CHAPTER LXXXIII.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS (continued). — FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY BY PESTILENCE BEFORE SYRACUSE, DOWN TO THE DEATH OF DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. B.C. 394-367.

Frequent occurrence of pestilence among the Carthaginians, not extending to the Greeks in Sicily. — Mutiny among the mercenaries of Dionysius — Aristoteles their commander is sent away to Sparta. — Difficulties of Dionysius arising from his mercenaries — heavy burden of paying them. — Dionysius reËstablishes MessÊnÊ with new inhabitants. — Conquests of Dionysius in the interior of Sicily. — Alarm at Rhegium — Dionysius attacks the Sikel town of Tauromenium — desperate defence of the Sikels — Dionysius is repulsed and nearly slain. — Agrigentum declares against Dionysius — reÄppearance of the Carthaginian army under Magon. — Expedition of Dionysius against Rhegium — he fails in surprising the town — he concludes a truce for one year. — Magon again takes the field at Agyrium — is repulsed by Dionysius — truce concluded. — Dionysius again attacks Tauromenium — captures it, drives out the Sikels, and plants new inhabitants. — Plans of Dionysius against the Greek cities in Southern Italy — great pressure upon these cities from the Samnites and Lucanians of the interior. — Alliance contracted among the Italiot Greeks, for defence both against the Lucanians and against Dionysius — Dionysius allies himself with the Lucanians. — Dionysius attacks Rhegium — the Rhegines save the Krotoniate fleet — fleet of Dionysius ruined by a storm. — Defeat of the inhabitants of Thurii by the Lucanians — Leptines with the fleet of Dionysius off LÄus — his conduct towards the survivors. — Fresh expedition of Dionysius against the Italiot Greeks — his powerful armament — he besieges Kaulonia. — United army of the Italiot Greeks advances to relieve the place — their advanced guard is defeated, and HelÔris the general slain. — The whole army is defeated and captured by Dionysius. — Generous lenity of Dionysius towards the prisoners. — Dionysius besieges Rhegium — he grants to them peace on severe terms. — He captures Kaulonia and Hipponium — inhabitants transported to Syracuse — territory made over to Lokri. — Artifices of Dionysius to impoverish and disarm the Rhegines. — He besieges Rhegium — desperate defence of the town under the general Phyton — Surrender of the place from famine, after a blockade of eleven months. — Cruel treatment of Phyton by Dionysius. — Strong sympathy excited by the fate of Phyton. — Rhegium dismantled — all the territory of the southern Calabrian peninsula united to Lokri. — Peace of Antalkidas — ascendent position of Sparta and of Dionysius — Kroton conquered by Dionysius — Splendid robe taken from the temple of HÊrÊ. — Schemes of Dionysius for transmarine colonies and conquests, in Epirus and Illyria. — Dionysius plunders the coast of Latium and Etruria, and the rich temple of Agylla. — Immense power of Dionysius — his poetical compositions. — Olympic festival of 384 B.C., the first after the peace of Antalkidas — Dionysius sends thither a splendid legation — also chariots to run — and poetical compositions to be recited. — Feelings of the crowd at the festival — Dikon of Kaulonia. — Harangue of Lysias at the festival against Dionysius, in reference to the political state of the Grecian world, and the sufferings of the enslaved Sicilians. — Hatred of the past, and fear of the future conquests of Dionysius, both prevalent. — Lysias exhorts his hearers to destroy the tents of the Syracusan legation at Olympia, as an act of retribution against Dionysius. — Explosion of antipathy against the poems of Dionysius recited at Olympia — insults heaped upon his name and person. — Excessive grief, wrath, and remorse, of Dionysius on hearing of this manifestation against him — his suspicions and cruelties. — Marked and singular character of the manifestation against Dionysius. — Plato visits Syracuse — is harshly treated by Dionysius — acquires great influence over Dion. — New constructions and improvements by Dionysius at Syracuse. — Intention of Dionysius to renew the war with Carthage. — War with Carthage — Victory of Dionysius over the Carthaginian army under Magon. — Second battle with the Carthaginians at Kronium, in which Dionysius is defeated with terrible loss. — He concludes peace with Carthage, on terms very unfavorable to himself: all the territory west of the river Halykus is surrendered to Carthage: he covenants to pay tribute to Carthage. — Affairs of Southern Italy: wall across the Calabrian peninsula projected, but not executed. — Relations of Dionysius with Central Greece. — New war undertaken by Dionysius against Carthage. He is at first successful, but is ultimately defeated near LilybÆum, and forced to return home. — Dionysius gains the prize of tragedy at the LenÆan festival at Athens. His joy at the news. He dies of fever soon afterwards. — Character of Dionysius.

1-54

CHAPTER LXXXIV.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS AFTER THE DEATH OF THE ELDER DIONYSIUS — DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER — AND DION.

Family left by Dionysius at his death. — Dion — his connection with the Dionysian family. — Personal character of Dion. — Plato, Dion, and the Pythagorean philosophers. — Extraordinary influence of Plato upon Dion. — Dion learns to hate the Dionysian despotism — he conceives large political and reformatory views. — Alteration of habits in Dion — he brings Plato into communication with Dionysius. — Dion maintains the good opinion and confidence of Dionysius, until the death of the latter — his visits to Peloponnesus. — Death of the elder Dionysius — divergences of interest between the two lines of family. — The younger Dionysius succeeds his father — his character. — Conduct of Dion — he submits to the younger Dionysius — gives him frank and wholesome advice. — Dion acquires great influence and estimation from Dionysius. — Recall of Philistus from exile. — Dion tries to work upon the mind of Dionysius towards a freer political government and mental improvement. — His earnest exhortations produced considerable effect, inspiring Dionysius with a strong desire to see and converse with Plato. — Invitation sent to Plato, both by Dion and by Dionysius. — Hesitation of Plato — he reluctantly consents to visit Syracuse. — Plato visits Syracuse — unbounded deference and admiration manifested towards him at first by Dionysius — Fear and hatred felt by Philistus and other courtiers. — Injudicious manner in which Plato dealt with Dionysius. — Strenuous exhortations addressed by Plato and Dion to Dionysius, to reform himself. — Plato damps the inclination of Dionysius towards Political good. — If Plato had tried to impel Dionysius towards a good practical use of his power, Dionysius might at that time have obeyed him with the aid of Dion. — Difficulties which they would have encountered in trying to realize beneficent projects. — Intrigues by Philistus and others to set Dionysius against Plato and Dion. — Relations between Dionysius and Dion — natural foundation for jealousy on the part of Dionysius. — Dionysius loses his inclinations towards political improvements — comes to hate Dion. — Banishment of Dion from Syracuse to Italy. — Dionysius retains Plato in the acropolis, but treats him well, and tries to conciliate his esteem. — He dismisses Plato — then recalls him — second visit of Plato to Syracuse — his dissatisfaction — Dionysius refuses to recall Dion. — Dionysius confiscates the property of Dion — mortification of Plato, who with difficulty obtains leave to depart from Syracuse. — Resolution of Dion to avenge himself on Dionysius, and to force his way back to Syracuse by arms. — Plato rejoins Dion in Peloponnesus — exasperation of Dion — Dionysius gives his sister AretÊ, the wife of Dion, in marriage to Timokrates. — Means of auxiliaries of Dion — Plato — the Academy — Alkimenes. Dion musters his force at Zakynthus. — Small force of Dion against the prodigious power of Dionysius. Resolution of Dion to conquer or perish. — Circumstances which told against Dionysius — discontent at Syracuse. — Herakleides exiled from Syracuse — he projects an attack upon Dionysius, at the same time as Dion. — Weakness of character — dissolute and drunken habits — of Dionysius himself. — Alarm of the soldiers of Dion at Zakynthus, when first informed that they were going against Dionysius. — Eclipse of the moon — religious disquietude of the soldiers — they are reassured by the prophet Miltas — fortunate voyage from Zakynthus to Sicily. — Dion lands at Herakleia — he learns that Dionysius with a large fleet has just quitted Syracuse for Italy. — March of Dion from Herakleia to Syracuse. — Dion crosses the river Anapus, and approaches the gates of Syracuse. — Mistake of Timokrates, left as governor of Syracuse in the absence of Dionysius. — General rising of the Syracusans to welcome and assist Dion. Timokrates is obliged to evacuate the city, leaving Ortygia and EpipolÆ garrisoned. — Entry of Dion into Achradina — joy of the citizens — he proclaims liberty. — Dion presents himself at the Pentapyla in front of Ortygia — challenges the garrison of Ortygia to come out and fight — is chosen general by the Syracusans, with his brother Megakles. — Dion captures EpipolÆ and Euryalus. He erects a cross-wall from sea to sea, to block up Ortygia. — Return of Dionysius to Syracuse. He tries to negotiate with Dion and the Syracusans — deceives them by fallacious propositions. — Sudden sally made by Dionysius to surprise the blockading wall — great bravery, efforts, and danger of Dion — he at length repulses the attack and recovers the wall. — Ortygia is again blocked up by land — efforts of Dionysius with his fleet — arrival of Herakleides from Peloponnesus with a fleet to coÖperate against Dionysius. — Arrival of Philistus with his fleet to the aid of Dionysius. Battle in the Great Harbor between the fleet of Philistus and that of the Syracusans — Philistus is defeated and slain. — Intrigues of Dionysius against Dion in Syracuse. — Relationship of Dion to the Dionysian dynasty — suspicions entertained against him by the Syracusans — his haughty manners. Rivalry of Herakleides. — Herakleides is named admiral. Dion causes him to be deposed, and then moves himself for his re-appointment. — Intrigues and calumnies raised against Dion in Syracuse, by the management of Dionysius. — Mistrust of Dion by the Syracusans, mainly in consequence of his relationship to the Dionysian family. Calumnies of SÔsis. — Farther propositions of Dionysius. He goes away from Ortygia to Italy, leaving his son Apollokrates in command of the garrison. — Increased dissension between Dion and Herakleides — Dion is deposed and his soldiers deprived of the pay due to them — new generals are named. — Dion is forced to retreat from Syracuse — bad conduct of the new generals and of the people towards his soldiers. — Dion reaches Leontini — the Leontines stand by him against the Syracusans — arrival of Nypsius with a reinforcement to the Dionysian garrison in Ortygia. — Advantage gained by Herakleides and the Syracusans over Nypsius as he came into Ortygia — extravagant confidence in Syracuse — Nypsius sallies from Ortygia, and forces his way into Neapolis and Achradina. — Danger and distress of the Syracusans — they send to Leontini to invoke the aid of Dion. — Assembly at Leontini — pathetic address of Dion. — Reluctance of Herakleides to let Dion into Syracuse — renewed assault from Nypsius — unanimous prayers now sent to invite Dion. — Entrance of Dion into Syracuse — he draws up his troops on EpipolÆ. Frightful condition of the city. — Dion drives back Nypsius and his troops into Ortygia — he extinguishes the flames, and preserves Syracuse. — Universal gratitude on the part of the Syracusans, towards Dion. Herakleides and Theodotes throw themselves upon his mercy. — Dion pardons Herakleides — his exposition of motives. — Remarkable features in this act of Dion. — Dion re-establishes the blockade of Ortygia, and ransoms the captives taken. — Dion is named general on land, at the motion of Herakleides, who is continued in his command of the fleet. — Attempt to supersede Dion through GÆsylus the Spartan — good conduct of GÆsylus. — Surrender of Ortygia by Apollokrates to Dion. — Entry of Dion into Ortygia — restoration of his wife — speedy death of his son. — Conduct of Dion in the hour of triumph. — Suspicions previously entertained respecting Dion — that he was aiming at the despotism for himself — confirmed by his present conduct. — He retains his dictatorial power, with the fortress and garrison of Ortygia — he grants no freedom to Syracuse. — Intention of Dion to constitute himself king, with a Lykurgean scheme of government and discipline. — Mistake of Dion as to his position. — Dion takes no step to realise any measure of popular liberty. — Opposition raised against Dion by Herakleides — impatience of the Syracusans to see the demolition of the Dionysian strongholds and funeral monument. — Dion causes Herakleides to be privately slain. — Increased oppressions of Dion — hatred entertained against him in Syracuse. — Disquietude and irritability of Dion on account of his unpopularity. — Conspiracy of Kallippus against him — artifices and perjury. — Kallippus causes Dion to be assassinated. — Life, sentiments, and altered position, of Dion.

54-128

CHAPTER LXXXV.

SICILIAN AFFAIRS DOWN TO THE CLOSE OF THE EXPEDITION OF TIMOLEON. B.C. 353-336.

Position and prospects of Kallippus, after the assassination of Dion. — He continues master of Syracuse more than a year. His misrule. Return of Hipparinus son of Dionysius to Syracuse. Expulsion of Kallippus. — Miserable condition of Syracuse and Sicily, as described by Plato. — Plato’s recommendations fruitless — state of Syracuse grows worse. Dionysius returns to Ortygia, expelling Hipparinus. — Drunken habits of the Dionysian princes. — Lokri — dependency and residence of the younger Dionysius. — Sufferings of the Italiot Greeks from the Lucanians and Bruttians of the interior. — Dionysius at Lokri — his unpopularity and outrageous misrule — cruel retaliation of the Lokrians upon his female relatives. — Distress of the Syracusans — fresh danger from Carthage. They invoke the aid of Hiketas — in concert with Hiketas, they send to entreat aid from Corinth. Secret alliance of Hiketas with the Carthaginians — he conspires to defeat the application to Corinth. — Application from Syracuse favorably received by the Corinthians — vote passed to grant aid. — Difficulty in finding a Corinthian leader — most of the leading citizens decline — Timoleon is proposed and chosen. — Antecedent life and character of Timoleon. — His conduct towards his brother Timophanes, whose life he saves in battle. — Timophanes makes himself despot, and commits gross oppression — Timoleon with two companions puts him to death. — Beneficial effects of the act upon Corinth — sentiment towards Timoleon. — Bitter reproach of Timoleon by his mother. — Intense mental distress of Timoleon. He shuts himself up and retires from public life. — Different judgments of modern and ancient minds on the act of Timoleon. Comments of Plutarch. — Timoleon is appointed commander to Syracuse — he accepts the command — admonition of Telekleides. — Preparations made by Timoleon — his scanty means — he engages some of the Phokian mercenaries. — Bad promise of the expedition — second message from Hiketas, withdrawing himself from the Corinthian alliance, and desiring that no troops might be sent to Sicily. — Timoleon sets out for Sicily with a small squadron — favorable omens from the gods. — Timoleon arrives at Rhegium — is prevented from reaching Sicily by a Carthaginian fleet of superior force — insidious message from Hiketas. — Stratagem of Timoleon to get across to Sicily, in collusion with the Rhegines. — Public meeting in Rhegium — Timoleon and the Carthaginians both present at it — long speeches, during which Timoleon steals away, contriving to send his fleet over to Sicily. — Timoleon at Tauromenium in Sicily — formidable strength of his enemies — despots in Sicily — despondency in Syracuse. — Success of Timoleon at Adranum. He surprises and defeats the troops of Hiketas, superior in number. — Improved position and alliances of Timoleon — he marches up to the walls of Syracuse. — Position of Dionysius in Ortygia — he resolves to surrender that fortress to Timoleon, stipulating for safe conveyance and shelter at Corinth. — Timoleon sends troops to occupy Ortygia, receiving Dionysius into his camp. — Timoleon sends news of his success to Corinth, with Dionysius himself in a trireme. — Great effect produced at Corinth — confidence of the citizens — reinforcement sent to Timoleon. — Sight of the fallen Dionysius at Corinth — impression made upon the Greeks — numerous visitors to see him. Conversation with Aristoxenus. — Immense advantage derived by Timoleon from the possession of Ortygia — numerous stores found in it. — Large Carthaginian army under Magon arrives to aid in attacking Ortygia. Defeated by Neon, during the absence of Magon and Hiketas. Neon acquires Achradina, and joins it by a line of wall to Ortygia. — Return of Magon and Hiketas to Syracuse — increased difficulty of their proceedings, since the victory of Neon. — Return of Timoleon to Syracuse — fortunate march and arrival of the Corinthian reinforcement. — MessÊnÊ declares in favor of Timoleon. — He establishes his camp near Syracuse. — Magon distrusts Hiketas and his position at Syracuse — he suddenly withdraws his army and fleet, leaving Syracuse altogether. — Timoleon masters EpipolÆ and the whole city of Syracuse — Hiketas is obliged to escape to Leontini. — Languid defence made by the troops of Hiketas. — Great effect produced by the news that Timoleon was master of Syracuse. — Extraordinary admiration felt towards Timoleon — especially for the distinguished favor shown to him by the gods. — Timoleon ascribes all his success to the gods. — Temptations of Timoleon in the hour of success — easy possibility of making himself despot of Syracuse. — Timoleon invited the Syracusans to demolish the Dionysian stronghold in Ortygia. — He erects courts of justice on the site. — Desolate condition of Syracuse and other cities in Sicily. Recall of exiles. Application on the part of Timoleon and the Syracusans to Corinth. — Commissioners sent from Corinth to Syracuse — they revive the laws and democracy enacted by DioklÊs — but with various changes and additions. — Poverty at Syracuse — necessity for inviting new colonists. — Large body of new colonists assembled at Corinth for Sicily. — Influx of new colonists into Sicily from all quarters. — Relief to the poverty of Syracuse. — Successes of Timoleon against Hiketas, Leptines, and other despots in Sicily — Hiketas invites the Carthaginians again to invade Sicily. — The Carthaginians land in Sicily with a vast army, including a large proportion of native troops. — Timoleon marches from Syracuse against the Carthaginians — mutiny of a portion of his mercenaries under Thrasius — Timoleon marches into the Carthaginian province — omen about the parsley. — He encounters the Carthaginian army while passing the KrimÊsus. War chariots in their front — Timoleon orders his cavalry to charge. — Strenuous battle between the infantry of Timoleon and the native Carthaginian infantry. Terrible storm — complete victory of Timoleon. — Severe loss of the Carthaginians in the battle, especially of their native troops. Booty collected by the soldiers of Timoleon. — Discouragement and terror among the defeated army as well as at Carthage itself. — Great increase of glory to Timoleon — favor of the gods shown to him in the battle. — Timoleon returns to Syracuse — he dismisses Thrasius and the mercenaries who had deserted him — he sends them out of Sicily — their fate. — Success of Timoleon against Hiketas and Mamerkus. — Victory gained by Timoleon over Hiketas, at the river Damurias. — Timoleon attacks Hiketas and Leontini. The place (with Hiketas in person) is surrendered to Timoleon by the garrison. Hiketas and his family are put to death. — Timoleon gains a victory over Mamerkus — he concludes peace with the Carthaginians. — Timoleon conquers and takes prisoners Mamerkus and Hippon. Mamerkus is condemned by the Syracusan public assembly. — Timoleon puts down all the despots in Sicily. — Timoleon lays down his power at Syracuse. — Gratitude and reward to him by the Syracusans. — Great influence of Timoleon, even after he had laid down his power. — Immigration of new Greek settlers into Sicily, to Gela, Agrigentum, Kamarina, etc. — Value and importance of the moral ascendency enjoyed by Timoleon, in regulating these new settlements. — Numerous difficulties which he would be called upon to adjust. — Residence of Timoleon at Syracuse — chapel to the goddess Automatia. — Arrival of the blind Timoleon in the public assembly of Syracuse during matters of grave and critical discussion. — Manner in which Timoleon bore contradiction in the public assembly — his earnest anxiety to ensure freedom of speech against himself. — Uncorrupted moderation and public spirit of Timoleon. — Xenophontic ideal — command over willing free men — qualities, positive as well as negative, of Timoleon. — Freedom and comfort diffused throughout all Sicily for twenty-four years, until the despotism of Agathokles. — Death and obsequies of Timoleon. — Proclamation at his funeral — monument to his honor. — Contrast of Dion and Timoleon.

128-197

CHAPTER LXXXVI.

CENTRAL GREECE: THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP OF MACEDON TO THE BIRTH OFALEXANDER. 359-356 B.C.

Central Greece resumed. — State of Central Greece in 360-359 B.C. — Degradation of Sparta. — Megalopolis — MessÊnÊ — their fear of Sparta — no central action in Peloponnesus. — Corinth, Sikyon, etc. — Comparatively good condition of Athens. — Power of Thebes. — Extinction of the free cities of Boeotia by the Thebans — repugnant to Grecian feeling. — Thessaly — despots of PherÆ. — Alexander of PherÆ — his cruelties — his assassination. — Tisiphonus despot of PherÆ — loss of power in the PherÆan dynasty. — Macedon — reign and death of Perdikkas. — Philip as a youth at Thebes — ideas there acquired — foundation laid of his future military ability. — Condition of Philip at the death of Perdikkas. — Embarrassments and dangers with which he had to contend. — Macedonian government. — Proceedings of Philip against his numerous enemies. His success — Thracians — Athenians. — He evacuates Amphipolis. He defeats ArgÆus and the Athenians — his mild treatment of Athenian prisoners. — Philip makes peace with Athens — renounces his claim to Amphipolis. — Victories of Philip over the PÆonians and Illyrians. — Amphipolis evacuated by Philip — the Athenians neglect it. — State of Euboea — the Thebans foment revolt and attack the island — victorious efforts of Athens. — Surrender of the Chersonese to Athens. — Social War — Chios, Kos, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. — Causes of the Social War — conduct of the Athenians. — Synod at Athens. — Athens acts more for her own separate interests, and less for that of her allies — her armaments on service — badly paid mercenaries — their extortions. — The four cities declare themselves independent of Athens — interference of the Karian MausÔlus. — Great force of the revolters — armament despatched by Athens against Chios — repulse of the Athenians, and death of Chabrias. — Farther armaments of Athens — Iphikrates, Timotheus, and Chares — unsuccessful operations in the Hellespont, and quarrel between the generals. — Iphikrates and Timotheus are accused by Chares at Athens — Iphikrates is acquitted, Timotheus is fined and retires from Athens. — Arrogance and unpopularity of Timotheus, attested by his friend Isokrates. — Exile of Timotheus — his death soon afterwards. — Iphikrates no more employed — great loss to Athens in these two generals. — Expedition of Chares — Athens makes peace with her revolted allies, recognizing their full autonomy. — End of the Social War — great loss of power to Athens. — Renewed action of Philip. He lays siege to Amphipolis. — The Amphipolitans send to ask assistance from Athens — manoeuvres of Philip to induce Athens not to interfere. — The Athenians determine not to assist Amphipolis — their motives — importance of this resolution. — Capture of Amphipolis by Philip, through the treason of a party in the town. — Importance of Amphipolis to Philip — disappointment of the Athenians at his breach of promise. — Philip amuses the Athenians with false assurances — he induces them to reject advances from the Olynthians — proposed exchange of Pydna for Amphipolis. — Philip acts in a hostile manner against Athens — he conquers Pydna and PotidÆa — gives PotidÆa to the Olynthians — remissness of the Athenians. — Increase of the power of Philip — he founds Philippi, opens gold mines near Mount PangÆus, and derives large revenues from them. — Marriage of Philip with Olympias — birth of Alexander the Great.

197-241

CHAPTER LXXXVII.

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SACRED WAR TO THAT OF THE OLYNTHIAN WAR.

Causes of the Sacred War — the Amphiktyonic assembly. — Political complaint brought before the assembly, first by Thebes against Sparta. — Next, by Thebes against the Phokians. The Phokians are condemned and heavily fined. — The assembly pass a vote consecrating the Phokian territory to Apollo. — Resolution of the Phokians to resist — Philomelus their leader. — Question of right raised as to the presidency of the temple — old right of the Phokians against that of the Delphians and the Amphiktyons. — Active measures taken by Philomelus. He goes to Sparta — obtains aid from king Archidamus. He seizes Delphi — defeats the Lokrians. — Philomelus fortifies the temple — levies numerous mercenaries — tries to conciliate Grecian sentiment. The Grecian world divided. — Philomelus tries to retain the prophetic agency — conduct of the Pythia. — Battles of Philomelus against the Lokrians — his success. — Exertions of the Thebans to raise a confederacy against the Phokians. — Danger of the Phokians — they take part of the treasures of the temple, in order to pay a mercenary force. — Numerous mercenaries employed by the Phokians — violence and ferocity of the war — defeat and death of Philomelus. — Onomarchus general of the Phokians — he renews the war — his power by means of the mercenaries. — Violent measures of Onomarchus — he employs the treasures of the temple to scatter bribes through the various cities. — Successes of Onomarchus — he advances as far as ThermopylÆ — he invades Boeotia — is repulsed by the Thebans. — The Thebans send a force under Pammenes to assist Artabazus in Asia Minor. — Conquest of Sestos by Chares and the Athenians. — Intrigues of Kersobleptes against Athens — he is compelled to cede to her his portion of the Chersonese — Athenian settlers sent thither, as well as to Samos. — Activity and constant progress of Philip — he conquers MethÔnÊ — remissness of Athens. — Philip marches into Thessaly against the despots of PherÆ. — Great power of Onomarchus and the Phokians — plans of Athens and Sparta — the Spartans contemplate hostilities against Megalopolis. — First appearance of Demosthenes as a public adviser in the Athenian assembly. — Parentage and early youth of Demosthenes — wealth of his father — dishonesty of his guardians. — Youth of Demosthenes — sickly and feeble constitution — want of physical education and bodily vigor. — Training of Demosthenes for a speaker — his instructors — IsÆus — Plato — his devoted study of Thucydides. — Indefatigable efforts of Demosthenes to surmount his natural defects as a speaker. — Value set by Demosthenes upon action in oratory. His mind and thoughts — how formed. — He becomes first known as a logographer or composer of speeches for litigants. — Phokion — his antithesis and rivalry with Demosthenes — his character and position — his bravery and integrity. — Lasting hold acquired by his integrity on the public of Athens. — Number of times that he was elected general. — His manner of speaking — effective brevity — contempt of oratory. — His frankness — his contempt of the Athenian people — his imperturbability — his repulsive manners. — Phokion and Eubulus the leaders of the peace-party, which represented the strongly predominant sentiment at Athens. — Influence of Phokion mischievous during the reign of Philip — at that time Athens might have prevailed over Macedonia. — Change in the military spirit of Greece since the Peloponnesian war. Decline of the citizen soldiership: increased spread of mercenary troops. Contrast between the Periklean and the Demosthenic citizen. — Decline of military readiness also among the Peloponnesian allies of Sparta. — Multiplication of mercenary soldiers — its mischievous consequences — necessity of providing emigration. — Deterioration of the Grecian military force occurred at the same time with the great development of the Macedonian force. — Rudeness and poverty of the Macedonians — excellent material for soldiers — organizing genius of Philip. — First parliamentary harangue of Demosthenes — on the Symmories — alarm felt about Persia. — Positive recommendations in the speech — mature thought and sagacity which they imply. — His proposed preparation and scheme for extending the basis of the Symmories. — Spirit of the Demosthenic exhortations — always impressing the necessity of personal effort and sacrifice as conditions of success. — Affairs of Peloponnesus — projects of Sparta against Megalopolis — her attempt to obtain coÖperation from Athens. — Views and recommendations of Demosthenes — he advises that Athens shall uphold MessÊnÊ and Megalopolis. — Philip in Thessaly — he attacks Lykophron of PherÆ, who calls in Onomarchus and the Phokians — Onomarchus defeats Philip. — Successes of Onomarchus in Boeotia — maximum of the Phokian power. — Philip repairs his forces and marches again into Thessaly — his complete victory over the Phokians — Onomarchus is slain. — Philip conquers PherÆ and PagasÆ — becomes master of all Thessaly — expulsion of Lykophron. — Philip invades ThermopylÆ — the Athenians send a force thither and arrest his progress. Their alarm at this juncture, and unusual rapidity of movement. — Phayllus takes the command of the Phokians — third spoliation of the temple — revived strength of the Phokians — malversation of the leaders. — War in Peloponnesus — the Spartans attack Megalopolis — interference of Thebes. — Hostilities with indecisive result — peace concluded — autonomy of Megalopolis again recognized. — Ill success of the Phokians in Boeotia — death of Phayllus, who is succeeded by PhalÆkus. — The Thebans obtain money from the Persian king. — Increased power and formidable attitude of Philip. Alarm which he now begins to inspire throughout the Grecian world. — Philip acquires a considerable navy — importance of the Gulf of PagasÆ to him — his flying squadrons annoy the Athenian commerce and coast. — Philip carries on war in Thrace — his intrigues among the Thracian princes. — He besieges HerÆon Teichos: alarm at Athens: a decree is passed to send out a fleet: Philip falls sick: the fleet is not sent. — Popularity of the mercenary general Charidemus — vote in his favor proposed by Aristokrates — speech composed by Demosthenes against it. — Languor of the Athenians — the principal peace-leaders, Eubulus, Phokion, etc., propose nothing energetic against Philip — Demosthenes undertakes the duty. — First Philippic of Demosthenes, 352-351 B.C. — remarks and recommendations of the first Philippic. Severe comments on the past apathy of the people. — He insists on the necessity that citizens shall serve in person, and proposes the formation of an acting fleet and armament. — His financial propositions. — Mischiefs of the past negligence and want of preparation — harm done by the mercenary unpaid armaments, serving without citizens. — Characteristics of the first Philippic — prudent advice and early warnings of Demosthenes. — Advice of Demosthenes not carried into effect: no serious measures adopted by Athens. — Opponents of Demosthenes at Athens — speakers in the pay of Philip — alarm about the Persian king still continues.

241-319

CHAPTER LXXXVIII.

EUBOIC AND OLYNTHIAN WARS.

Change of sentiments at Olynthus — the Olynthians afraid of Philip — they make peace with Athens. — Unfriendly feelings of Philip towards Olynthus — ripening into war in 350 B.C. — Fugitive half-brothers of Philip obtain shelter at Olynthus. — Intrigues of Philip in Olynthus — his means of corruption and of fomenting intestine discord. — Conquest and destruction of the Olynthian confederate towns by Philip, between 350-347 B.C. terrible phenomena. — Philip attacks the Olynthians and Chalkidians — beginning of the Olynthian war, 350 B.C. — The Olynthians conclude alliance with Athens. — The Athenians contract alliance with Olynthus — earliest Olynthiac speech of Demosthenes. — The Second Olynthiac is the earliest — its tone and tenor. — Disposition to magnify the practical effect of the speeches of Demosthenes — his true position — he is an opposition speaker. — Philip continues to press the Olynthian confederacy — increasing danger of Olynthus — fresh applications to Athens. — Demosthenes delivers another Olynthiac oration — that which stands First, in the printed order. Its tenor. — Just appreciation of the situation by Demosthenes. He approaches the question of the TheÔric Fund. — Assistance sent by Athens to Olynthus. Partial success against Philip. — Partial and exaggerated confidence at Athens. The Athenians lose sight of the danger of Olynthus. Third Olynthiac of Demosthenes. — Tenor and substance of the third Olynthiac. — Courage of Demosthenes in combating the prevalent sentiment. — Revolt of Euboea from Athens. — Intrigues of Philip in Euboea. — Plutarch of Eretria asks aid from Athens. Aid is sent to him under Phokion, though Demosthenes dissuades it — Treachery of Plutarch — danger of Phokion and the Athenians in Euboea — victory of Phokion at TamynÆ. — Dionysiac festival at Athens in March, 349 B.C. — Insult offered to Demosthenes by Meidias. — Reproaches against Demosthenes for having been absent from the battle of TamynÆ — he goes over on service to Euboea as a hoplite — he is named senator for 349-348 B.C. — Hostilities in Euboea, during 349-348 B.C. — Great efforts of Athens in 349 B.C. for the support of Olynthus and the maintenance of Euboea at the same time. — Financial embarrassments of Athens. Motion of Apollodorus about the TheÔric Fund. The assembly appropriate the surplus of revenue to military purposes. — Apollodorus is indicted and fined. — The diversion of the TheÔric Fund proves the great anxiety of the moment at Athens. — Three expeditions sent by Athens to ChalkidikÊ in 349-348 B.C. according to Philochorus. — Final success of Philip — capture of the Chalkidic towns and of Olynthus. — Sale of the Olynthian prisoners — ruin of the Greek cities in ChalkidikÊ. — Cost incurred by Athens in the Olynthian war. — TheÔric Fund — not appropriated to war purposes until a little before the battle of ChÆroneia. — Views respecting the TheÔric Fund. — It was the general Fund of Athens for religious festivals and worship — distributions were one part of it — character of the ancient religious festivals. — No other branch of the Athenian peace-establishment was impoverished or sacrificed to the TheÔric expenditure. — The annual surplus might have been accumulated as a war-fund — how far Athens is blamable for not having done so. — Attempt of the Athenian property-classes to get clear of direct taxation by taking from the TheÔric Fund. — Conflict of these two feelings at Athens. Demosthenes tries to mediate between them — calls for sacrifices from all, especially personal military service. — Appendix.

319-363

CHAPTER LXXXIX.

FROM THE CAPTURE OF OLYNTHUS TO THE TERMINATION OF THE SACRED WAR BYPHILIP.

Sufferings of the Olynthians and Chalkidians — triumph and festival of Philip. — Effect produced at Athens by the capture of Olynthus — especially by the number of Athenian captives taken in it. — Energetic language of Eubulus and Æschines against Philip. — Increased importance of Æschines. — Æschines as envoy of Athens in Arcadia. — Increasing despondency and desire for peace at Athens. — Indirect overtures for peace between Athens and Philip, even before the fall of Olynthus — the Euboeans — Phrynon, etc. — First proposition of Philokrates — granting permission to Philip to send envoys to Athens. — Effect produced upon the minds of the Athenians by their numerous captive citizens taken by Philip at Olynthus. — Mission of the actor Aristodemus from the Athenians to Philip on the subject of the captives. Favorable dispositions reported from Philip. — Course of the Sacred War — gradual decline and impoverishment of the Phokians. Dissensions among themselves. — Party opposed to PhalÆkus in Phokis — PhalÆkus is deposed — he continues to hold ThermopylÆ with the mercenaries. — The Thebans invoke the aid of Philip to put down the Phokians. — Alarm among the Phokians — one of the Phokian parties invites the Athenians to occupy ThermopylÆ — PhalÆkus repels them. — Increased embarrassment at Athens — uncertainty about PhalÆkus and the pass of ThermopylÆ. — The defence of Greece now turned on ThermopylÆ — importance of that pass both to Philip and to Athens. — Motion of Philokrates in the Athenian assembly — to send envoys to Philip for peace. — Ten Athenian envoys sent — Demosthenes and Æschines among them. — Journey of the envoys to Pella. — Statements of Æschines about the conduct of Demosthenes — arrangements of the envoys for speaking before Philip. — Harangue addressed by Æschines to Philip about Amphipolis. Failure of Demosthenes in his speech. — Answer of Philip — return of the envoys. — Review of Æschines and his conduct, as stated by himself. — Philip offers peace on the terms of uti possidetis — report made by the Athenian envoys on their return. — Proceedings in the Athenian assembly after the return of the envoys — motions of Demosthenes. — Arrival of the Macedonian envoys at Athens — days fixed for discussing the peace. — Resolution taken by the synod of allies at Athens. — Assemblies held to discuss the peace, in presence of the Macedonian envoys. — Philokrates moves to conclude peace and alliance with Philip. He proposes to exclude the Phokians specially. — Part taken by Æschines and Demosthenes — in reference to this motion. Contradictions between them. — Æschines supported the motion of Philokrates altogether — Demosthenes supported it also, except as to the exclusion of the Phokians — language of Eubulus. — Motion of Philokrates carried in the assembly, for peace and alliance with Philip. — Assembly to provide ratification and swearing of the treaty. — Question, Who were to be received as allies of Athens? — about the Phokians and Kersobleptes. — The envoy of Kersobleptes is admitted, both by the Athenian assembly and by the Macedonian envoys. — The Macedonian envoys formally refuse to admit the Phokians. — Difficulty of Philokrates and Æschines. Their false assurances about the secret good intentions of Philip towards the Phokians. — The Phokians are tacitly excluded — the Athenians and their allies swear to the peace without them. — Ruinous mistake — false step of Athens in abandoning the Phokians — Demosthenes did not protest against it at the time. — The oaths are taken before Antipater, leaving out the Phokians. — Second embassy from Athens to Philip. — Demosthenes urges the envoys to go immediately to Thrace in order to administer the oath to Philip — they refuse — their delay on the journey and at Pella. — Philip completes his conquest of Thrace during the interval. — Embassies from many Grecian states at Pella. — Consultations and dissensions among the Ten Athenian envoys — views taken by Æschines of the ambassadorial duties. — The envoys address Philip — harangue of Æschines. — Position of Demosthenes in this second embassy. — March of Philip to ThermopylÆ — he masks his purposes, holding out delusive hopes to the Phokians. Intrigues to gain his favor. — The envoys administer the oaths to Philip at PherÆ, the last thing before their departure. They return to Athens. — Plans of Philip on ThermopylÆ — corrupt connivance of the Athenian envoys — letter from Philip which they brought back to Athens. — Æschines and the envoys proclaim the Phokians to be excluded from the oaths with Philip — protest of Demosthenes in the Senate, on arriving at Athens, against the behavior of his colleagues — vote of the Senate approving his protest. — Public assembly at Athens — successful address made to it by Æschines — his false assurances to the people. — The Athenian people believe the promises of Philokrates and Æschines — protest of Demosthenes not listened to. — Letter of Philip favorably received by the assembly — motion of Philokrates carried, decreeing peace and alliance with him forever. Resolution to compel the Phokians to give up Delphi. — Letters of Philip to the Athenians, inviting them to send forces to join him at ThermopylÆ — policy of these letters — the Athenians do nothing. — Phokian envoys heard these debates at Athens — position of PhalÆkus at ThermopylÆ. — Dependence of the Phokians upon Athenian aid to hold ThermopylÆ. — News received at ThermopylÆ of the determination of Athens against the Phokians. — PhalÆkus surrenders ThermopylÆ under convention to Philip. He withdraws all his forces. — All the towns in Phokis surrender at discretion to Philip, who declares his full concurrence with the Thebans. — Third embassy sent by the Athenians to Philip — the envoys return without seeing him, on hearing of the Phokian convention. — Alarm and displeasure at Athens — motion of Kallisthenes for putting the city in a good state of defence — Æschines and other Athenian envoys visit Philip in Phokis — triumphant celebration of Philip’s success. — Fair professions of Philip to the Athenians, after his conquest of ThermopylÆ: language of his partisans at Athens. — The Amphiktyonic assembly is convoked anew. Rigorous sentence against the Phokians. They are excluded from the assembly, and Philip is admitted in their place. — Ruin and wretchedness of the Phokians. — Irresistible ascendency of Philip. He is named by the Amphiktyons presiding celebrator of the Pythian festival of 346 B.C. — Great change effected by this peace in Grecian political relations. Demosthenes and Æschines — proof of dishonesty and fraud in Æschines, even from his own admissions. — This disgraceful peace was brought upon Athens by the corruption of her own envoys. — Impeachment and condemnation of Philokrates. — Miserable death of all concerned in the spoliation of the Delphian temple.

364-434

CHAPTER XC.

FROM THE PEACE OF 346 B.C. TO THE BATTLE OF CHÆRONEIA AND THE DEATH OF PHILIP.

Position of Philip after the conclusion of the Sacred War. — Sentiments of Demosthenes — he recommends acquiescence in the peace, and recognition of the new Amphiktyonic dignity of Philip. — Sentiments of Isokrates — his letter to Philip — his abnegation of free Hellenism. — Position of the Persian king Ochus — his measures against revolters in Phenicia and Egypt. — Reconquest of Phenicia by Ochus — perfidy of the Sidonian prince Tennes. — Reconquest of Egypt by the Persian force under Mentor and Bagoas. — Power of Mentor as Persian viceroy of the Asiatic coast — he seizes Hermeias of Atarneus. — Peace between Philip and the Athenians, continued without formal renunciation from 346-340 B.C. — Movements and intrigues of Philip everywhere throughout Greece. — Disunion of the Grecian world — no Grecian city recognized as leader. — Vigilance and renewed warnings of Demosthenes against Philip. — Mission of Python to Athens by Philip — amendments proposed in the recent peace — fruitless discussions upon them. — Dispute about Halonnesus. — The Athenians refuse to accept cession of Halonnesus as a favor, claiming restitution of it as their right. — Halonnesus taken and retaken — reprisals between Philip and the Athenians. — Movements of the philippizing factions at Megara — at Oreus — at Eretria. — Philip in Thrace — disputes about the Bosphorus and Hellespont — Diopeithes commander for Athens in the Chersonese. Philip takes part with the Kardians against Athens. Hostile collisions and complaints against Diopeithes. — Accusations against Diopeithes at Athens by the philippizing orators — Demosthenes defends him — speech on the Chersonese, and third Philippic. — Increased influence of Demosthenes at Athens — Athenian expedition sent, upon his motion, to Euboea — Oreus and Eretria are liberated, and Euboea is detached from Philip. — Mission of Demosthenes to the Chersonese and Byzantium — his important services in detaching the Byzantines from Philip, and bringing them into alliance with Athens. — Philip commences the siege of Perinthus — he marches through the Chersonesus — declaration of war by Athens against him. — Manifesto of Philip, declaring war against Athens — Complaints of Philip against the Athenians — his policy towards Athens — his lecture on the advantages of peace. — Open war between Philip and the Athenians. — Siege of Perinthus by Philip. His numerous engines for siege — great scale of operations. Obstinacy of the defence. The town is relieved by the Byzantines, and by Grecian mercenaries from the Persian satraps. — Philip attacks Byzantium — danger of the place — it is relieved by the fleets of Athens, Chios, Rhodes, etc. Success of the Athenian fleet in the Propontis under Phokion. Philip abandons the sieges both of Perinthus and Byzantium. — Votes of thanks from Byzantium and the Chersonesus to Athens for her aid — honors and compliments to Demosthenes. — Philip withdraws from Byzantium, concludes peace with the Byzantines, Chians, and others, and attacks the Scythians. He is defeated by the Triballi, and wounded, on his return. — Important reform effected by Demosthenes in the administration of the Athenian marine. — Abuses which had crept into the trierarchy — unfair apportionment of the burthen — undue exemption which the rich administrators had acquired for themselves. — Individual hardship, and bad public consequences, occasioned by these inequalities. — Opposition offered by the rich citizens and by Æschines to the proposed reform of Demosthenes — difficulties which he had to overcome. — His new reform distributes the burthen of trierarchy equitably. — Its complete success. Improved efficiency of the naval armaments under it. — New Sacred War commences in Greece. — Kirrha and its plain near Delphi consecrated to Apollo, in the first Sacred War under Solon. — Necessity of a port at Kirrha, for the convenience of visitors to Delphi. Kirrha grows up again, and comes into the occupation of the Lokrians of Amphissa. — Relations between the Lokrians of Amphissa and Delphi — they had stood forward earnestly in the former Sacred War to defend Delphi against the Phokians. — Amphiktyonic meeting at Delphi — February, 339 B.C. Æschines one of the legates from Athens. — Language of an Amphissian speaker among the Amphiktyons against Athens — new dedication of an old Athenian donative in the temple. — Speech of Æschines in the Amphiktyonic assembly. — Passion and tumult excited by his speech. — Violent resolution adopted by the Amphiktyons. — The Amphiktyons with the Delphian multitude march down to destroy Kirrha — interference of the Amphissians to rescue their property. They drive off the Amphiktyons. — Farther resolution taken by the Amphiktyons to hold a future special meeting and take measures for punishing the Lokrians. — Unjust violence of the Amphiktyons — public mischief done by Æschines. — Effect of the proceeding of Æschines at Athens. Opposition of Demosthenes at first fruitless. — Change of feeling at Athens — the Athenians resolve to take no part in the Amphiktyonic proceedings against Amphissa. — Special meeting of the Amphiktyons at ThermopylÆ, held without Athens. Vote passed to levy a force for punishing Amphissa. Kottyphus president. The Amphiktyons invoke the intervention of Philip. — Motives which dictated the vote — dependence of most of the Amphiktyonic voters upon Philip — Philip accepts the command — marches southward through ThermopylÆ. — Philip enters Phokis. — He suddenly occupies, and begins to re-fortify Elateia. — He sends an embassy to Thebes, announcing his intention to attack Attica, and asking either aid, or a free passage for his own army. — Unfriendly relations subsisting between Athens and Thebes. Hopes of Philip that Thebes would act in concert with him against Athens. — Great alarm at Athens, when the news arrived that Philip was fortifying Elateia. — Athenian public assembly held — general anxiety and silence — no one will speak but Demosthenes. — Advice of Demosthenes to despatch an embassy immediately to Thebes, and to offer alliance on the most liberal terms. — The advice of Demosthenes is adopted — he is despatched with other envoys to Thebes. — Divided state of feeling at Thebes — influence of the philippizing party — effect produced by the Macedonian envoys. — Efficient and successful oratory of Demosthenes — he persuades the Thebans to contract alliance with Athens against Philip. — The Athenian army marches by invitation to Thebes — cordial coÖperation of the Thebans and Athenians. — Vigorous resolutions taken at Athens — continuance of the new docks suspended — the TheÔric Fund is devoted to military purposes. — Disappointment of Philip — he remains in Phokis, and writes to his Peloponnesian allies to come and join him against Amphissa. — War of the Athenians and Thebans against Philip in Phokis — they gain some advantages over him — honors paid to Demosthenes at Athens. — The Athenians and Thebans reconstitute the Phokians and their towns. — War against Philip in Phokis — great influence of Demosthenes — auxiliaries which he procured. — Increased efforts of Philip in Phokis. — Successes of Philip — he defeats a large body of mercenary troops — he takes Amphissa. — No eminent general on the side of the Greeks — Demosthenes keeps up the spirits of the allies, and holds them together. — Battle of ChÆroneia — complete victory of Philip. — Macedonian phalanx — its long pikes — superior in front charge to the Grecian hoplites. — Excellent organization of the Macedonian army by Philip — different sorts of force combined. — loss at the battle of ChÆroneia. — Distress and alarm at Athens on the news of the defeat. — Resolutions taken at Athens for energetic defence. Respect and confidence shown to Demosthenes. — Effect produced upon some of the islanders in the Ægean by the defeat — conduct of the Rhodians. — Conduct of Philip after the victory — harshness towards Thebes — greater lenity to Athens. — Conduct of Æschines — Demades is sent as envoy to Philip. — Peace of Demades, concluded between Philip and the Athenians. The Athenians are compelled to recognize him as chief of the Hellenic world. — Remarks of Polybius on the Demadean peace — means of resistance still possessed by Athens. — Honorary votes passed at Athens to Philip. — Impeachment brought against Demosthenes at Athens — the Athenians stand by him. — Expedition of Philip into Peloponnesus. He invades Laconia. — Congress held at Corinth. Philip is chosen chief of the Greeks against Persia. — Mortification to Athenian feelings — degraded position of Athens and of Greece. No genuine feeling in Greece now, towards war against Persia. — Preparations of Philip for the invasion of Persia. — Philip repudiates Olympias at the instance of his recently married wife, Kleopatra — resentment of Olympias and Alexander — dissension at Court. — Great festival in Macedonia — celebrating the birth of a son to Philip by Kleopatra, and the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of Epirus. — Pausanias — outrage inflicted upon him — his resentment against Philip, encouraged by the partisans of Olympias and Alexander. — Assassination of Philip by Pausanias, who is slain by the guards. — Accomplices of Pausanias. — Alexander the great is declared king — first notice given to him by the Lynkestian Alexander, one of the conspirators — Attalus and queen Kleopatra, with her infant son, are put to death. — Satisfaction manifested by Olympias at the death of Philip. — Character of Philip.

434-523