The English language contains a great many words and phrases which are made up of two or more words combined or related in such a way as to form a new verbal phrase having a distinct meaning of its own and differing in meaning from the sum of the component words taken singly. Income and outgo, for example, have quite definite meanings related, it is true, to come and go and to in and out, but sharply differentiated from those words in their ordinary and general signification. We use these compound words and phrases so commonly that we never stop to think how numerous they are, or how frequently new ones are coined. Any living language is constantly growing and developing new forms. New objects have to be named, new sensations expressed, new experiences described.

Sometimes these words are mere aggregations like automobile, monotype, sidewalk, policeman and the like. Sometimes, indeed very often, they are short cuts. A hatbox is a box for carrying a hat, a red-haired man is a man with red hair. A bookcase is a case to contain books, etc.

Sometimes the phrase consists of two or more separate words, such as well known or nicely kept. Sometimes it consists of words joined by a hyphen, such as boarding-house, sleeping-car. Sometimes it consists of a single word formed by amalgamating or running together the components, such as penholder, nevertheless.

In which of these forms shall we write the phrase we speak so easily? How shall we shape the new word we have just coined? Which of these three forms shall we use, and why? Ordinarily we look for the answer to such questions from three sources, historical development, the past of the language; some logical principle of general application; or some recognized standard of authority. Unfortunately we get little help from either of these sources in this special difficulty.

The history of the language is a history of constant change. The Anglo-Saxon tongue was full of compounds, but the hyphen was an unknown device to those who spoke it. The English of Chaucer, the period when our new-born English tongue was differentiated from those which contributed to its composition, is full of compounds, and the compounds were generally written with a hyphen. Shakespeare used many compound words and phrases some of which sound strange, if not uncouth, to modern ears, but used the hyphen much less than Chaucer. In modern times the tendency has been and is to drop the hyphen. The more general progression seems to be (1) two words, (2) two words hyphenated, (3) two words run together into one. Sometimes, however, the hyphen drops, leaving two words separated. That there is constant change, and that the change is progressing consistently in the direction of eliminating the hyphen is fairly clear. This, however, does not help us much. At what stage of the process are we with regard to any given word? Which form of the process is operating in any given case?

There are no laws or principles of universal application on which we may build a consistent system of practice. Certain general principles have been laid down and will be here set forth. While they are helpful to the understanding of the subject they are not sufficiently universal to serve as practical guides in all cases. In any event they need to be supplemented by careful study of the rules for the use of the hyphen, by careful study of the best usage in particular cases, and by thorough knowledge of the style of each particular office, as will be pointed out later. Authorities and usage differ widely, and it is often difficult to say that a particular form is right or wrong.

There is no recognized standard authority. The dictionaries do not agree with each other and are not always consistent with themselves. They may always write a certain word in a certain way but they may write another word to all appearance exactly analogous to the first in another way. For example Worcester has brickwork and brasswork, but wood-work and iron-work. Webster, on the other hand, has woodwork and brick-work.

The best that the printer can do is to adopt a set of rules or style of his own and stick to it consistently. Here and there a generally accepted change, like the dropping of the hyphen from tomorrow and today will force itself upon him, but for the most part he may stick to his style. Of course, the author, if he has a marked preference, must be permitted to use his own methods of compounding except in magazine publications and the like. In such cases, when the author’s work is to appear in the same volume with that of other writers, the style of the printing office must rule and the individual contributors must bow to it.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Three general principles are laid down by Mr. F. Horace Teall which will be found useful, though they must be supplemented in practice by more specific rules which will be given later. They are as follows:

IAll words should be separate when used in regular grammatical relations and construction unless they are jointly applied in some arbitrary way.

IIAbnormal associations of words generally indicate unification in sense and hence compounding in form.

IIIConversely, no expression in the language should ever be changed from two or more words into one (either hyphenated or solid) without change of sense.

INFLUENCE OF ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING

Some writers lay much stress on the influence of accent in the formation of compounds while others ignore it entirely. Accent undoubtedly has some influence and the theory may be easily and intelligibly expressed. It ought to be understood, but it will not be found an entirely safe guide. Usage has modified the results of compounding in many cases in ways which do not lend themselves to logical explanation and classification.

The general principle as stated by Mr. Teall is as follows:

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS

ITwo nouns used together as a name form a compound noun unless:

Various uses of the noun as an adjective, that is, in some qualifying or attributive sense are when the noun conveys the sense of:

IIEvery name apparently composed of a plain noun and a noun of agent or verbal noun, but really conveying the sense of a phrase with suffix er, or, or ing, should be treated as a compound; roller distribution.

IIIPossessive phrases used as specific names (generally plants) are treated as compounds.

IVAny phrase used as a specific name in an arbitrary application not strictly figurative is written as a compound; blueberry, red-coat, forget-me-not.

VAny pair of words used as one name of which the second is a noun but the first not really an adjective should be written as a compound; foster-brother, down-town, after-consideration.

VIAny two words other than nouns should be treated as a compound, generally solid, when arbitrarily associated as a name; standpoint, outlook.

VIIA name or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name compounded of two words should be treated as a compound with a hyphen; East-Indian, New-Yorker. If the name is not inflected this rule does not apply; East India Company, New York man.

VIIIAny pair or series of words arbitrarily associated in a joint sense different from their sense when used separately, should be compounded; workman-like, warlike.

COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS

Compounds having the force of nouns may be made up in several ways.

Compounds having the force of adjectives may be made up in several ways.

Four compounds occur with the force of verbs.

Several combinations are used with the force of adverbs.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN

1. Hyphenate nouns formed by the combination of two nouns standing in objective relation to each other, that is, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb:

well-wisher		wood-turning
mind-reader		child-study
office-holder		clay-modeling

When such compounds are in very common use, and especially when they have a specific or technical meaning, they are printed solid;

typewriter		stockholder
proofreader		copyholder
lawgiver		dressmaker

2. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a noun when the meaning of the combination is different from that of the two words taken separately; boarding-house, sleeping-car, walking-stick.

3. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a preposition used absolutely (not governing the following noun); the putting-in or taking-out of a hyphen.

4. As a rule compounds of book, house, will, room, shop, and work should be printed solid when the prefixed noun has one syllable; should be hyphenated when it contains two; should be printed in two separate words when it contains three or more;

Unusual combinations such as source-book and wheat-mill are sometimes hyphenated, and the hyphen is sometimes omitted for the sake of the appearance as in school work.

5. Compounds of maker, dealer, and other words denoting occupation are generally hyphenated; harness-maker, job-printer.

The tendency is to print these words solid when they come into very common use; dressmaker.

6. Hyphenate nouns when combined in an adjectival sense before the name of the same person; the martyr-president Lincoln, the poet-artist Rosetti.

7. Compounds of store are generally hyphenated when the prefix contains one syllable, otherwise not; drug-store, fruit-store (but bookstore), provision store.

8. Compounds of fellow are hyphenated; fellow-being, play-fellow, but bedfellow.

9. Compounds of father, mother, brother, sister, daughter, parent, and foster should be hyphenated when the word in question forms the first part of the compound; father-love, mother-country, brother-officer, sister-state, daughter-cell, parent-word, foster-brother, but (by exception) fatherland.

10. Hyphenate compounds of great in phrases indicating degrees of descent; great-grandmother, great-great-grandfather.

11. Hyphenate compounds of life and world; life-history, world-influence, but (by exception) lifetime.

12. Compounds of skin with words of one syllable are printed solid, otherwise as two separate words; calfskin, sheepskin, alligator skin.

13. Hyphenate compounds of master; master-builder, master-stroke, but (by exception) masterpiece.14. Hyphenate compounds of god when this word forms the second element; sun-god, war-god, godsend, godson.

15. Hyphenate compounds of half and quarter; half-truth, quarter-circle, half-title, but on account of difference in meaning of quarter, quartermaster, headquarters.

16. These prefixes

ante-		infra-		re-
anti-		inter-		semi-
bi-		intra-		sub-
co-		pre-		super-
demi-		post-		tri-

are ordinarily joined to the word with which they are used without a hyphen, except when followed by the same letter as that with which they terminate or by w or y;

antechamber		post-temporal
antiseptic		post-graduate
anti-imperialistic		prearrange
biennial		pre-empt
bipartisan		recast
co-equal		re-enter
co-ordinate		semiannual
demigod		subconscious
inframarginal		subtitle
international		superfine
intersperse		tricolor
intramural		co-workers
intra-atomic		co-yield

Exceptions are

(a) Combinations with proper names or adjectives derived therefrom, and long or unusual compounds;

ante-bellum		sister-university
anti-license		post-revolutionary
anti-security		pre-Raphaelite
demi-relievo		re-tammanize

(b) Words in which the omission of the hyphen would alter the sense;

re-formation		reformation
re-cover		recover
re-creation		recreation

17. The negative prefixes un, in, il, im, and a do not take a hyphen except in very rare or artificial combinations; unmanly, invisible, illimitable, impenetrable, asymmetrical.

The negative prefix non calls for a hyphen except in very common words;

non-existent		non-combatant
non-interference		nonsense
non-unionist		nonessential

18. The prefixes quasi, extra, supra, ultra, and pan call for a hyphen;

quasi-historical		supra-normal
quasi-corporation		ultra-conservative
extra-mural		Pan-Germanism

Ultramontaine, probably because a specific party designation, is always printed solid.

19. Over and under do not ordinarily call for a hyphen; overemphasize, underfed, but over-careful, over-spiritualistic.

20. Combinations having self and by as the first element of the compound call for a hyphen; self-evident, self-respecting, by-law, by-product, but selfhood, selfish, and selfsame.

21. Combinations of fold are printed as one word if the number contains only one syllable but as two if it contains more than one;

twofold		fifteen fold
tenfold		a hundred fold

22. Adjectives formed by a noun preceding like do not take a hyphen if the noun is a monosyllable, except when ending in l or a proper noun; if the noun contains more than one syllable a hyphen should be used; childlike, warlike, catlike, bell-like, Napoleon-like, but (by exception) Christlike.

23. Vice, elect, ex, general, and lieutenant as parts of titles are connected with the chief noun by a hyphen; vice-consul, ex-president, governor-elect, postmaster-general, lieutenant-colonel.24. Today, tonight, and tomorrow are printed without a hyphen.

25. In fractional numbers spelled out connect the numerator and denominator by a hyphen. “The day is three-quarters gone,” four and five-eighths, thirty-hundredths, ninety-two thousandths.

Do not use the hyphen in an instance as “One half the business is owned by Mr. Jones, one quarter by Mr. Smith, and one eighth each by Mr. Browne and Mr. Robinson.”

26. Where two or more compound words occur together having one of their components in common, this component is often omitted from all but the last word and the omission indicated by a hyphen;

27. Ordinal numbers compounded with nouns take the hyphen in such expressions as second-hand, first-rate, and the like.

28. Numerals of one syllable take a hyphen in compounds with self-explanatory words such as four-footed, one-eyed, and the like.

29. Numerals compounded with nouns to form an adjective take the hyphen; twelve-inch rule, three-horse team, six-point lead.

30. The hyphen is used in compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun; jew’s-harp, crow’s-nest.

31. The hyphen is used with most compounds of tree; apple-tree, quince-tree, but not when a particular object, not a tree (vegetable), is meant; whippletree, crosstree.

32. Use the hyphen in compounding two adjectives generally, especially personal epithets; asked-for opinion, sea-island cotton, dry-plate process, hard-headed, strong-armed, broad-shouldered.33. The hyphen is not used in points of the compass unless doubly compounded; northeast, southwest, north-northeast, south-southwest by south.

34. Compounds ending with man or woman are run solid; pressman, forewoman.

35. Omit the hyphen in such phrases as by and by, by the bye, good morning (except when used adjectively, a good-morning greeting,) attorney at law, coat of arms.

36. Compounds ending in holder and monger are run solid; bondholder, cheesemonger.

37. Compounds beginning with eye are run solid; eyeglass, eyewitness.

38. Compounds unless very unusual, beginning with deutero, electro, pseudo, sulpho, thermo, etc., are run solid; electrotype, pseudonym, thermostat.

39. Do not separate

meanwhile		anywhere		somebody
meantime		anybody		somehow
moreover		anyhow		something
forever		anything		sometime
everywhere		anyway		somewhat
		somewhere

In phrases like in the meantime and forever and ever the words are printed separately.

Any one and some one are separate words.

40. In compounds of color the hyphen is not used except when a noun is used with an adjective to specify color; reddish-brown, gray-white, lemon-yellow, olive-green, silver-gray.

41. Following is a list of words of everyday occurrence which should be hyphenated, and which do not fall under any of the above classifications.

after-years		food-stuff		sea-level
bas-relief		guinea-pig		sense-perception
birth-rate		horse-power		son-in-law
blood-relations		loan-word		subject-matter
common-sense		man-of-war		thought-process
cross-examine		object-lesson		title-page
cross-reference		page-proof		wave-length
cross-section		pay-roll		well-being
death-rate		poor-law		well-nigh
folk-song		post-office		will-power
fountain-head

These rules are the consensus of opinion of a considerable number of good authorities from DeVinne (1901) to Manly and Powell (1913). The great practical difficulty is that authorities differ as to their application. DeVinne uses the dieresis instead of the hyphen in such cases as co-operate or pre-eminent, writing coÖperate, preËminent. Many of the rules have exceptions and authorities differ as to the extent of the exceptions. There are many differences in the great number of unclassified compounds. For example, Manly and Powell write coat-of-arms, while Orcutt writes coat of arms. Common usage omits the hyphen from post office except when used as an adjective, e. g., post-office accounts.

A strict adherence to the rules given would probably result, not in bad composition, but in a much greater use of hyphens than would be found on the pages of many recent books from the presses of some of the best publishers. This is due partly to the fact that usage has never been strictly uniform and partly to the constant progressive change noted at the beginning of this study. We are gradually discontinuing the use of the hyphen just as we are diminishing our use of capital letters, punctuation marks, and italics.

The compositor should ground himself thoroughly in the principles and rules. He should learn the best usage with regard to special words and phrases. He should master the office style. He should follow copy if the author has distinct and definite ideas which are not absolutely wrong and would not introduce inconsistencies in magazines and the like by violating the office style which is followed in other parts of the same publication. If it is clear that the author knows what he wants, the compositor should follow copy. Questions of correctness and conformity to style belong not to him but to the copy editor and proofreader.

---