[Statesman, philosopher, and biblical exegete. He was born at Lisbon in 1437, and died at Venice in 1508. He was treasurer at the court of King Alfonso V of Portugal. When the Jews were expelled from Spain, he left that country and went to Naples. He was a prolific writer, and in all his works he displayed clear-sightedness and a thorough mastery of the subjects under discussion, though he lacked striking originality. His most popular work is his commentary on the Bible.]

The Advantages of a Republic over a Monarchy^[247]

Behold, it behooves us to know whether a monarch is a necessity, inherently needed for the people, or it is possible to exist without him. The philosophers adopt the former opinion, and think that the service rendered by the king to the people in the political organization is the same as the relation of the heart to the body in animals possessing a heart, and as the relation of the First Cause to the entire universe. Now if the investigators think that a kingdom must be based on three things (firstly, unity and absence of partnership; secondly, continuity and absence of change; thirdly, absolute power), then their conclusion as to the need and necessity of a monarch is indeed fallacious. For it is not impracticable that a people should have many leaders, united, agreeing, and concurring in one counsel, who should decide administrative and judicial matters. This militates against the first principle. Then, why should not their administration be for one year, or for three years, like the years of a hireling, or less than that? When the turn of other judges and officers comes, they will arise in their stead, and investigate whether the first ones have not failed in their trust, and he whom they condemn shall make good the wrong he committed. This militates against the second principle. Then again, why should not their power be limited and regulated according to the laws and statutes? A common-sense principle tells us that when one man disagrees with the majority, the law is according to the majority. It is more likely that one man should trespass, through his folly, or strong temptations or anger (as it is written: ‘the wrath of a king is as messengers of death’^[248]), than that many men taking counsel should transgress. For if one of them turns aside from the right path, the others will protest against him. Moreover, since their administration is temporary, and they must render account after a short while, the fear of man will be upon them. But what need is there of producing abstract arguments, since experience is more forceful than logic? Behold and see the countries where the administration is in the hands of kings, and you will observe their abominations and corruptions, every one of them does that which is right in his own eyes; for the earth is filled with wickedness through them. On the other hand, we see this day many countries where the administration is in the hands of judges; temporary rulers are elected there, and over them is a chief against whom there is no rising up; they choose that which is right by definite regulations; they rule over the people, and decide concerning matters appertaining to war; none can withstand them, whether it be for the rod or for the land.^[249] Dost thou not know? hast thou not heard that there was a great country that had dominion over all the world? She devoured the whole earth, trod it down, and broke it in pieces, when her administration was in the hands of the numerous consuls, who were faithful, numerous, and held temporary offices. But after an emperor was made to rule over it, it became tributary. Even to-day Venice rules as a mistress, great among nations, a princess among the states, and the state of Florence is the glory of all lands. There are likewise other states, great and small, which have no king, and are governed by leaders elected for a fixed time. Now in the elected governments in which there is nothing crooked or perverse, no man lifts his hand or his foot to commit any matter of trespass. They conquer countries with wisdom, understanding, and knowledge. All this proves that the existence of a monarch is not necessary; nay, it is harmful, and is a great danger. In a similar manner the author of the Guide^[250] warned against the great dangers incurred in travelling on the seas and in serving kings, on account of the similarity that exists between the two in the possibility of danger, both being alike, the stormy wind on the ocean and the spirit of the ruler. It is surprising that the adherents of that erroneous opinion have compared the unity of a king elected by the authority and will of men to the unity of the First Cause, who is blessed, the necessarily eternal. Indeed the wise men have written concerning the body of an animal that there are three vital members which control it. Even according to the opinion of the chief of the philosophers that the heart is the only vital member, this merely refers to the production of the spirit; but he does not deny the control of the body by the other faculties, by the psychical, which are from the brain, and the physical which are from the liver. To conclude, things of nature are inevitably arrayed in this manner, but those which result from the action of the will belong to the category of the contingent. The one cannot be compared to the other.

No objection can be raised from the saying: ‘For the transgression of a land many are the princes thereof;’^[251] for that verse speaks of the princes, not of the leaders and the judges. How can we ignore self-evident facts? For if the leaders are good, it is better that they should be many and not one; if they are bad, one left free to his lusts is more dangerous than many.

I therefore think that kings were at first set up to rule not by the people’s elections, but by force: the one that was stronger prevailed; as it is written: ‘Let us go up against Judah, and vex it, and set up a king in the midst of it.’^[252] Even these were only appointed as a matter of trust, to serve the people; but they made themselves masters, as if God, who is blessed, gave them the earth and the fulness thereof, and they leave it as an inheritance to their children after them and to their children’s children for ever, as if it were a plot of land which one acquires for money. This cursed plague has spread so much that sometimes a man arises, and rules alone, and governs according to his imagination. This, however, is not alike in all kingdoms; for in some of them the king does not have so much power in the administration. But the better of the two is the one that does not yet exist.