Abensberg (Campaign of Wagram.)

Fought April 20, 1809, between the French and Bavarians under Napoleon, about 90,000 strong, and the Austrians, 80,000 in number, under the Archduke Charles. On the French left, Lanne's corps drove back the Austrians, after a feeble resistance. In the centre the Bavarians were hard pressed, but eventually Napoleon succeeded in turning the Austrian flank, left exposed by the defeat of their right, and Charles was forced to retreat. The Austrians lost 7,000, the French and Bavarians about 3,000 killed and wounded.

Aberdeen (Civil War).

Fought September 13, 1644, between the Covenanters, 3,000 strong, under Lord Burleigh, and the Royalists, about 1,500 strong, under Montrose. The Covenanters were put to flight, and no quarter being given, they lost heavily before reaching Aberdeen. The Royalist losses were insignificant.

Aboukir (French Invasion of Egypt).

Fought July 5, 1799, Napoleon attacking the position held by Mustapha Pasha, who had recently landed in Egypt at the head of 18,000 Turks. The French were completely successful, two-thirds of the Turkish troops being killed or driven into the sea, while 6,000, with the Pasha, surrendered.

Aboukir (British Invasion of Egypt).

Fought March 8, 1801, when 5,000 British under Sir Ralph Abercromby disembarked on the beach at Aboukir, in the face of a force of 2,000 French under General Friant. The landing was effected under a heavy musketry and artillery fire, which cost the assailants 1,100 killed and wounded, and the French were driven from their positions with a loss of 500 men.

Aboukir.

See Nile.

Abu Hamed (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought August 7, 1897, when the Dervish entrenchments outside Abu Hamed were stormed by a Soudanese Brigade, with 2 guns Royal Artillery, under Major-General Hunter. The Mahdist garrison was driven through the town, losing heavily, and their commander, Mohammed Zain, captured. The Egyptian loss was 80 killed and wounded, including 4 British officers.

Abu Klea (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought January 17, 1885, between a British force, 1,500 strong, under Sir Herbert Stewart, and 12,000 Mahdists, of whom about 5,000 actually attacked. The British square was broken at one corner, owing to the jamming of a Gardner gun, and the Mahdists forcing their way inside, a desperate hand-to-hand conflict followed. Eventually the assailants were driven off, and the square reformed. The British loss was 18 officers, among them Colonel Fred. Burnaby, and 150 men. In the immediate vicinity of the square, 1,100 Arab dead were counted.

Abu Kru (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought January 19, 1885, between 1,200 British troops under Sir Herbert Stewart, and a large force of Mahdists. The Mahdists attacked a short distance from the Nile, and the British square moved towards the river, repelling all assaults successfully till they reached the Nile. The British losses were 121, including Sir Herbert Stewart, mortally wounded. This action is also known as the battle of Gubat.

Acapulco (Mexican Liberal Rising).

Fought August 9, 1855, between the Mexican Government troops under Santa Anna, and the Liberals under Juarez. Santa Anna was totally routed and fled from the country.

Accra (First Ashanti War).

Fought 1824, between 10,000 Ashantis and a force of 1,000 British under Sir Charles McCarthy. The British were surrounded and routed by the natives, McCarthy being killed.

Accra (First Ashanti War).

Fought 1825, between 15,000 Ashantis and 400 British troops, with 4,600 native auxiliaries. The Ashantis were completely defeated, and the king compelled to abandon his designs on Cape Coast Castle.

Acragas (Second Carthaginian Invasion of Sicily).

This fortress was besieged B.C. 406 by the Carthaginians under Hannibal, the garrison being commanded by Dexippus the Spartan. Early in the siege a pestilence in the Carthaginian camp carried off Hannibal, who was succeeded by his cousin, Himilco. A relieving army of 35,000 Syracusans, under DaphnÆus fought a pitched battle with the Carthaginians under the walls of the city, and succeeded in seizing and holding one of their camps, but shortly afterwards dissensions broke out in the garrison, and many of the foreign mercenaries deserting, the citizens, after a siege of eight months, left the place en masse. The Carthaginians at once occupied the fortress.

Acre (Third Crusade).

Siege was laid to this city by the Christians in August, 1189, and it was obstinately defended by the Saracens for two years, during which the Crusaders are said to have lost 120,000 men. In June, 1191, the besiegers were reinforced by an English army under Richard Coeur de Lion, and in the following month the garrison surrendered.

Acre.

The city remained in the hands of the Christians till 1291, when it was captured by the Moslems under Malek al Aschraf, Sultan of Egypt. The last stronghold in the Holy Land thus passed out of the keeping of the Christians.

Acre (French Invasion of Egypt).

The city was besieged March 17, 1799, by the French under Napoleon, and defended by the Turks under Djezzar, and a small force of British seamen under Sir Sidney Smith. An assault on the 28th was repulsed with loss, and then a threatened attack by a Syrian army forced Napoleon to withdraw a large portion of his troops. On the resumption of the siege, no less than seven more assaults were delivered, while the French had to meet eleven sallies of the besiegedbesieged, but they were unable to effect a lodgment, and on May 21 Napoleon reluctantly raised the siege. The fall of Acre would have placed the whole of Syria, and possibly of the Turkish Empire, in the hands of the French.

Acre (Mehemet Ali's Second Rebellion).

Mehemet Ali having refused to accept the conditions imposed upon him by the Quadrilateral Alliance, Acre was bombarded, November 3, 1840, by a combined British and Turkish fleet under Sir R. Stopford, and the town laid in ruins.

Acs (Hungarian Rising).

Fought July 2, 1849, between 25,000 Hungarians, under GÖrgey, and the Russo-Austrian army, greatly superior in numbers, under Prince WindischgrÄtz. The allies attacked the entrenched camp of the Hungarians, outside Komorn, while the Hungarians made an attempt to turn the allied left. Both attacks were repulsed, and the battle was undecided.

Actium (Mark Antony's Second Rebellion).

Fought September 2, B.C. 31, between the fleet of Antony, 460 galleys, and that of Octavius, about 250 sail, but much lighter and less well manned than those of Antony. The battle was fiercely contested, with varying fortune; but at a critical moment Cleopatra ordered the Egyptian admiral to make sail, and with 60 galleys withdrew from the fight. She was followed by Antony, and his fleet, discouraged by his flight, surrendered after ten hours' fighting. The Octavians captured 300 galleys, and 5,000 Antonians fell in the action. A few days later Antony's land army of 120,000 men laid down their arms.

Acultzingo (Franco-Mexican War).

Fought April 28, 1862, between the French, 7,500 strong, under General Lorencez, and the main Mexican army, about 10,000 in number, under General ZaragoÇa. The Mexicans held a strong position in the Cumbres Pass, from which they were driven by the French, and forced to retire upon La Puebla.

Admagetobriga (Gallic Tribal Wars).

Fought B.C. 61 between the Sequani under Ariovistus, and the HÆdui under Eporedorix. The HÆdui were defeated, with the loss of the flower of their chivalry, and were compelled to give hostages and pay tribute to Ariovistus.

Adnatuca (Gallic Wars).

Fought B.C. 53, when a Roman force of 9,000 men under Titurius Sabinus was attacked in its camps by the Eburones under Ambiorix. The assault failed, but an offer by Ambiorix of a safe passage to the nearest Roman station was accepted. On the march the Romans were treacherously attacked by the Eburones and cut to pieces, Sabinius being among the slain.

Adowa (Italian Invasion of Abyssinia).

Fought March 1, 1896, when the Italian force under General Baratieri attacked the Shoan army, strongly posted in a difficult country, and was routed with enormous loss.

Adrianople (Bulgarian Rising).

Fought April 15, 1205, between the Imperial troops under the Latin Emperor, Baldwin I, and the revolted Bulgarians under their chief, Calo-John. The Bulgarian cavalry fled, and lured the Latin horse in pursuit. Then turning upon them, they routed them with the loss of their leader, the Comte de Blois, and in the end the Imperialists were completely defeated and the Emperor captured.

Adwalton Moor (Civil War).

Fought January 30, 1643, when the Parliamentarians, numbering 4,000, with a levy of armed peasants, were defeated by 10,000 Royalists under Newcastle. Fairfax, who commanded the Parliament force, succeeded in reaching Hull. The battle is also known as that of Atherton Moor.

Ægina (Third Messenian War).

Fought B.C. 458, between the Athenian fleet, and that of Ægina, aided by the Peloponnesian States. The Athenians were victorious, capturing 70 ships, and landing they invested Ægina, which fell into their hands after a siege of a little less than two years.

Ægospotami (Peloponnesian War).

Fought B.C. 405, between 180 Athenian triremes, under Conon, and 180 Peloponnesian ships under Lysander. The Athenian fleet was lying at Ægospotami, opposite Lampsacus, where Lysander was stationed. For four days in succession the Athenian admiral crossed the straits, and endeavoured, but in vain, to bring on a general action. On the fifth day Lysander waited till the Athenians had returned to their anchorage, and then, making a sudden dash across the straits, caught them unprepared, and seized all but twenty ships, putting to death all the Athenians who were captured. This disaster destroyed the naval power of Athens, and was soon followed by the end of the Peloponnesian War.

Ægusa (First Punic War).

Fought March 10, B.C. 241, between the Roman fleet of 200 quinqueremes under C. Lutatius Catulus, and a Carthaginian fleet under Hanno despatched to relieve the town. The action was fought in heavy weather, and the Roman sailors, being far better trained than their opponents, Catulus gained a signal victory, capturing 70 and sinking 50 of the enemy's ships. The victory ended the First Punic War.

Agedincum (Gallic War).

Fought B.C. 52, between the Romans under Labienus, and the Celts under Camalogenus. Labienus was endeavouring to effect a junction with Caesar, which the Celts were opposing, and Labienus, crossing the Marne in face of their army, inflicted upon them a severe defeat, in which Camalogenus fell.

Aghrim (Wars of the Revolution).

Fought July 12, 1691, between William III's troops, under Ginkel, and the French and Irish under St. Ruth. The English struggled in vain to carry St. Ruth's entrenchments, which were protected by a bog, but his flank was at last turned by the cavalry, which found a passage through the morass, and St. Ruth was killed. The Irish then broke and fled, and are said to have lost between 6,000 and 7,000 in the pursuit.

Agincourt (Hundred Years' War).

Fought October 25, 1415, between the French, numbering 50,000, under the Constable d'Albret, and about 15,000 English, mostly archers, under Henry V. The archers protected their front with a palisade of stakes, which broke the charge of the French men-at-arms, and the French army was routed with a loss of 10,000 slain, including the Constable and the Dukes of AlenÇon, Brabant and Bar, and 15,000 prisoners, including the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Boucicaut. The English lost only 1,600, among whom were the Duke of York and the Earl of Oxford.

Agnadello (War of the League of Cambrai).

Fought May 14, 1509, between 30,000 French under Louis XII and Marshal Trioulzio, and 35,000 Venetians under General Alviani. The Venetians were defeated with a loss of 6,000 men and 20 guns, Alviani being taken, and in consequence of his victory, Louis XII occupied all the territory assigned to him by the League, up to the Mincio.

Agordat (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought December 21, 1893, between 2,200 Italians, and native troops, under General Arimondi, and 11,500 Mahdists under Ahmed Ali, who had invaded Italian territory. The Mahdists were routed with a loss of about 3,000 men. The Italians lost 13, and 225 natives killed and wounded.

Agra (Farokshin's Rebellion).

Fought 1713, between the Great Mogul, Jehandar Shah, with 70,000 troops, under Zulfikar Khan, and the rebel Moguls under Jehandar's nephew, Farokshin. After a stubborn fight, the rebels overpowered the Imperial troops, and Jehandar Shah was captured and put to death by Farokshin, who ascended the throne.

Agra (Second Mahratta War).

The fortress was besieged October 4, 1803, by the British under General Lake, and was defended by a garrison of Sindhia's troops, 6,000 strong, who held the citadel, while seven additional battalions were encamped in the town. The latter force was attacked on the 10th and routed, losing 26 guns, while the survivors, 2,600 in number, surrendered on the following day. On the 17th the batteries opened fire on the citadel, and on the 18th the garrison surrendered.surrendered.

Agra (Indian Mutiny).

On August 2, 1857, the British garrison holding Agra sallied out to attack a body of 10,000 rebels encamped within four miles of the city. The Kotah contingent, which formed a portion of the British force, deserted to the mutineers, and the British troops, hard pressed and short of ammunition, were driven back into Agra, and forced to take refuge in the fort. In October of the same year Colonel Greathed's column of four battalions and two cavalry regiments encountered close to Agra a force of 7,000 mutineers. The rebels at first held their own, but were eventually put to flight, and pursued with great slaughter for ten miles.

Ahmedabad (First Mahratta War).

This strong fortress, garrisoned by 8,000 Arabs and Scinde Infantry, and 2,000 Mahrattas, was taken by assault, after a short bombardment, by a British force under General Goddard, February 15, 1780. The British lost 106 killed and wounded, including 12 officers.

Ahmed Khel (Second Afghan War).

Fought 1880, when a British force under General Stewart on the march to Ghuzni was attacked by about 15,000 Ghilzais. A rush of 3,000 Ghazis was successfully repulsed, and the enemy defeated and driven off, leaving 1,000 dead on the field. The British lost 17 only.

Ahmednugger (Mogul Invasion of the Deccan).

This place was besieged in 1599 by the Moguls under Mirza Khan, one of Akbar's generals, and defended by a garrison of Deccanis under Chand Bibi, ex-Queen of Bijapur. A practicable breach having been effected, the garrison was disposed to surrender, but Chand Bibi, heading the defenders, superintended the repair of the breach, and succeeding in holding out until a peace was signed by which the Great Mogul agreed to leave Ahmednugger unmolested.

Aiguillon (Hundred Years' War).

This fortress was besieged by the French under John, Duke of Normandy, in May, 1347, and was defended by a small English garrison under Sir Walter Manny, who held out bravely till the end of August, repelling numerous assaults. The defeat of Cressy then forced the Duke of Normandy to lead his army northward, and he was compelled to raise the siege.

Aix, Ile d' (Seven Years' War).

Fought March 4, 1758, when a British squadron of seven sail, under Sir Edward Hawke, attacked a French squadron of five ships of the line and six frigates, convoying forty transports, and drove them ashore on the Ile d'Aix. This delayed the French expedition to North America, and facilitated the capture of Cape Breton.

Fought March 3, 1795, between the French under Miranda and the Austrians under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. The French were totally defeated, and fled in disorder, with a loss of 3,500 killed and wounded and 1,500 prisoners.

Aiznadin (Moslem Invasion of Syria).

Fought July 13, 633, between 45,000 Moslems under Khaled and 70,000 Imperial troops under Werdan. The Imperialists were routed with great slaughter, leaving Khaled to prosecute the siege of Damascus. The Moslems only admit a loss of 470.

Aladja Dagh (Russo-Turkish War).

Fought 1877, between the Russians under General Loris Melikoff, and the Turks under Mukhtar Pasha. The Russians were victorious, and Mukhtar was compelled to take refuge under the walls of Erzeroum.

Alamo, Storming of the (Texan Rising).

On February 22, 1836, General Santa Anna, with the advance guard of the Mexican army, appeared before the walls of the Alamo, a fortified mission station held by 145 Texans under Colonel Travis, who replied to a summons to surrender by a cannon shot. On March 1 the garrison was reinforced by 30 men, Santa Anna's force at this date being 4,000. On the 6th 2,500 Mexicans assaulted the fort, and at the third attempt effected an entrance. The building was defended room by room, the church within the enclosure being the last building captured, when all the survivors were put to the sword. The victory cost the Mexicans 400 killed and many wounded. "Remember the Alamo" became the watchword of the Texans.

Aland (Russo-Swedish Wars).

Fought July, 1714, between the Russian fleet of 30 ships of the line and 180 galleys under Admiral Apraxine, and the Swedish, about one-third of that strength, under Admiral Erinschild. The Swedes sought to prevent the landing of a Russian force on the island of Aland, and fought an unequal combat for three hours, when they were overpowered and forced to retire. The Czar, Peter the Great, who was serving under Apraxine as Rear-Admiral, captured Erinschild's flagship.

Alarcos (Moorish Empire in Spain).

Fought July 19, 1195, between the Moors under Yakub el Maasur, and the Spaniards under Alfonso VIII of Castile. The Spaniards were utterly routed, and very few escaped to Calatrava. The Moors claimed to have taken 30,000 prisoners.

Albuera (Peninsular War).

Fought May 16, 1811, between the allied British, Portuguese and Spanish forces, numbering 46,000, of whom 7,000 only were British infantry, the whole army being under the command of Marshal Beresford, and 33,000 French under Marshal Soult. The French attacked Beresford's position, and the Spaniards offering but a poor resistance, defeat was only averted by the extraordinary valour of the British troops, especially of the Fusilier Brigade, which came into action when the day seemed lost, and drove the French from the field. Of the 7,000 British, but 1,800 were left standing. The French lost over 8,000, including five generals.

Alcantara (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought 1706, when a force of British and Portuguese under Lord Galway attacked and drove out of Alcantara the garrison, consisting of a portion of Marshal Berwick's army. Ten French battalions laid down their arms, and 60 guns were captured.

Aleppo (Moslem Invasion of Syria).

This place was besieged by the Moslems under Abu Obeidah and Khaled in 638, and the city almost immediately surrendered, but the garrison retired to the citadel, where under Youkinna it maintained a stubborn defence for five months, and caused heavy loss to the besiegers. At last the citadel was taken by surprise, and Youkinna became a convert to Mohammedanism. This was the last serious resistance offered in Syria to the invading Moslems.

Aleppo (Tartar Invasion of Syria).

Fought November 11, 1400, between the Tartars under Tamerlane, and the Turks under the Syrian Emirs. Instead of standing a siege, the Emirs sallied out to meet Tamerlane in the open field, and suffered a disastrous defeat. They were driven back into Aleppo with the loss of many thousands, and a few days later the Tartars sacked the city and captured the citadel.

Aleppo (Ottoman Wars).

Fought 1516, between the Turks under Selim I, and the Egyptians under the Mameluke Sultan, Tooman Beg. After a sanguinary engagement, the Egyptians were utterly routed, and Selim added the whole of Syria to the Ottoman dominions.

Alesia (Gallic War).

Siege was laid to the town by the Romans under CÆsar, B.C. 52, and it was defended by the Gauls, numbering 80,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry under Vercingetorix, the Romans being about 50,000 strong. An attempt was made by the Belgi, with an army of 260,000 warriors, to relieve the town, but they were met and routed by Labienus with terrific slaughter. This disaster so discouraged the garrison that the town immediately surrendered, Vercingetorix being sent a prisoner to Rome, where five years later he was beheaded as a rebellious subject of Rome.

Alessandria (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought June 18, 1799, between the French, 14,000 strong under Moreau, and the Imperialists under Bellegarde. The French gained a signal victory, the loss of the Imperialists being 1,500 men and 5 guns.

This city, the capital of Egypt, was besieged by the Moslems, under Amrou, in 638, and after a defence of fourteen months, in the course of which the besiegers lost 23,000 men, surrendered, leaving the victors undisputed masters of Egypt.

Alexandria (British Invasion of Egypt).

Fought March 21, 1801, between the French under General Menou, and the British expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby. The French cavalry charged the British right, but were repulsed, and after hard fighting the French were defeated and driven under the walls of Alexandria. Among those who fell was Sir Ralph Abercromby, mortally wounded.

Alexandria (Arabi's Rebellion).

Arabi Pasha having refused to cease work upon the forts of Alexandria, the Admiral, Sir Beauchamp Seymour, who had under his command a fleet of 8 battleships and 5 gunboats, decided to shell them. He opened fire on the morning of July 11, 1882, and the bombardment continued till the evening of the 12th, when the forts were totally destroyed, and the garrison abandoned the city. The gunboat Condor, under Lord Charles Beresford, particularly distinguished herself, running close in under the forts, and doing considerable damage.

Alford (Civil War).

Fought July 2, 1645, between the Royalists under Montrose, and the Covenanters under General Baillie. Baillie crossed the Don to attack Montrose, whom he imagined to be in retreat, but who was really waiting for him in a well-chosen position. The attack was repulsed, the Covenanters being routed with heavy loss.

Algeciras Bay (Napoleonic Wars).

Fought July 8, 1801, between a British squadron of 7 ships of the line, 1 frigate and 1 brig, under Sir James Saumarez, and a French squadron of 3 line-of-battle ships and 1 frigate, under Admiral Linois. The French were aided by the Spanish gunboats and the shore batteries, and Saumarez lost the Hannibal, which ran ashore, and was captured by the French. The British lost 121 killed and 240 wounded. The French lost 306 killed. On July 12, the French squadron, which had been reinforced meanwhile by 5 Spanish ships of the line, was again attacked by Sir James Saumarez, who succeeded in capturing the St. Antoine and blowing up the Hermenegilda. The British lost only 17 killed and 100 wounded; the allies, 2,000, chiefly in the Hermenegilda.

Algheri.

Fought 1353, between the Aragonese under Pedro IV (the Great) and the Genoese. Pedro won a complete victory, driving the Genoese out of Sardinia, the whole of which island became an appanage of the crown of Aragon.

Algiers.

This town was attacked July 8, 1775, by a Spanish force of 51 ships of war and 26,000 men under Don Pedro de Castijon and Count O'Reilly. After a severe conflict, the Spaniards failed to dislodge their opponents, and retired, with a loss of over 3,000 killed and wounded. The Algerines lost about 5,000.

Algiers, Bombardment of.

In 1816 Lord Exmouth, in command of 19 British war ships, and accompanied by 6 Dutch ships under Van Capellan, bombarded the forts of Algiers, mounting 500 guns. The bombardment lasted for about eight hours, and resulted in the destruction of the forts and a large part of the city. The Dey then gave way, and agreed to the total abolition of Christian slavery in his dominions. The loss of the allies amounted to 885 killed and wounded; that of the Algerines to over 6,000.

Alhama (War of Granada).

This fortress, one of the ring of strong places protecting the Moorish capital, Granada, was surprised by a small party of Spaniards, under Juan de Ortiga, in the early morning of February 28, 1482. They scaled the ramparts unperceived, and opened the gates to the Spanish army. The garrison continued to defend the streets most obstinately, and it was only after hard fighting that the Spaniards mastered the town. An attempt was made to recapture the place by Abul Hasan, King of Granada, who set down before it, with 50,000 Moors. March 5, 1482. The garrison, under the Marquis of Cadiz, made a gallant defence, and on the 29th, Abul Hasan, alarmed by the approach of a strong relieving army under Ferdinand, raised the siege.

Alhandega (Moorish Empire in Spain).

Fought 939, between the Moors under Abd al Rahman, and the Christians under Ramiro II of Leon. The Moors, 100,000 strong, were besieging Zamora, when they were attacked by Ramiro, who, aided by a sortie of the garrison, utterly routed them. In the battle 20,000 Moors fell, and 40,000 are said to have been drowned in the moat surrounding the city.

Alicante (War of the Spanish Succession).

On June 29, 1706, Alicante was taken by a British squadron of 5 ships under Sir George Byng. The fleet attacked the city walls, while the suburbs were occupied by a landing party of marines under Sir John Jennings. The place was captured with a loss to the British of only 30 killed and 80 wounded.

Aligurh (First Mahratta War).

This fortress, the arsenal of Sindhia of Gwalior, was captured August 29, 1803, by the 76th Highlanders under Colonel Monson, forming part of General Lake's army. The place was strongly fortified and surrounded by a ditch 100 feet wide, containing 10 feet of water. The Highlanders carried the fortress by storm, blowing in the main gate, and fighting their way from room to room till the place was captured. Two hundred and eighty-one guns were taken. The British loss amounted to 223 killed and wounded.

Fought January 28, 1846, between the British, 10,000 strong, under Sir Harry Smith, and 20,000 Sikhs under Runjur Singh. The troops of the Khalsa withstood three charges of the British cavalry with splendid bravery, but at last broke and fled, losing many drowned in the Sutlej, besides those left on the field. The British captured 67 guns.

Aljubarotta.

Fought August, 1385, between the Castilians, under John I, in support of the claim of Beatrix of Castile to the throne of Portugal, and the Portuguese under the Regent John. The Portuguese inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Spaniards, and John I was compelled to withdraw his troops, and renounce his sister's claim.

Alkmaar (Netherlands War of Independence).

Siege was laid to this place August 21, 1573, by 16,000 Spaniards under Don Frederico de Toledo. It was defended by a garrison of 800 soldiers and 1,300 armed burghers. On September 18, an assault was delivered, which was repulsed, with a loss to the besiegers of 1,000 men, while only 37 of the garrison fell. The opening of the dykes at last rendered the position of the Spaniards most precarious, and on October 8 the siege was raised.

Alkmaar (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought October 2, 1799, between 30,000 British and Russians under the Duke of York, and the French, in about equal strength, under Brune. The action began by the Russians driving in the French advanced posts. Meanwhile the Duke of York had outflanked them, and as soon as he was in position a simultaneous attack on the French left and centre forced Brune to abandon the key of his position, Alkmaar, which was at once occupied by the allies.

Allia, The (First Invasion of the Gauls).

Fought July 16, 389 B.C., between the Romans, 40,000 strong, under Quintus Sulpicius, and the Gauls, about equal in numbers, under Brennus. The Romans took post on the Allia to check the advance of the Gauls on Rome. Here they were attacked by Brennus, who routed the right wing, where the younger soldiers were posted, and then broke the Roman centre and left, putting them to flight with enormous loss.

Alma (Crimean War).

Fought September 20, 1854, between the Russians, 40,000 strong, under Prince Mentschikoff, and the allied British and French armies, 26,000 strong, under Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud. The bulk of the fighting fell upon the British Second and Light Divisions and the Guards, who carried the heights held by the Russians at the point of the bayonet, and utterly routed them. The Russians lost 1,200 killed, and left 4,700 prisoners, many of them wounded, in the hands of the allies. The British loss amounted to 3,000 killed and wounded; that of the French to 1,000.

Fought April 25, 1707, between the French under Marshal Berwick, and the British and Portuguese under Lord Galway and the Marques das Minas. Galway, though inferior in cavalry, attacked at first with success, but the Portuguese on the right broke and fled, and the British centre, attacked in front and flank simultaneously, was routed and forced to surrender. As a consequence of this defeat, the whole of Spain was lost to Charles with the exception of Catalonia.

Almenara (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought July 10, 1710, when the British contingent of the Archduke Charles' army, under General Stanhope, attacked and defeated the Spaniards under Philip V, after severe fighting. So complete was the rout that Philip's army was only saved by the fall of night from complete destruction.

Almorah (Gurkha War).

Fought April 25, 1815, when 2,000 British regulars under Colonel Nicolls and a force of irregular troops under Colonel Gardiner assaulted and captured the heights of the town of Almorah. The result of this victory was the surrender of the province of Kumaon and all its fortresses.

Alne (Scottish Wars).

Fought November 13, 1093, between the Scots under Malcolm Canmore and the English. The Scots were totally defeated, and Malcolm and his eldest son Edward slain in the battle.

Alresford (Civil War).

Fought March 29, 1644, between the Royalists under the Earl of Brentford and Sir Ralph Hopton, and the Parliamentarians under Sir William Waller. The Parliament forces were victorious, but their losses were so severe that Waller was unable to follow up his advantage, and the Royalists made an orderly retreat.

Alsen (Schleswig-Holstein War).

This island, in which the Danish garrison of DÜppel had taken refuge, was captured by the Prussians, who crossed from the mainland in boats on the night of June 29, 1864, and under a heavy fire carried the Danish entrenchments, and compelled them to surrender. This was the last engagement of the war.

Altendorf (Thirty Years' War).

Fought August 24, 1632, between Gustavus Adolphus, with 40,000 Swedes and Germans, and the Imperialists, of about equal numbers, under Wallenstein. Wallenstein was very strongly posted on the hill and in the ruined castle of the Altenwald, and after a day spent in fruitless assaults, the King was forced to retire, having lost about 2,300 in killed and wounded. The defenders admitted a loss of 70 officers and 2,000 men killed, besides wounded and prisoners.

Alto Pascio (Guelfs and Ghibellines).

Fought 1325, between the Ghibellines under Castruccio Castracane of Lucca, and the Florentine Guelfs. The Florentines were defeated with heavy loss, among the trophies taken by Castracane being the carroccio of Florence.

Amakusa (Revolt of the Christians).

In 1638, the castle of Amakusa, held by 30,000 rebels under Masada Shiro, was captured after very hard fighting by the troops of the ShÔgun, under Matsudaira Nobutsuna. The defenders set fire to the castle, and perished to the last man, either in the flames or by the sword.

Amalinde (Kaffir Wars).

Fought 1818 between the Gaikas and the forces of Ndlambi, in which the former were utterly routed.

Amatola Mountain (Kaffir Wars).

Fought 1846, between the Kaffirs under Sandilli, and the British and Cape troops under Colonels Campbell and Somerset. Sandilli was totally defeated, but, rallying his forces, he made a successful attack on the British baggage train, the loss of which forced them to retire.

Ambate (Conquest of Peru).

Fought 1532, between the two Peruvian chiefs Atahualpa and Huascar, in which the latter suffered a complete defeat.

Ambracian Gulf.

Fought B.C. 435, when a Corinthian fleet of 75 ships attempted the relief of Epidamnus, which was besieged by the Corcyreans, and was defeated with heavy loss by 80 Corcyrean triremes.

Ambur.

Fought 1749, between the army of Anwar-ud-din, Nawab of Arcot, 20,000 strong, and the combined forces of Muzuffer Jung and Chunda Sahib, aided by a French contingent under M. d'Auteil. Anwar-ud-din was defeated and slain, and Muzuffer Jung assumed the title of Subahdar of the Deccan, Chunda Sahib that of Nawab of Arcot.

Ambur.

This strong fortress was held by a garrison of 500 Sepoys, under Captain Calvert, and a detachment of Mysore troops under Mukhlis Khan. This man had assumed the status of an independent chief, but being suspected of intriguing with Hyder Ali, was arrested by Calvert. Hyder laid siege to the place November 10, 1767; but Calvert, now secure from treachery within, held out with his small garrison till December 6, when the approach of a relieving force obliged Hyder to raise the siege.

Amida (Persian Wars).

This fortress, defended by a Roman garrison, was besieged, and after a vigorous defence taken by storm by the Persians under Sapor II in 359. The garrison and inhabitants were put to the sword. The siege, which lasted 73 days, cost the Persians 30,000 men, and so weakened Sapor that he was compelled to relinquish his designs upon the Eastern Empire.

The fortress was again besieged by the Persians under Kobad in 503, being defended as before by a Roman garrison. After a defence of three months, which cost the besiegers 50,000 men, a weakly defended tower was surprised at night, and on the following day the Persians, headed by their King, scaled the walls, and massacred 80,000 of the garrison and inhabitants.

Amiens (Franco-German War).

Fought November 27, 1870, between the French under General Faure, and the Germans under Manteuffel. The French were compelled to abandon the city, but the Germans failed to secure a decisive victory. The French lost 1,383 killed and wounded, and 1,000 missing; the Germans, 76 officers and 1,216 men.

Amoaful (Second Ashanti War).

Fought January 31, 1874, when the British expeditionary force under Sir Garnet Wolseley defeated the Ashantis after a desperate resistance, which cost the assailants 16 officers and 174 men killed and wounded. The 42nd Regiment, which led the attack, lost 9 officers and 105 men.

Amorium (Moslem Invasion of Asia Minor).

Fought 838, between the Moslems under the Caliph Motassem, and the Greeks under Theophilus. Thirty thousand Persian horsemen, serving under the Emperor, succeeded in breaking the Moslem line, but the Greeks themselves were overthrown by the Moslems, and the day ended in a complete rout of the Imperial army. Motassem then laid siege to Amorium, and after a defence of 55 days, which cost the besiegers 70,000 men, the gates were opened by treachery, and 30,000 Christians were massacred.

Amphipolis (Peloponnesian War).

Fought March 422 B.C. between 1,500 Athenians, with a contingent of allies under Cleon, and the Spartans, 2,000 hoplites, besides light armed troops, under Brasidas. Cleon advanced to attack Amphipolis, but finding the garrison preparing for a sortie, wheeled about and commenced to retreat, He was at once assailed by Brasidas, and his left fled without striking a blow. The Athenian right and centre offered some resistance, but in the end were routed with heavy loss. Both Brasidas and Cleon fell, the latter while fleeing from the field.

Amstetten (Campaign of the Danube).

Fought November 5, 1805, when the Russians retiring on Vienna fought a rear-guard action against Murat's cavalry and a portion of Lannes' corps, in which they were defeated with a loss of 1,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners.

AÑaquito (Conquest of Peru).

Fought January 8, 1546, between the troops of the Viceroy, Blasco NuÑez, and those of Gonzalo Pizarro. Pizarro gained a signal victory, the Viceroy being among the slain, and in consequence the Government of Peru fell into Pizarro's hands.

Ancona (Unification of Italy).

This place was attacked, September, 1860, by the Piedmontese fleet of 13 warships under Admiral Persano, and the army of General Cialdini. It was defended by a small Papal garrison under La MoriciÈre, and after a resistance of over a week, at the end of which time Persano forced the boom guarding the harbour, La MoriciÈre capitulated.

Ancrum Moor (Scottish Wars).

Fought February 17, 1545, between the English under Sir Ralph Evans, and the Scots under the Earl of Angus. The Borderers who had joined the English deserted during the action, with the result that the Scots were completely victorious.

AncyrÆ.

Fought B.C. 242, between the Syrians under Seleucus Callinicus, and the rebels under his brother Hierax, aided by a large contingent of Gauls. After a desperate struggle, in which Hierax nearly lost his life at the hands of his barbarian auxiliaries, Seleucus was utterly routed.

Angora (Tartar Invasion of Asia Minor).

Fought June 30, 1402, between the Tartars under Tamerlane, and the Turks under Bajazet I. The numbers engaged are variously estimated at from one to two millions, Tamerlane, it is said, having at least 800,000 men in the field. The Turks were totally defeated, Bajazet and one of his sons being captured, while another son was killed.

Angostura (Americo-Mexican War).

Fought February 21, 1847, between the Mexicans under Santa Anna and the Americans under General Scott, when the Mexicans were totally defeated.

Angostura (Paraguayan War).

Fought December 22 to 27, 1868, between the Paraguayans under Lopez, and the allied armies of the Argentine Republic, Brazil, and Uruguay. Lopez held his position for six days against the greatly superior forces of the allies, but was then compelled to retire, leaving in the hands of the enemy 1,000 prisoners and 6 guns.

Antietam (American Civil War).

Fought September 17, 1862, between the main Confederate army under General Lee, and the Federals under General M’Clellan. On the morning of the 17th Lee had only 35,000 men on the ground against M’Clellan's 95,000. The Federals strongly attacked Lee's left, and after a stubborn fight drove it back, but reinforcements arriving, Lee resumed the offensive, and recovered his lost positions. On the following day neither side was disposed to resume the struggle, and the battle was therefore indecisive. The Federals lost 12,460 men; the Confederates about 9,000.

Antioch.

Fought B.C. 244, between the Syrians under Seleucus Callinicus and the Egyptians under Ptolemy Energetes. Seleucus was routed and compelled to take refuge within the walls of Antioch.

Antioch (Aurelian's Expedition to Palmyra).

Fought B.C. 272, between the Palmyrenians under Zenobia, and the Romans under the Emperor Aurelian. Zenobia's heavy cavalry defeated and drove from the field the Roman horse, but her infantry was unable to withstand the charge of the legionaries, and she was totally defeated.

Antioch (First Crusade).

The city was besieged, October 21, 1097, by the Crusaders under Godefroi de Bouillon, and defended by a Saracen garrison under Baghasian. The siege was unskilfully conducted, and provisions and munitions ran short in the Christian camp, with the result that the place held out till June 3, 1098, when it was taken by stratagem. An indiscriminate massacre followed, in which 10,000 of the defenders perished. On the 28th of the same month the Crusading army was attacked outside Antioch a force of Saracens under Kirboga. Kirboga concentrated his attack against one wing of the Christians, and outflanked it, but was then assailed by the main body, and driven off with heavy loss.

Antium (War of Chiozza).

Fought May 30, 1378, when Vittorio Pisani, with 14 Venetian galleys, defeated the Genoese fleet under Fieschi. The Genoese lost 6 ships, and Fieschi was taken prisoner.

Antwerp (Netherlands War of Independence).

This city was sacked by the Spaniards, November 4, 1576. It was defended by 6,000 troops, mostly Walloons, who offered little resistance to the 5,600 Spaniards under Sancho d'Avila, who formed the attacking force. Having effected an entrance, the Spaniards proceeded to massacre the inhabitants, of whom 8,000 are said to have perished. This event is known as the Spanish Fury.

Antwerp (Liberation of Belgium).

When Holland refused to recognize the London Protocol creating Belgium into an independent State, the French laid siege to Antwerp, November, 1832. The city, which was defended by ChassÉ, held out till December 23, when, the citadel being demolished by the French fire, it was forced to capitulate.

Aong (Indian Mutiny).

Fought July 15, 1857, between the British relieving force under Havelock and the mutineers who were opposing their advance on Cawnpore. The rebels were defeated and driven from their entrenchments.

Aquae Sextiae (Cimbric War).

Fought B.C. 102, when the Teutones under the king Teutobod, were totally routed by the Romans under Marius.

Aquidaban (Paraguayan War).

The last stand of the Paraguayans against the allied armies of the Argentine Republic, Brazil, and Uruguay, May 1, 1870. Lopez, with a small force of Paraguayans and 5,000 Indians, met the attack of the allies under General Camera on the banks of the Aquidaban, and after a sanguinary engagement, in which he and the Vice-President Sanchez fell, his army was cut to pieces, and the war ended. During the war the population of Paraguay was reduced from 1,500,000 to 221,000, of whom only 29,000 were males over fifteen years of age.

Fought September 6 and 7, 394, between Theodosius, Emperor of the East, and Eugenius, the usurping Emperor of the West, whose army was commanded by Arbogastes. The first day's fighting went against Theodosius, who was only saved by darkness from a severe reverse, but during the night a force sent by Arbogastes to secure the passes in Theodosius' rear, deserted to his standard, and thus reinforced and aided by a dust storm which blew in the faces of his antagonists and disordered their ranks, he on the following day gained a signal victory.

Aras (First Mahratta War).

Fought May 18, 1775, between Raghunath Rao, the claimant to the Peshwaship, with 20,000 Mahrattas, and 2,500 British troops under Colonel Keating, and the army of the Mahratta chieftains, 25,000 strong under Hari Pant Phunhay. Raghunath's undisciplined levies fled, and threw the British line into confusion; but they rallied, and after hard fighting repulsed the Mahrattas with heavy loss. The British lost 222, including 11 officers.

Arausio (Fourth Gallic Invasion).

Fought B.C. 105, when the Gauls under Boiorix totally routed two consular armies under CÆpio and Cn. Mallius Maximus. It is said that 80,000 Romans fell.

Arbela (Alexander's Asiatic Campaign).

Fought October 31, 331 B.C., between 47,000 Macedonians under Alexander the Great, and the Persian army, three or four times as numerous, under Darius Codomannus. Alexander, who led the Macedonian right wing, forced a passage between the Persian left and centre, and attacked the centre on the flank. After a stubborn resistance, and though meanwhile the Macedonian left had been hard pressed, the Persians gave way, and Darius taking to flight, the whole army fled in confusion, and was routed with enormous loss, especially at the passage of the Lycas, which barred their retreat. This victory made Alexander master of Asia.

Arcis-sur-Aube (Allied Invasion of France).

Fought March 21, 1814, between 23,000 French under Napoleon, and 60,000 allies under Schwartzenberg. The French made a gallant stand against superior numbers, and in the end effected an orderly retreat, with a loss of about 2,000. The allies' losses were considerably heavier.

Arcola (Napoleon's Italian Campaigns).

Fought November 15, 16, and 17, 1796, between the main Austrian army under Alvinzi, and the French under Napoleon. Napoleon's object was to drive back Alvinzi before he could effect a junction with Davidowich, who was descending from the Tyrol. The village of Arcola was occupied on the 15th, after severe fighting, in which Napoleon was in great personal danger on the bridge, but it was evacuated during the night. On the 16th Napoleon again attacked the village, but the Austrians held their ground. On the 17th he turned the position, and Davidowich still remaining inactive, Alvinzi was driven back, with losses variously estimated at from 8,000 to 18,000. The French also lost heavily.

Arcot.

This fortress was captured by Clive, with a force of 200 Europeans and 300 Sepoys, in August, 1751. The garrison, 1,100 strong, offered no resistance, but marched out on Clive's approach. In the course of the autumn Arcot was beleaguered by an army of 10,000 natives, and 150 Frenchmen under Chunda Sahib, the French nominee for the Nawabship of Arcot. Against this overwhelming force, Clive, whose garrison had been reduced by sickness to 120 Europeans, and less than 200 Sepoys, held out for seven weeks, till the approach of a Mahratta army forced Chunda Sahib to raise the siege. The garrison had 45 Europeans and 30 Sepoys killed.

Argaum (Second Mahratta War).

Fought November 28, 1803, between the British under Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington) and the forces of the Rajah of Berar, under Sindhia of Gwalior. Three of Wellesley's battalions, which had previously fought well, on this occasion broke and fled, and the situation was at one time very serious. Wellesley, however, succeeded in rallying them, and in the end defeated the Mahrattas, with the loss of all their guns and baggage. The British lost 346 killed and wounded. This victory ended the Second Mahratta War.

Argentaria (Invasion of the Alemanni).

Fought May, 378, between the Romans under Gratianus and the Alemanni under Priarius. The Alemanni were overwhelmed by the Roman legionaries, though they stood their ground bravely, and only 5,000 escaped from the field. Priarius was slain.

Argentoratum.

Fought August, 357, between 13,000 Romans under Julian, and a vastly superior army of Alemanni under Chnodomar. The Romans attacked the German lines shortly before night-fall, after a long march, and though the right wing, under Julian, was at first driven in, they were rallied by their general, and the left and centre pressing on, the Alemanni were totally routed, with a loss of 6,000, in addition to those who fell in the flight. The Romans lost 4 tribunes and 243 soldiers only. Chnodomar was taken prisoner.

ArginusÆ (Peloponnesian War).

Fought B.C. 406, between 150 Athenian triremes under Thrasyllus and other generals, and 120 Peloponnesian ships under Callicratidas. The Peloponnesians were routed, with a loss of 70 vessels, sunk or taken, and Callicratidas slain. The Athenians lost 25 ships with their crews, and the generals were brought to trial for not having taken proper steps to rescue the men of the disabled ships. They were convicted, and six of them, including Thrasyllus, executed. This victory temporarily restored to Athens the command of the sea.

Argos (Roman Invasion of Greece).

Fought B.C. 195, between Nabis of Sparta, with 15,000 men, and 50,000 Romans and Macedonians under Flaminius. Nabis was totally defeated, and though allowed to retain Sparta, was compelled to restore to the AchÆan league all his foreign possessions.

Arikera (Second Mysore War).

Fought May 13, 1791, between the British under Lord Cornwallis, and the forces of Tippu Sahib. The latter was encamped between Arikera and Seringapatam, and was attacked by Cornwallis, who attempted to surprise him by a night march, but was foiled by heavy rain. A frontal attack on Tippu's position was, however, successful, and, aided by a flank movement under Maxwell, resulted in the total defeat of the Mysore troops, with a loss of over 2,000. The British loss amounted to 500. This is also known as the battle of Carigat.

Arius, The.

Fought B.C. 214, between the Syrians under Antiochus the Great, and the Parthians and Bactrians under Arsaces III, and Euthydemus. Antiochus was severely wounded, but remained at the head of his troops, and completely routed the enemy with enormous loss.

Arkenholm (Douglas Rebellion).

Fought May 12, 1455, between the troops of James II of Scotland and the rebels under the Douglas brothers. The rebels were completely defeated. Archibald Douglas was killed, Hugh captured, and James, Earl of Douglas, forced to take refuge in England.

Arklow (Irish Rebellion).

Fought 1798, when General Needham, with about 1,400 Militia and Volunteers, defended the town from the attack of 27,000 rebels led by Father John Murphy. The rebels were beaten off with great slaughter, and their intended advance on Dublin prevented.

Armada, The Invincible.

The fight with the Spanish Armada in the Channel began on Sunday, July 21, 1588, and lasted with intervals until the 30th. The Armada consisted of 130 ships, many of large size, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The English fleet numbered 197 in all, but only 34 were Queen's ships, and of these but 8 were over 600 tons burden. Lord Howard of Effingham commanded, with Drake and Hawkins as his lieutenants. The English vessels hung on to the flanks of the Spanish ships as they sailed up channel, harassing them in every way, and doing considerable damage, until the Armada anchored in Calais roads. Here many of their finest vessels were captured or destroyed by fire-ships, and finally on the 30th, Medina Sidonia decided to attempt to escape northwards. His fleet was scattered by storms, and many wrecked on the Scotch and Irish coasts, and in the end only about one-half of the Armada returned to Spain.

Arnee.

Fought 1751, shortly after the relief of Arcot, between 900 British troops, under Clive, with 600 Mahratta horse under Basin Rao, and a French force of 4,800, including 300 Europeans, who were in charge of a convoy of treasure. Clive took up a position in swampy ground, crossed by a causeway along which the convoy must pass. The French were thrown into disorder, and forced to retreat, but night saved them from complete destruction. The treasure was captured.

Arnee (First Mysore War).

An indecisive action fought June 7, 1782, between the British under Sir Eyre Coote, and the Mysore troops under Hyder Ali.

Arques (Eighth Civil War).

Fought September 23, 1589, between 5,000 Huguenots under Henri IV, and 30,000 Leaguers under the Duc de Mayenne. Henri had taken up a strong position, defended by marshy ground, and of such a nature that Mayenne could only bring against the king 5,000 troops at a time, thus neutralizing the disparity of numbers. He repulsed attack after attack, with heavy loss to the assailants, and eventually Mayenne was forced to withdraw, with the loss of about half his army.

Arrah (Indian Mutiny).

A house in Arrah was, in 1857, defended by Mr. Boyle, with 16 Englishmen and 60 Sikh police, against the attacks of three revolted native regiments, led by a Zemindar named Kur Singh. This small garrison held out from July 25 till August 3, when they were relieved by a small field force under Major Vincent Eyre.

Arras (Wars of Louis XIV).

This place, held by a French garrison, was besieged August, 1654, by the Spaniards under the Great CondÉ. On the 24th a relieving army under Turenne attacked the Spanish lines, and totally routed them with a loss of 3,000 men. CondÉ succeeded in rallying the remainder of his army, and made a masterly retreat to Cambray.

Arretium (Etruscan War).

Fought B.C. 283, when the consular army of L. CÆcilius Metellus, marching to the relief of Arretium, which the Etruscans were besieging, met with a disastrous defeat. Thirteen thousand, including Metellus, were slain, and the rest made prisoners.

Arroyo Grande (Uruguayan War of Independence).

Fought 1842, between the Argentine troops under Oribe, and the Uruguayans under Ribera. Ribera was totally defeated, and Oribe proceeded to lay siege to Montevideo.

Arsouf (Third Crusade).

Fought 1192, between the English Crusaders under Richard Coeur de Lion, and the Saracens, 300,000 strong under Saladin. The Saracens made a desperate onslaught on the English, and both their wings gave way, but the centre under the king stood firm and finally drove back the Moslems in great disorder, with a loss of 40,000 men.

Ascalon (First Crusade).

Fought August 19, 1099, between the Crusaders under Godefroi de Bouillon, and the Saracens under Kilidj Arslan. The Crusaders gained a signal victory, and for a time the Moslem resistance to the Christian occupation of the Holy Land came to an end.

Asculum (Pyrrhus' Invasion of Italy).

Fought B.C. 279, between 45,000 Romans under Sulpicius Saverrio and P. Decius Mus, and the Epirots, with their Italian allies, in about equal force. The Romans fought to raise the siege of Asculum, but were finally routed by the Epirot cavalry and elephants, and driven back to their camp with a loss of 6,000. The Epirots lost 3,000.

Asculum (Social War).

Fought B.C. 89, between 75,000 Romans under Strabo, who was besieging the town, and 60,000 Italians under Judacilius, who had marched to its relief. The Romans were victorious, but Judacilius succeeded in throwing a considerable portion of his army into the beleagueredbeleaguered city.

Ashdown (Danish Invasion).

Fought 871, between the West Saxons under Æthelred and the Danes under Bag Secg and Halfdene. Largely owing to the brilliant leading of Alfred (the Great), who commanded one of the wings, the Danes, after a desperate conflict, which lasted throughout the day, were finally put to flight, having lost one of their kings and five jarls.

Ashtee (Third Mahratta War).

Fought February 19, 1818, between the army of the PeshwÁ, Baji Rao, under Gokla, and the British under General Smith. The PeshwÁ fled before the action began, and Gokla, charging at the head of his cavalry, was killed, whereupon the Mahrattas broke and fled in confusion.

Asirghur (Third Mahratta War).

This fortress, held by Jeswunt Rao, with a strong Mahratta garrison, was besieged by a British force under Sir John Malcolm and General Doveton, March 18, 1819. On the 21st the garrison was driven into the upper fort, and after a continuous bombardment, Jeswunt Rao surrendered April 7. The British loss during the siege was 313 killed and wounded; that of the garrison somewhat less.

Askultsik (Ottoman Wars).

Fought 1828, between 30,000 Turks and the Russians, 17,000 strong, under General Paskiewitch. The Turks were routed, and their camp, with all artillery and baggage, captured. Paskiewitch then laid siege to the town, which was defended by a garrison of 50,000 men, and after a siege of three weeks, carried it by storm, August 28.

Aspendus.

Fought B.C. 191, between the Syrian fleet of Antiochus the Great, under Hannibal, and a Rhodian squadron under Eudamus. Though Hannibal was in superior force, he suffered a severe defeat.

Aspern (Campaign of Wagram).

Fought May 21 and 22, 1809, between 36,000 French under Napoleon, and 70,000 Austrians under the Archduke Charles. The battle commenced about four p.m. on the 21st by an attack on the French position at Aspern, and at nightfall the Austrians had established a lodgment in the village. On the 22nd, both armies having been reinforced during the night, the combat was renewed round Aspern, which was taken and retaken ten times, while Essling was the scene of an equally desperate conflict. Towards evening the bridge by which Napoleon had crossed the Danube was swept away, and Napoleon was compelled to retire. Each side lost about 20,000 men, and both claimed the victory. Among the French who fell were Marshal Lannes and General St. Hilaire.

Aspromonte (Garibaldi's Rising).

Fought August 29, 1862, between a small force of "Red Shirts" under Garibaldi, and the royal troops under General Pallavicini. After a short engagement, in which Garibaldi was wounded, the "Red Shirts," largely outnumbered and surrounded, laid down their arms.

Assandun (Danish Invasion).

The last of the five battles fought in 1016 between the English under Edmund Ironside and the Danish invaders under Knut. Owing to the treachery of Ædric, who crossed over with the Hereford men in the course of the battle, the English were defeated, and shortly afterwards Knut was proclaimed King of England.

Assaye (First Mahratta War).

Fought September 23, 1803, when General Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington) with 4,500 British and native troops routed the army of Sindhia of Gwalior, over 30,000 strong. All the camp equipment and 100 guns were taken. The Duke always considered this the bloodiest action, for the numbers engaged, that he ever witnessed. The British loss amounted to 1,566, or more than one-third of Wellesley's entire force.

Astrakhan.

Siege was laid to this town, 1569, by the Turks under Selim II, who required it as a base for his projected invasion of Persia. It was held by a small Russian garrison, which made an obstinate defence, and was finally relieved by an army despatched to its assistance by Ivan the Terrible, which attacked the Turkish lines, and utterly routed them.

Atahualpa (Conquest of Peru).

Fought 1531, between 160 Spaniards under Pizarro, and 30,000 Peruvians, forming the escort of the Inca, Manco-Capac. The battle was nothing but a butchery, Pizarro, who had invited the Inca to visit him, falling upon the unsuspecting Peruvians, seizing Manco-Capac, and slaughtering 4,000 men, without the loss of a single Spaniard.

Atbara (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought April 8, 1898, between the British and Egyptian army, 14,000 strong, under Sir Herbert Kitchener, and 18,000 Mahdists under Mahmad. The Mahdists occupied an entrenched zareeba on the Atbara, where they were attacked and utterly routed, with a loss in the zareeba of 5,000 killed and 1,000 prisoners, while many more fell in the pursuit. Mahmad was captured. The Anglo-Egyptian losses were 570 killed and wounded, including 29 British officers.

Athenry (Conquest of Ireland).

Fought 1316 between the English under William de Burgh and Richard de Bermingham, and the O'Connors under their chieftain, Feidlim. The O'Connors were defeated, 11,000 of the sept falling in the battle. This is the last appearance of the O'Connors as a clan in Irish history.

Atherton Moor.

See Adwalton Moor.

Auerstadt.

See Jena.

Augsburg.

Fought 900, between the Germans and the invading Hungarians. The Christians fought gallantly, but were overwhelmed by the numbers of the barbarian cavalry, and in the end suffered a signal defeat.

Auldearn (Civil War).

Fought May 9, 1645, when Montrose and his Highlanders defeated a largely superior force of Covenanters under Sir John Hurry, who was marching northward to raid the lands of the Gordons.

Auray.

Fought September 27, 1364, between the partisans of John de Montfort, and those of Charles of Blois, the rival claimants to the Dukedom of Brittany. The English party, under Sir John Chandos, were besieging Auray, when they were attacked by the French, who were led by Bertrand du Guesclin. Chandos' position, however, was very strong, and the French were unable to make any impression upon it. Meanwhile they were thrown into utter confusion by an attack on their flank, and were ultimately routed, with heavy loss, Charles of Blois being among the slain. Bertrand du Guesclin was captured. De Montfort was shortly afterwards acknowledged by Charles V of France as Duke of Brittany.

Aussig (Hussite War).

Fought 1426, between the Germans under the Emperor Sigismund, and the Taborites, the extreme section of the Hussites, under John Zisca. The Germans were signally defeated.

Austerlitz (Campaign of the Danube).

Fought December 2, 1805, between 50,000 Russians and 25,000 Austrians under Kutusoff, and 75,000 French under Napoleon. An attempt to turn the French flank failed, and led to the left of the allies being entirely cut off from their centre. Their left and centre were thus beaten in detail, and the right, which had at first held its own, was surrounded, and driven in disorder across a partially frozen lake, where many perished. The allies lost 20,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners, and a large number of guns. The French lost about 5,000. The battle is called the Battle of the Three Emperors, those of Russia, Austria, and France being all present with their respective armies.

Avaricum (Gallic War).

This place was made the headquarters of the revolted Gauls under Vercingetorix, B.C. 53, and was besieged by CÆsar, with 50,000 Romans. The place was strongly defended, but supplies ran short, and Vercingetorix attempted to withdraw his troops. In this he was unsuccessful, and the Romans, delivering a vigorous assault, took possession of the town, and massacred the garrison and inhabitants.

Avus (Second Macedonian War).

Fought B.C. 198, between 20,000 Macedonians under Philip, and two Roman legions under T. Quinctius Flamininus. A force of 4,000 legionaries penetrated to the rear of Philip's camp, and when Flamininus attacked in front, they fell upon the Macedonian rear, and completely routed them, with a loss of 2,000.

Axarquia (War of Granada).

Fought March 20, 1483, between a Spanish force of 3,000 knights, and about 2,000 infantry, under the Marquis of Cadiz, and a strong Moorish force under Abul Hasan. The Spaniards were marching through the defile of Axarquia, on their way to attack Malaga, when they were assailed in front and flank, and totally routed, losing 800 killed and 1,600 prisoners. Among the killed were 400 men of rank.

Ayacucho (South American War of Independence).

Fought December 9, 1824, between the South American patriots, 5,780 strong, under Sucre, and the Spaniards, 9,310 in number, under Laserna. The latter were routed with a loss of 2,100 killed and wounded, and over 3,500 prisoners, including Laserna, in addition to 15 guns. The Patriots lost 979. This engagement, which is also knownknown as the Battle of Candorcanqui, practically decided the question of South American independence.

Aylesford (Jutish Invasion).

Fought 456, between the Jutes under Hengist and Horsa, and the Britons under Vortigern. Horsa was slain in the battle, but the Jutes were victorious.

Azimghur (Indian Mutiny).

Fought April 15, 1858, between a British column, composed of three regiments of infantry and three of Sikh cavalry, under Sir Edward Layard, and the Dinapur mutineers, about 5,000 strong, under Kur Singh. The rebels were routed and dispersed, Kur Singh falling mortally wounded.

Azores.

In 1591, a fleet of 7 ships under Lord Thomas Howard was driven from Floris by the Spanish fleet under Don Alfonso Bassano. The action was chiefly remarkable for the gallant fight made by Sir Richard Grenville in the Revenge, which maintained an unequal struggle for nine hours, when her gallant commander was mortally wounded, and she surrendered at daybreak.