enabled to fall upon Shields with his whole force.

Crotona.

Fought 983, between the Germans under Otho II, and the Greeks, aided by 40,000 Saracens under the Caliph of Egypt. After an obstinate engagement, Otho was totally defeated, losing many of his bravest knights.

Crotoye (Hundred Years' War).

Fought 1347, during the siege of Calais by Edward III. The French fleet attempted to relieve the town, but was defeated and driven off with heavy loss by the English fleet.

Cuaspad.

Fought December 6, 1862, between the Ecuadorians under Flores, 6,000 strong, and 4,000 Colombians under Mosquera. The Ecuadorians were utterly routed, losing 1,500 killed and wounded, 2,000 prisoners, and all their guns.

Cuddalore.

Fought June 13, 1783, when a portion of the British force under General Stewart attacked the French entrenchments in front of Cuddalore, and after hard fighting, drove the French into the town with a loss of 700 men and 13 guns. The British lost 1,013 killed and wounded.

Cuddalore.

A naval action was fought off Cuddalore June 30, 1783, between a British squadron of 17 sail under Sir Edward Hughes, and 12 French ships under Suffren. The French, as usual, declined to come to close quarters, and after a long range action, in which Hughes lost 532 men, fighting was suspended at nightfall, leaving Suffren in possession of the roads, and able to prevent the complete investment of Cuddalore.

Culloden (Rebellion of the Forty-five).

Fought April 16, 1746, between the Royal troops under the Duke of Cumberland, and the Highlanders under the Young Pretender. The rebels were completely routed by the English regulars, and in addition to heavy loss in the field, suffered terribly in the pursuit, being ruthlessly cut down by the cavalry. Cumberland's cruelty on this occasion earned for him the title of "Butcher." The Royalists lost 309 killed and wounded. This battle is sometimes called the Battle of Drummossie Moor.

Cunaxa (Expedition of Cyrus the Younger).

Fought B.C. 401 between the Persians, about 400,000 strong, under Artaxerxes, and the army of his brother Cyrus, consisting of 100,000 Orientals, with 14,000 Greek mercenaries, under Clearchus. The Greeks on the right wing drove back the Persian left, and Cyrus in the centre broke the king's body-guard, which fled in disorder. While pursuing his brother, however, he was struck down, and his Orientals at once took to flight. The Greeks refused to surrender, and were allowed to retain their arms and march, to the coast. This expedition of Cyrus forms the subject of Xenophon's "Anabasis."

Curicta (Civil War of CÆsar and Pompey).

Fought B.C. 49, when the CÆsarian fleet under Dolabella was totally destroyed by the Pompeian fleet under Marcus Octavius. This victory cut off the CÆsarian army under Caius Antonius, which was quartered on the island of Curicta, and Antonius was forced to surrender.

Curupayti (Paraguayan War).

Fought September 22, 1866, between the troops of Brazil, Argentine and Uruguay, under General Flores, and the Paraguayans under Lopez. The allies were totally defeated, and Flores abandoned the army, returning to Montevideo.

Custozza (Seven Weeks' War).

Fought June 24, 1866, between 60,000 Austrians under the Archduke Albert, and 140,000 Italians under General La Marmora. La Marmora crossed the Mincio, and advanced against the Archduke, who was covering Verona. The Italians having to pass through a hilly country, the columns were much broken up, and as they debouched into the plain of Custozza, they were beaten in detail, and driven back by the Austrians, who gained a signal victory. The Austrians lost 4,650 killed and wounded; the Italians, 720 killed, 3,112 wounded, and 4,315 prisoners. La Marmora was compelled to recross the Mincio.

Cuzco (Conquest of Peru).

This city was besieged 1536, by 200,000 Peruvians, and was defended by 250 Spaniards under Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro. After a siege of five months, Almagro, to whom certain of the conquered territories had been assigned by the king of Spain, arrived with his troops, and attacked and totally routed the Peruvians. He then laid siege to the place on his own account, and shortly afterwards compelled Gonzalo Pizarro to capitulate. Juan died in the course of the siege.

Cyme.

Fought B.C. 474, between the fleet of Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, and the Etruscan fleet, which was investing the Greek colony of Cyme. The Etruscans were routed, and from this defeat dates the rapid decline of the Etruscan power.

CynoscephalÆ.

Fought July 364 B.C., between the Thebans and Thessalians under Pelopidas, and the forces of Alexander, Despot of PherÆ. Both armies made a forced march to seize the heights of CynoscephalÆ, and reached the spot almost simultaneously. The Theban cavalry drove back Alexander's horse, but lost time in the pursuit, and his infantry made good their position on the heights. However, after very hard fighting, they were dislodged, and Alexander completely routed, though Pelopidas fell in the battle.

CynoscephalÆ (Second Macedonian War).

Fought B.C. 197, between the Romans, 26,000 strong, under Flamininus, and the Macedonians, in about equal force under Philip. The Roman vanguard, coming unexpectedly upon the enemy, was repulsed, but Flamininus bringing up the legionaries, the battle became more equal. On the right Philip, with half his phalanx, drove back the Romans, but his left wing was utterly routed, and the victorious Roman right then turned and attacked the Macedonian right in flank and rear, and won a complete victory. The Macedonians lost 13,000 killed and wounded.wounded. The Roman losses were small.

Cynossema (Peloponnesian War).

Fought 411 B.C., between 86 Peloponnesian ships under Mindarus, and 76 Athenian triremes under Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus. The Athenian centre was broken, but, in the moment of victory, Thrasybulus fell upon the Peloponnesians with the right wing, and totally routed them, while Thrasyllus on the left also drove off his adversaries, after hard fighting.

Cyssus (War with Antiochus the Great).

Fought B.C. 191 between the Roman fleet of 105 triremes under Caius Livius, and the fleet of Antiochus, numbering 70 sail, under Polyxenides. Polyxenides sailed out of Cyssus to encounter the Romans, but was defeated with a loss of 23 ships, and forced to seek refuge at Ephesus.

Cyzicus (Peloponnesian War).

Fought 410 B.C., when Alcibiades, with 86 Athenian ships, surprised the Peloponnesian Admiral Mindarus, who was besieging Cyzicus, and, after a hard fight, totally defeated him. Mindarus was slain, 60 triremes were taken or destroyed, and the Peloponnesian fleet was practically annihilated.

Cyzicus (First Mithridatic War).

Fought B.C. 88, when the army of Mithridates, who was besieging Cyzicus, was hemmed by the Romans under Lucullus, and though the latter, with inferior forces, did not venture on a pitched battle, he fought a series of minor engagements, in which he eventually destroyed the Pontic army, their losses amounting in the end to over 200,000 men.

Czarnovo (Campaign of Friedland).

Fought December 24, 1806, between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians, about 15,000 strong, under Count Tolstoy. Napoleon, with Davoust's corps, crossed the Ukra, and made a night attack upon the Russians, driving them out of Czarnovo with a loss of 1,600 and several guns. The French lost 700.

Czaslau (War of the Austrian Succession).

Fought 1742, between the Prussians under Frederic the Great, and the Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine. The Prussians were driven from the field, but the Austrians abandoned the pursuit to plunder, and the king, rallying his troops, broke the Austrian main body, and defeated them with a loss of 4,000 men.