After this long catalogue of Loci belonging to debate on propositions of Accident, Aristotle proceeds to enumerate those applicable to propositions of Genus and of Proprium. Neither Genus nor Proprium is often made subject of debate as such; but both of them are constituent elements of the debate respecting Definition, which is of frequent occurrence.151 For that reason, both deserve to be studied. When the thesis propounded affirms that A is genus of B, you will run over all the cognates of B, and see whether there is any one among them respecting which A cannot be affirmed as genus. If there be, this is a good argument against the thesis; for the genus ought to be predicable of all. Next, whether what is really no more than an accident is affirmed as genus, which ought to belong to the essence of the subject. Perhaps (e.g.) white is affirmed in the thesis as being genus of snow; but white cannot be truly so affirmed; for it is not of the essence of snow, but is only a quality or accident.152 Examine whether the predicate A comes under the definition already given of an Accident, — that which may or may not be predicated of the subject; also, whether A and B both fall under the same one out of the ten Categories or Predicaments. If B the subject comes under Essentia, or Quale, or Ad Aliquid, the predicate ought also to belong to Essentia, or Quale, or Ad Aliquid: the species and the genus ought to come under the same Category.153 If this be not the case in a thesis of Genus, the thesis cannot be maintained. Aristotle here enunciates this as universally true, whereas if we turn to Categor. p. 11, a. 24, seq. we shall find him declaring it not to be universally true. Compare also Topic. IV. iv. p. 124, b. 15. You are aware that the species always partakes of the genus, while the genus never partakes of the species; to partake Perhaps you may find something respecting which the subject (species) may be truly affirmed, while the predicate (genus) cannot be truly affirmed. If so, the predicate is not a real genus. Thus, the thesis may enunciate Ens or Scibile as being the genus of Opinabile. But this last, the species or subject Opinabile, may be affirmed respecting Non-Ens also; while the predicates Ens or Scibile (given as the pretended genus of Opinabile) cannot be affirmed respecting Non-Ens. You can thus show that Ens or Scibile is not the real genus of Opinabile.155 The pretended species Opinabile (comprising as it does both Ens and Non-Ens) stretches farther than the pretended genus Ens or Scibile: whereas every real genus ought to stretch farther than any one or any portion of its constituent species.156 The thesis may thus be overthrown, if there be any one species which stretches even equally far or is co-extensive with the pretended genus.157 It is a general truth that the same species cannot belong to two distinct genera, unless one of the two be subordinate to the other, or unless both of them be comprehended under some common higher genus. You will examine, therefore, whether there is any other genus, besides the predicate of the thesis, to which the subject of the thesis can be referred. If there be some other genus, not under either of the two conditions above indicated, the predicate enunciated by the thesis cannot be the real genus of the subject. Thus, if the thesis declares justice to be science (or to belong to the genus science), you may remark that there is another distinct genus (virtue) to which justice also belongs. In this particular case, however, it would be replied that science and virtue can both be referred to one and the same higher genus, viz., habit and disposition. Therefore Again, if the predicate of the thesis be the true genus of the subject, all the higher genera in which the predicate is contained must also be predicated in Quid (as the predicate itself is) respecting the subject. This you must show by an induction of particular instances, no counter-instance being producible.159 If the thesis enunciated does not conform to this condition, you will have a good argument against it. You will also run over the sub-species that are comprehended in the subject of the thesis, considered as a genus; and you will examine whether the predicate of the thesis (together with all its superior genera) is predicable essentially or in Quid of all these sub-species. If you can find any one among these sub-species, of which it is not essentially predicable, the predicate of the thesis is not the true genus of the subject;160 the like also, if the definitions of those genera are not predicable of the subject or its sub-species.161 Perhaps the thesis may enunciate as a genus what is really nothing more than a differentia. It may also enunciate the differentia either as a part of the genus or as a part of the species; or it may enunciate the genus either as a part of the differentia or as a part of the species. All these are attackable. The differentia is not a genus, nor does it respond to the question Quid est, but to the question Quale quid est. It is always either more extensive than the species, or co-extensive therewith.162 If none of the differentiÆ belonging to a genus can be predicated of a species, neither can the genus itself be predicated thereof. Thus, neither odd nor even can be predicated of the soul; accordingly, neither can the genus As an example to illustrate the enclosing of the genus within the species (e? t? ????? e?? t? e?d?? ????e?), Aristotle cites a definition given by Plato, who defined t?? ?at? t?p?? ????s??, as f????. Now f??? is less extensive in its meaning than ? ?at? t?p?? ????s??, which includes ?d?s?? and other terms of motion apart from or foreign to f???. — Example of enunciating differentia as a genus is, if immortal be given as the genus to which a god belongs. Immortal is the differentia belonging to ????, and constituting therewith the species god. — Example of enclosing the differentia in the genus is, if odd be given as the essence of number (?pe? ??????). — Example of enclosing differentia in the species is, if immortal be put forward as the essence of a god (?pe? ?e??). — Example of enclosing the genus in the differentia is, number given as the essence of the odd. — Example of enunciating the genus as a differentia is, when change of place is given as the differentia of f???. Again, the generic term and the specific term ought to be univocal in signification. You must examine (according to the tests indicated in the First Book of the Topica) whether it be taken equivocally in the thesis. If it be so, you have a ground of attack, and also if it be taken metaphorically; for every genus ought to be enunciated in the proper sense of the term, and no metaphor can be allowed to pass as a genus.166 Note farther that every true genus has more than one distinct species. You will, therefore, examine whether any other species, besides the subject of the thesis, can be suggested as belonging to the predicate of the thesis. If none, that predicate cannot be the true genus of the subject.167 Several loci are furnished by Contraries, either to the species or the genus. If there be something contrary to the species, but nothing contrary to the genus, then that which is contrary to the species ought to be included under the same genus as the species itself; but, if there be something contrary to the species, and also something contrary to the genus, then that which is contrary to the species ought to be included in that which is contrary to the genus. Each of these doctrines you will have to make good by induction of particular cases.168 If that which is contrary to the species be a genus itself (e.g., bonum) and not included in any superior genus, then the like will be true respecting the species itself: it will not be included in any genus; and the predicate of the thesis will not be a true genus. Bonum and malum are not included in any common superior genus; each is a genus per se.169 Or suppose that the subject (species) of Again, suppose different conditions: that there is no contrary to the genus, but that there is a contrary to the species. You will examine whether not merely the contrary of the species, but also the intermediate between its two contraries, is included in the same genus; for, if the two contraries are included therein, the intermediate ought also to be included. This is a line of argument probable (i.e., conformable to general presumption, and recommendable in a dialectical debate), though there are not wanting examples adverse to it: thus, excess and defect are included in the same genus evil, but the moderate or measured (t? ?t????) is not in the genus evil, but in the genus good.172 We must remark, moreover, that though it be a probable dialectical argument, that, wherever the genus has a contrary, the species will also have a contrary, yet there are cases adverse to this principle. Thus, sickness in general has for its contrary health in general; but particular species of sickness (such as fever, ophthalmia, gout, &c.) have no contrary.173 Such will be your way of procedure, if the thesis propounded be Affirmative, and if you have to make out a negative against it. But if, on the contrary, the thesis be Negative, so that you have to make out an affirmative against it, you have then three If the genus enunciated by the thesis be a true one, all the Derivatives and Collaterals of the predicate will be fit and suitable for those of the subject. Thus, if justice be a sort of science, justly will be scientifically, and the just man will be a scientific man. This locus is useful to be kept in mind, whether you have to make out an affirmative or a negative.175 You may reason in the same way about the Analoga of the predicate and the subject; about the productive and destructive causes of each; the manifestations present, past, and future, of each, &c.176 When the opposite of the species (subject) is Privative, the thesis will be open to attack in two ways. 1. If the privative opposite be contained in the predicate, the subject itself will not be contained therein; for it is a general truth that a subject and its privative opposite are never both of them contained in the same lowest genus: thus, if vision is sensible perception, blindness is not sensible perception. 2. If both the species and the genus have privative opposites, then if the privative opposite of the species be contained in the privative opposite of the genus, the species itself will also be contained in the genus; if not, not. Thus, if blindness be an inability of sensible perception, vision will be a sensible perception. This last locus will be available, whether you are making out an affirmative or a negative.177 If the predicate of the thesis be a true genus, you may convert the thesis simply, having substituted for the predicate the denial of its Contradictory; if not, not. Vice versÂ, if the new proposition If the subject (species) of the thesis be a Relative, you will examine whether the predicate (genus) be relative also; if not, it will not be the true genus of the subject. The converse of this rule, however, will not hold; and indeed the rule itself is not absolutely universal.179 You may also argue that, if the correlate of the genus be not the same as the correlate of the species, the genus cannot be truly predicated of that species: thus, half is the correlate of double, but half is not the proper correlate of multiple; therefore, multiple is not the true genus of double. But your argument may here be met by contradictory instances; thus, cognition has reference to the cognitum, but habitus and dispositio (the genera to which cognitio belongs) do not refer to cognitum but to anima.180 You may also examine whether the correlate, when applied to the genus, is put in the same case (e.g., genitive, dative, &c.) as when it is applied to the species: if it be put into a different case, this affords presumption that the genus is not a true genus; though here again instances may be produced showing that your presumption will not hold universally. Farther, you will observe whether the correlates thus similarly inflected reciprocate like the species and genus; if not, this will furnish you with the same adverse presumption.181 Again, examine whether the correlate of the genus is genus to the correlate of the species; if it be not so, you may argue that the genus is not truly predicated. Thus, if the thesis affirms that perceptio is the genus of cognitio, it will follow that percipibile is the genus of cognoscibile. Now this cannot be maintained; for there are some cognoscibilia which are not perceivable, e.g., some cogitabilia (intelligibilia, ???t?). Since therefore percipibile is not the true genus of cognoscibile, neither can perceptio be the true genus of cognitio.182 We must take note here of the large sense in which Aristotle uses ??t??e?e?a — Opposita, including as one of the four varieties Relata and Correlata = RelativÉ-Opposita (to use a technical word familiar in logical manuals). I have before (supra, p. 105) remarked the inconvenience of calling the Relative opposite to its Correlate; and have observed that it is logically incorrect to treat Relata as a species or mode of the genus Opposita. The reverse would be more correct: we ought to rank Opposita or a species or mode under the genus Relata. Since Aristotle numbers Relata among the ten Categories, he ought to have seen that it cannot be included as a subordinate under any superior genus. You will farther examine whether the predicate of the thesis be of a nature to inhere in the same substance as the subject. If it be not, it cannot be truly predicated thereof, either as genus or even as accident. White (species) and colour (genus) are of a nature to inhere or belong to the same substance. But, if the thesis declares that shame is a species of fear, or that anger is a species of pain, you may impugn it on the ground that shame belongs to the reasoning element in man, fear to the courageous or energetic element; and that pain belongs to the appetitive element, anger to the courageous. This proves that fear can neither be the genus nor the accident of shame; that pain can neither be the genus nor the accident of anger.188 Suppose the thesis declares that animal is a species under the genus visibile or percepibile. You may oppose it by pointing out that animal is only visibile secundum quid, or partially; that is, only so far as regards body, not as regards mind. But the species always partakes of its genus wholly, not partially or secundum quid; thus, man is not partially animal, but wholly or essentially animal. If what is predicated as the genus be not thus essentially partaken, it cannot be a true genus; hence neither visibile nor percepibile is a true genus of animal.189 Sometimes what is predicated as the genus is, when compared to its species, only as a part to the whole; which is never the case with a true genus. Some refer animal to the genus living body; but body is only part of the whole animal, and therefore cannot be the true genus thereof.190 Sometimes a species which The general drift of Aristotle is here illustrated better by taking the thief separately, apart from the other two. But we must notice here the proof of his temper or judgment concerning the persons called Sophists, when we find him grouping them in the bunch of ?e?t? and fe??t? along with thieves. The majority of his uninstructed contemporaries would probably have agreed in this judgment, but they would certainly have enrolled Aristotle himself among the Sophists thus depreciated. Again, you may detect in the thesis sometimes the mistake of putting under one genus a species which properly comes under two genera conjointly, not subalternate one to the other; sometimes, the mistake of predicating the genus as a differentia, or the differentia as a genus.192 Sometimes, also, the subject in which the attribute or affection resides is predicated as if it were the genus of such affection; or, È converso, the attribute or affection is predicated as the genus of the subject wherein it resides; e.g., when breath or wind, which is really a movement of air, is affirmed to be air put in motion, and thus constituted as a species under the genus air; or when snow is declared to be water congelated; or mud, to be earth mixed with moisture.193 In none of these cases is the predicate a true genus; for it cannot be always affirmed of the subject. Or perhaps the predicate affirmed as genus may be no genus at all; for nothing can be a genus unless there are species contained under it; e.g., if the thesis declare white to be a genus, this may be impugned, because white objects do not differ in specie from each other. Or a mere universal predicate (such as Ens or Unum) may be put forward as a genus or differentia; Perhaps it may happen that the subject (species) and the predicate (genus) of the thesis may each have a contrary term; and that in each pair of contrary terms one may be better, the other worse. If, in that case, the better species be referred to the worse genus, or vice versÂ, this will render the thesis assailable. Or perhaps the species may be fit to be referred equally to both the contrary genera; in which case, if the thesis should refer it to the worse of the two, that will be a ground of objection. Thus, if the soul be referred to the genus mobile, you are at liberty to object that it is equally referable to the genus stabile: and that, as the latter is the better of the two, it ought to be referred to the better in preference to the worse.195 There is a locus of More and Less, which may be made available in various ways. Thus, if the genus predicated admits of being graduated as more or less, while the species of which it is predicated does not admit of such graduation, you may question the applicability of the genus to the species.196 You may raise the question also, if there be any thing else which looks equally like the true genus, or more like it than the genus predicated by the thesis. This will happen often, when the essence of the species includes several distinct elements; e.g., in the essence of anger, there is included both pain (an emotional element), and the supposition or belief of being undervalued (an intellectual element); hence, if the thesis ranks anger under the genus pain, you may object that it equally belongs to the genus supposition197 This locus is useful for raising a negative question, but will serve little for establishing an affirmative. Towards the affirmative, you will find advantage in examining the subject (species) respecting which the thesis predicates a given genus; for, if it can be shown that this supposed species is no real species but a genus, the genus predicated thereof will be À fortiori a genus.198 Some think (says Aristotle)199 that Differentia as well as Genus is predicated essentially respecting the Species. Accordingly, Genus must be discriminated from Differentia. For such discrimination Wherever a predicate is universally true of its subject, while the proposition is not true if simply converted (i.e., wherever the predicate is of larger extension than the subject), there is difficulty in distinguishing it from a genus. Accordingly, when you are respondent, maintaining the affirmative side, you will use such predicate as if it were a genus; but, when you are assailant, you will not allow the respondent to do so. You may quote against him the instance of Non-Ens; which is predicable of every thing generated, but which is not a genus, since it has no species under it.201 |