The Play of Man :: FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:

1 L. Grasberger, Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum, WÜrzburg, 1864, vol. i, p. 23. See also Colozza’s compilation Il Guioco nella Psicologia e nella Pedagogia, Turin, 1895, p. 36.

2 Die Spiele der Thiere, Jena, 1896. English translation by E. L. Baldwin. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1898.

3 This is a modification of my former view. For particulars, see the section on Imitative Play.

4 Jodl, Lehrbuch der Psychologie, Stuttgart, 1896, p. 425.

5 He speaks (Psychology des Sentiments, Paris, 1896, p. 195) of an instinctive impulse “À depenser un superflu d’activitÉ.” If, as I believe, this does not mean actual superfluity (Spencer’s “surplus” energy), then it must refer to our natural impulse to seek action and experience. See also Paolo Lombroso, Piacere di esplicare la propria activita. (Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino, Turin, 1894, p. 117.)

6 Acquired impulses are all developed from natural ones.

7 In Ribot’s classification these impulses become instincts belonging to the second group (Psychologie des Sentiments, p. 194).

8 The terms “private” and “public” (or “social”) are used by Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, section 30, to cover a similar distinction. The terms “autonomic” and “socionomic” impulses would possibly answer.—Ed.

9 W. Preyer. Die Seele dee Kindes, 4^to Auf., Leipsic, 1895, p. 64.

10 See the writings of J. Mark Baldwin on the importance of repetition for development. They are frequently cited in what follows.

11 B. Perez. Ses trois premiÈres annÉes de l’enfant, fifth edition, Paris, 1892, pp. 38, 45.

12 See G. Stanley Hall, Some Aspects of the Early Sense of Self. American Journal of Psychology, vol. ix, No. 3, 1898.

13 Op. cit., p. 162.

14 L. StrÜmpell, Psychologische PÄdagogik, Leipsic, 1880, pp. 359, 360.

15 Op. cit., p. 357.

16 Dr. Sikorski, L’Évolution physique de l’enfant, Revue Philosophique xix (1885). p. 418.

“The wolves’ eyes burned in their heeds like fire,
But the boy in his folly fled not before the foe;
He went up to one of them and seized it with his hand
Where he saw the glittering eyes glowing in its head.”

I. V. Zingerle, Das Deutsche Kinderspiel, second edition, Innsbruck, 1873. p. 51.

18 Les trois premiÈres annÉes, etc., p. 46. In regard to the words “sensations agreeable or even indifferent,” I would say that this distinction between pleasure in sensation as such, and pleasure in agreeable sensation, recurs again and again. In the most advanced play, Æsthetic enjoyment, it appears as the difference between Æsthetic effect and beauty.

19 G. CompayrÉ, L’Évolution intellectuelle et morale de l’enfant, Paris, 1893.

20 H. WÖlfflin, Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, Munich, 1886, p. 47.

21 W. Joest, Allerlei Spielzeug, Internationales Archiv fÜr Ethnographie, vol. vi (1893).

22 Deutsche Colonialzeitung, 1889, No. 11.

23 Croker’s Boswell’s Johnson, p. 215.

24 Op. cit., p. 65.

25 Perez, Les trois premiÈres annÉes, p. 16.

26 Op. cit., p. 87.

27 CompayrÉ, indeed, maintains that kissing in no more than a “ressouvenir” of the lip movements on the maternal breast.

28 L. Grasberger, op. cit., Part I, p. 35. Fig. 282 in Maurice Emmanuel’s book. La danse Grecque antique (Paris, 1896), furnishes a pictorial representation of this movement.

29 Miss Romanes’s account of the capuchin ape perhaps furnishes an example from the animal world: “He pulls out hot cinders from the grate, and passes them over his head and chest, evidently enjoying the warmth, but never burning himself. He also puts hot ashes on his head” (Animal Intelligence, fifth edition, London, 1892, p. 493). The context favours the supposition of playful experimentation.

30 “Un aveugle, voulant exprimer la voluptÉ que lui causait cette chaleur du soleil invisible pour lui, disait quil croyait entendre le soleil comme une harmonie” (M. Guyan, Les problÈmes de l’esthÉtique contemporaine, third edition, p. 61).

31 A. Kussmaul, Untersuchungen Über das Seelenleben des neugeborenen Menschen, 1859, p. 16.

32 Les yeux et les narines Étant fermÉs, dit Longet, on ne distinguera pas une crÈme À la vanille d’une crÈme au cafÉ; elles ne produiront qu’une sensation commune de saveur douce et sucrÉe (Perez, Les trois annÉes, etc., p. 14).

33 R. Semon, Im australischen Busch und an den Kusten des Korallenmeeres, Leipsic, 1896, p. 512.

34 Op. cit., p. 18.

35 Op. cit., p. 66.

36 Mario Pilo, La psychologie de beau et de l’art, Paris, 1895, p. 15.

37 This section has been published under the title Ueber HÖr-Spiele, in the Vierteljahrsschrift f. wiss. Philos., xxii.

38 Descent of Man, vol. ii, p. 228.

39 E. and L. Selenka, Soninge Welt, Wiesbaden, 1896, p. 55. The cry is said to be less like a melody than a sort of exulting call. One of the Swiss hunters in the expedition said that the ape jodeled back to him.

40 W. Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 56. See Miss Shinn’s Notes on the Development of the Child, p. 115.

41 J. Sully, Studies of Childhood, London, 1896, p. 409.

42 B. Perez, Ses trois premiÈres annÉes des enfant, p. 34.

43 E. Gurney, The Power of Sound, London, 1880, p. 102.

44 B. Sigismund, Kind und Welt, 1897, p. 60.

45 Miss Shinn’s small niece displayed very little appreciation for rhythm. Loc. cit., 120.

46 This instance is subsCituted for a parallel one of Professor Groos’s, as the point of the latter would of course vanish in the attempt to translate it.—Tr.

47 See Gurney, op. cit., pp. 35, 306.

48 Darwin, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 321.

49 StreifzÜge eines UnzeilgemÄssen, vol. viii, p. 122.

50 P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans l’art, Paris, 1893. Of course this means only a more or less remote approach to narcosis on the one hand, and hypnosis on the other. Perhaps the idea of ecstasy meets our case even better, as Mantegazza has figured it:

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51 Karl BÜchner’s pregnant hypothesis is that acquaintance with rhythm is chiefly derived from physical labour (Arbeit und Rhythmus, Leipsic, 1896).

52 See B. O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnose in der VÖlkerpsychologie, and J. Lippert, Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit, vol. i, p. 632, where this idea is set forth with great clearness.

53 Schopenhauer says, Rhythm (and rhyme) is “partly a means of keeping our attention—since we gladly follow it—and partly the occasion of a blind unreasoning submission in us to leadership, which by this means attains a certain authoritative and apparently unaccountable power over us.”

54 Op. cit., p. 67.

55 According to R. Wallaschek, it is the demand for distinct rhythm which first elevates the state of transport to the appreciation of melody, and leads to the proper valuation of the interval (Primitive Music, London, 1893, p. 232).

56 E. Hanslick, Vom Musikalisch-SchÖnen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 153.

57 Op. cit., pp. 168, 171.

58 Stumpf has treated the question most exhaustively (Tonpsychologie, vol. i. p. 202).

59 H. Siebeck, Das Wesen der Aesthetischen Anschauung, Berlin, 1875, p. 153.

60 KÖstlin, Aesthetik, p. 560.

61 “Primitive music can not have grown out of the voice modulation in excited speech, because in many cases it has no modulation of tone, but is simply rhythmic movement in a single tone” (Wallaschek, Primitive Music, p. 252).

62 Op. cit., p. 272.

63 In a celebrated Chinese poem the effect of music is thus described: “Now soft as whispered words, now soft and loud together—like pearls falling on marble—now coaxing as the call of birds, now complaining like a brook, and now like a mountain stream bursting its icy bounds.” When we recall the great difference in form between Chinese music and our own, the similarity of emotional effect is astonishing.

64 CompayrÉ, op. cit., p. 41.

65 H. Gutzmann (Das Kindes Sprach und Sprachfehler, 1894, p. 7) shown that crying is good practice for talking, because, in contrast to the habitual method of breathing, a short, deep inhalation is followed by lingering exhalation, as in speech.

66 Loc. cit., p. 368. It is, of course, difficult to say at what moment the automatic babbling attains the dignity of speech.

67 Somewhat akin to inspiratory sounds are the clicking noises which children often produce. These are well known to play a considerable part in the language of the Hottentots. For the influence of the self-originated language of children on the speech of adults, and for the analogy between child-language and that of the lower races, see H. Gutzmann, Die Sprachlaute des Kindes und der NaturvÖlker, Westermann’s Monatshefte, December, 1895.

68 Lubbock and Tylor have pointed out that reduplication is used much more in the speech of savages than in that of civilized peoples.

69 Op. cit., p. 311. These citations are somewhat curtailed.—Tr.

70 L. Beeq de FouquiÈres, Les jeus des anciens, Paris, 1869, p. 278.

71 Croker’s Boswell’s Johnson, p. 215.

72 See K. BÜcher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 75.

73 In subjective rhythm, a scale which is properly without accent is, as a rule, conceived of as having some tones emphasized to mark time. See E. Meumann, Untersuchungen zur Psychologie und Aesthetik des Rhythmus (Philos. Studien, vol. x, p. 286).

74 Loc. cit., p. 301.

75 R. M. Meyer, Ueber den Refrain, Zeitschrift f. vgl. Litt-Gesch., i, 1887, p. 34. Marie G——, for example, sang in her seventh year, when first awakened, wÓlla, wÓlla, budscha, incessantly and melodiously.

76 Loc. cit., p. 62.

77 “Le rythme ... vant surtout par son effet d’entrainement,” Souriau, La suggestion dans l’art, p. 47.

78 W. Joest, Maylayische Lieder und TÄnze aus Ambon und den Uliase (Molukken), Internat. Arch. f. Ethnogr., v, 1892, p. 23.

79 The application of the principle of thirds to rhyme is interesting, since the echo-like ring of the triple rhyme has an effect very similar to that of chain rhymes.

80 Miss Shinn, loc. cit., p. 134. With the mentally deranged the stringing of senseless rhymes is very common. One patient wrote on a sheet of paper. “Nelke, welke, Helge; Hilde, Tilde, Milde; Hand, Wand, Sand.” KrÄpelin, Psychiatrie, Leipsic, 1896, p. 599.

81 Rochholz, Alemannisches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, Leipsic, 1857, p. 124.

82 J. Mark Baldwin, Mental Development in the Child and the Race, 1895, p. 132.

83 Rather a free translation of the verse in J. D. Georgens’s Mutter BÜchlein. p. 170.

84 F. M. BÖhme, Deutsches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, 1897, p. 302.

85 A. Bastian, Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, 1867, p. 227.

86 See H. Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch and Sitte der VÖlker, 1882, vol. ii, p. 285.

87 Op. cit., p. 57.

88 L. StrÜmpell, Psychologische PÄdagogik, p. 358.

89 Sully, loc. cit., p. 415.

90 Op. cit., p. 58.

91 Op. cit., p. 33.

92 Op. cit., p. 212.

93 “Cracking the fingers,” writes Schellong from Kaiserwilhelmsland, “is a familiar practice with the little Papuan.” Zeitschrift fÜr Ethnologie, xxi (1889), p. 16.

94 G. A. Colozza does not sufficiently consider this versatility when he says in his interesting hook on play, “I giocattoli dei bambini poveri non sono che delle pietre; esse si divertono non poco nel sentire il rumore che si ha battendo pietra contra pietra.” Il Gienoco nella Psychologia e nella Pedagogia, p. 70.

95 E. Grosse, Die AnfÄnge der Kunst, 1894, pp. 275, 277.

96 G. Reischel, Aus allen Welttheilen, 1896, No. 2. Wallaschek did not believe that the drum is a primitive instrument chiefly because of our failure to find them among prehistoric relics, though the fife is frequently found among those of the stone age. Here we have an instance, however, which, while it belongs to the close of the period, is of such a complicated and well-developed form as to point to long use. Moreover, as Grosse points out in a letter to me, Wallaschek’s argument is not conclusive, inasmuch as the material used for primitive drums was perishable.

97 Our bells, too, may be derived from the rattle.

98 Les jeux des anciens, pp. 6, 12.

99 See Rich. Andree, Ethnog. Parallellen und Vergleichen, 1889, p. 86.

100 Alwin Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau zu Anfang des 18 Jahrhundert, 1890, p. 207.

101 A formidable objection seems to me to lie in the fact that manual labour is almost entirely wanting among the tribes who subsist by the chase, and that what little they have is conducted by the women, while it is the men who indulge in the song and dance. Grosse, moreover, assures me that even their swimming and marching are not calculated to support this theory. It should be added that BÜcher has now considerably modified his view by deriving work itself from play (Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft, 1890, p. 92). “The order formerly laid down must be directly reversed; play is older than work, art older than production for utility.”

102 This is too baldly stated.

103 Op. cit., p. 91.

104 E. Raehlmann, Physiol.-psychol. Studien Über die Entwickelung der Gesichtswahrnehmungen bei Kindern und bei operirten Blindgeborenen. Zeitsch. fÜr Psychol. und Physiol. der Sinnesorgane, vol. ii (1891), p. 69. Raehlmann maintains in this article that those who are born blind and attain the power of vision by operation pass through a process of development quite like that of the child.

105 It is otherwise with those born blind. Johann Ruben, who was nineteen when operated on, at once made distance the subject of his investigation. “For example, he pulled off his boot and threw it some distance, and then tried to estimate how far off it was. He walked some steps toward it, and tried to pick it up; finding that he could not reach it he went a little farther, until he finally got it.” Raehlmann, ibid., p. 81.

106 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 4.

107

“Then he forgot how cold he was, and played with the ring.
The little child forgot all his woe.
He seized upon the ring and said, ‘What is this?’”
—Zingerle, p. 51.

108 Kind und Welt, pp. 58, 61.

109 In Nacht und Eis, vol. i, p. 222.

110 J. G. Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 493. See, too, Ellendorf’s beautiful description of the monkey playing with matches, Gartenlaube, 1862, p. 300.

111

“There, see, the curtain dark already rolls away!
The night must fly, now dreams the glorious day;
The crimson lips that lay fast closed so long,
Breathe now, half ope’d, a sweet, low song;
Once more the eye gleams bright, and, like a god, the day
Bounds forward to begin again his royal way.”

112 W. James, Principles of Psychology, vol. i, p. 268.

113 Die AnfÄnge der Kunst, p. 99.

114 O. KÜlpe, Grundriss der Psychologie, 1893, p. 126.

115 “Shade,” says Schelling, “is the painter’s stock in trade, the body into which he must try to breathe the fleeting soul of light; and even the mechanics of his art show him that the black which is at his service comes far nearer to the effect of darkness than does white to that of light.” Leonardo da Vinci has said, “Painter, if you desire the brilliance of fame, do not shrink from the gloom of shadow.” Sammtl. Werke, vol. v, p. 533.

116 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 6.

117 Studies in Childhood, pp. 402, 300.

118 Ibid.

119 Op. cit., p. 67.

120 See also Miss Shinn, op. cit., pp. 29, 33, and F. Tracy, The Psychology of Childhood, Boston, 1897, p. 14.

121 Mental Development, p. 50.

122 See also Baldwin’s reply to Preyer in the German and French translations of his book.—Ed.

123 Op. cit., 13. Sully’s boy, on the contrary, in the eighth month of his third year at once called a light greenish gray, green. Studies of Childhood, p. 437.

124 Op. cit., p. 68.

125 Grosse, op. cit., p. 53.

126 O. Frass, BeitrÄge zur Culturgeschichte den Menschen wÄhrend der Eiszeit. Nach den Funden von der Schussenquelle. Archiv fÜr Anthropologie, vol. ii.

127 Grosse, p. 100.

128 It should, however, be mentioned that the Brazilian Indians observed by v. d. Steinen wore green and blue feathers also.

129 It is undeniable that they sometimes use shades of blue in their ornaments, when they have seen Europeans do so.

130 Op. cit., pp. 170, 171.

131 La suggestion dans l’art, p. 95.

132 Op. cit., pp. 170, 171.

133 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 40.

134 That the child first acquires a clear perception of form by means of experimentation is proved by the uncertainty of those blind persons whose sight is restored, in recognising form by the eye (even weeks after the removal of the bandages), although they already have a clear idea of the forms, acquired by touch.

135 Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, p. 13.

136 A collection of such patterns may be found in the work of L. V. Frobenius, Die Kunst der NaturvÖlker. 1. Die Ornamentik, Westermanns Monatshefte, December, 1895.

137 W. Joest, Ethnolographisches und Verwandtes aus Guayana, p. 90.

138 Die AnfÄnge der Kunst, p. 111.

139 Vierteljahrsschr. fÜr wissensch. Philos., vol. xx (1896).

140 Op. cit., p. 14.

141 See G. H. Schneider. Why do we notice things which are moving regularly more easily than those at rest? Vierteljahrsschr. fÜr wissenschaft. Philos., vol. ii (1878), p. 377.

142 L. Edinger, Die Entwickelung der Gehirnbahnen in der Thierreihe, Allgemeine medicinische Central-Zeitung, 65. Jahrgang (1896).

143 The most thrilling ghost stories are those in which a cold hand rests on the back of the neck, or where the victim sees in a mirror the ghost behind him. Dogs, too, who are quietly lying down react with greater excitement to light touches on the hair of their backs. The opposite to this feeling is the pleasure we feel in bestowing our backs in a safe corner—of a restaurant, etc.

144 L. William Stern, Die Wahrnehmung von Bewegungen vermittelst des Auges, Zeitschr. fÜr Psychol. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. vii (1894), p. 373.

145 Op. cit., p. 64.

146 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 27. Cf. Baldwin’s remarks on the child’s interest in movement in Mental Development in the Child and the Race, p. 336.—Tr.

147 See Ploss, Das Kind, etc., vol. ii, p. 313.

148 Grasberger, vol. i, p. 75.

149 The Play of Animals, p. 225.

150 Alwin Schultz, op. cit., p. 169.

151

“Stay now thine heart, O wanderer, held fast in powerful hands!
Mine own breaks forth in trembling joy.
Thundering masses roll, on thundering masses hurled,
How can the eye and ear escape the tumultuous roar?
“War horses of the gods at play, leaping over one another.
Dashing downward and strewing to the winds their silver manes;
Exquisite forms unnumbered follow them, never the same,
Ever the same—who can wait till the end shall be?”

152 This is the case with our round dances, and is, perhaps, the greatest objection to them.

153 Die AnfÄnge der Kunst, pp. 202, 215.

154 Ibid.

155 Perhaps the world-wide demand for some sort of intoxicant is another kind of sensory play, since it is calculated to excite and intensify the social feelings. Kruepelin says (Psychiatrie, p. 361) that there is scarcely a single people which does not possess some popular agency for getting rid of the petty cares of life, and that the variety of these poisonous springs of pleasure is surprisingly great. I will note only alcoholism and the morphine habit. Mild intoxication by the former creates in the subject pleasant internal temperature sensations, combined with greater facility in all motor exertion. We become freer, gayer, and braver, and feel that life has no cares or anxieties for us, our strength and ability seem enhanced, and we behave and speak with candour and commonly without caution. The effect of morphine, on the contrary, seems to be rather a pleasant deadening of the motor impulses and a quickening of the intellect and imagination. In Paris there are said to be at least fifty thousand morphine takers, and the manufacture of gold hypodermic syringes of elegant design has become an important branch of the goldsmith’s business. That this intoxication is indulged in like play is shown, by Kraepelin’s statement that in a Russian regiment, to which a young friend of his belonged, nearly all the officers used the syringe. A still more evident play with the social feelings is displayed by many hysterical subjects, who take a certain satisfaction in imagined or real bodily sufferings. These become the central fact in their lives, and are even regarded with a sort of pride as an absorbing topic of conversation (Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 782). These extravagances go to show that men in a normal state also play with their social emotions, even when these are in a way distasteful.

156 Die Seele des Kindes, pp. 211, 216.

157 Karl Vierordt, Physiologie des Kindesalters, Gerhardt’s Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten, vol. i, p. 181.

158 Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 139.

159 Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes. p. 189.

160 Mental Development, etc., chap, iv, the Origin of Right-handedness See, too, Vierordt, Physiologie des Kindesalters, p. 187. [Baldwin explains it genetically as an “expressive function” which afterward culminates in speech, which is located in an adjacent centre in the same hemisphere.—Tr.]

161 See O. Behaghel, Etwas vom ZuknÖpfen, Frankfurter Zeitung, 1897, No. 329.

162 Op. cit., pp. 444, 600.

163 Op. cit., pp. 444, 600.

164 Die Narcotic Genussmittel und der Mensch, preface, and p. 376.

165 Ibid.

166 Jules Legras, Au pays Russe, Paris, 1895, p. 18.

167 “The reprehensible confining of the child’s legs,” says Vierordt, in reference to kicking, “retards the development of the muscles not a little.” Psychologie des Kindesalters, p. 186.

168 Op. cit., p. 174.

169 Kind und Welt, p. 70. Sigismund tries to explain the backward creeping as due to the feet that the child gets on its dress and is impeded by it. But it is noteworthy that Baldwin’s little daughter, who for a time preferred to creep backward, had previously exhibited the reverse of natural walking movements—namely, such as would carry her backward—when held over a table so that she could just feel it with her soles. Mental Development, etc., p. 82.

170 Les jeux des anciens, pp. 16, 21.

171 Sigismund, op. cit., pp. 56, 74.

172 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 175.

173 Sigismund, op. cit., pp. 56, 74.

174 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 179.

175 Mental Development, etc., p. 81.

176 PÄdagogische Schriften, 1883, vol. ii, p. 333.

177 Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 445.

178 Op. cit., p. 182.

179 M. Guyau, Les ProblÈmes de l’EsthÉtique contemporaine, p. 48.

180 L. Grasberger, Erziebung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum, pp. 32, 319.

181 A. F. Chamberlain, The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought, p. 268.

182 See W. Seoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobar-Archipels. Inter. Arch. fÜr Eth., vol. vi (1893), p. 32.

183 Grasberger, op. cit., p. 300.

184 Weinhold. Altnordisches Leben, Berlin. 1856. p. 308.

185 H. O. Lenz, GemeinnÜtzige Naturgeschichte, 1851, vol. i, p. 612.

186 K. Wienhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 307.

187 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 183.

188 J. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, Strassburg, 1893, p. 11.

189

“It is the godlike power of harmony
Which orders wild motions to the quiet social dance.
And like a Nemesis, with the golden reins of rhythm,
Harnesses riotous lust, and tames its madness.”

190 “O, Du frecher Spielmann, mach uns den Reihen lang! Juchheia! Wie er sprang! Herz, Milz, Lung und Leber sich rundum in ihm Schwang.” K. Weinhold, Die deutschen Frauen in Mittelalter, p. 373.

191 Sonnige Welten, p. 77.

192 Our waltz was originally the final movement in a complicated dance “which represented the romance of love, the meeting, the pursuit, the painful doubts and difficulties, and at last the wedding jollity.”—Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spieler, 1861, p. 219.

193 Grosse, op. cit., p. 203.

194 Sonnige Welten, p. 838.

195 H. Ploss. Das Kleine Kind vom Tragbett bis zum ersten Schritt. 1881, p. 98. From this exhaustive treatise on the cradle it appears that most primitive peoples do not use our cradles with rockers, but prefer the swinging kind.

196 K. v. d. Steinen, Unter den NaturvÖlkern Centralbrasiliens.

197 R. Parkinson. BeitrÄge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert Insulaner. Internat. Archiv fÜr Ethnologie, vol. ii, p. 92.

198 Becq de FouquiÈres, Les Jeux des Anciens, p. 54.

199 See especially op. cit., 205, where Souriau seems to undervalue the attraction of the backward glide.

200 See Grasberger, op. cit., p. 128.

201 Op. cit., p. 99.

202 See Strutt, The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, p. 153.

203 Weinhold, Altnordische Leben, p. 806.

204 Perez, Les trois premiÈres annÉes, etc., p. 80.

205 Sigismund, op. cit., p. 40.

206 Ibid., p. 53.

207 I. H. Autenrieth, Ansichten Über Natur und Seelenleben, p. 163.

208 Unter den NaturvÖlkern Centralbrasiliens, p. 383.

209 Grasberger, vol. i, p. 74.

210 Roehholz, p. 464.

211 Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 323.

212 Les trois premiÈres annÉes, p. 84.

213 Psychologie des Sentiments, p. 322.

214 CompayrÉ, p. 271.

215 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 383.

216 W. James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 422.

217 See CompayrÉ, p. 191.

218 See Baechtold, Gottfried Keller’s Leben, vol. iii, p. 278.

219 Michael Munkacsy, Erinnerungen, Berlin, 1897, p. 4.

220 Op. cit., vol. ii, p. 423.

221 Op. cit., p. 9.

222 The Play of Animals, p. 98.

223 Op. cit., p. 456.

224 Op. cit., p. 103.

225 Alwin Schultz, op. cit., p. 11.

226 O. Finsch, Reise nach Westsibirien im Jahre 1876, Berlin, 1879, p. 520.

227 F. Boas, Internat. Arch. fÜr Ethnol., vol. i, 1888, p. 229. See, too, H. W. Klutschak, Als Eskimo unter Eskimo, pp. 136, 139, where are to be found illustrations of such figures.

228 E. v. Hartmann, Das Spiel. Tagesfragen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 146.

229 Die Seele des Kindes, pp. 183, 257.

230 Op. cit., p. 80.

231 Kind und Welt, p. 115.

232 L’esthÉtique du Mouvement, p. 202.

233 Even in skittles one speaks of a good throw.

234 H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur und Lebensbildern, Jena, 1871, p. 415.

235 See FouquiÈres, p. 209.

236 Gutsmuths, Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des KÖrpers und Geistes, eighth edition, pp. 122, 139, 169.

237 R. Parkinson, Beitr. zur Ethn. der Gilbertin, p. 92.

238 Gutsmuths, Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des KÖrpers und Geistes, eighth edition, pp. 122, 139, 169.

239 H. O. Forbes, Travels of a Scientist in the Malay Archipelago, vol. i, p. 159.

240 William Black’s Highland Cousins gives a fine description of this national game of Scotland.

241 See Fischart’s descriptions in his Gargantua.

242 See Vieth’s EncyklopÄdie der LeibesÜbungen, vol. iii, p. 296.

243 Another game like this is the so-called Prellballspiel. Gutsmuths, p. 101.

244 See Ploss, Das Kind, vol. ii, p. 292.

245 H. Wagner, Illustriertes Spielbuch fÜr Knaben, Leipsic, 1895, p. 132.

246 Grasberger, p. 78.

247 See FouquiÈre, p. 173.

248 Zingerle, p. 27.

249 Jour. of Anthro. In., vol. xvii (1887), p. 88, on stone spinning tops.

250 Ten Kate, BeitrÄge zur Ethnographie der Timorgruppe. Internat. Arch. f. Ethn., vol. vii (1894), p. 247.

251 Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleichen, p. 98. See, too, R. AndrÉe, Das Kreiselspiel und seine Verbreitung. Globus, vol. lxix (1896), p. 371.

252 Gutsmuths, pp. 232, 358.

253 Ibid.

254 H. Wagner, Spielbuch fÜr Knaben, p. 114.

255 Rochholz, p. 391.

256 Grasberger, p. 60.

257 “Gargantua threw flat stones carelessly on the water so that they skipped I don’t know how many times.”

258 A beautiful example of this may be found in Schweinfurth’s Im Herzen von Afrika, Leipsic, vol. i, p. 329.

259 Grasberger gives this version in German verse:

“Wahrlich ein arges Ziel fÜr den Schwarm der spielenden Knaben,
Und fÜr des Steinwurfs Wucht pflanzten sie mich an den Weg.
Wie hat die wÜste Hagel getroffen, die blÜhenden Krone
Mir zerschlagen, und ach, wie sind die Zweige geknickt!
Nichts mehr gilt nach der Ernte der Baum Euch: zur eigenen SchÄndung
Hab’ ich Unseliger hier alle die FrÜchte gezeugt.”

260 Bastian, Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, pp. 322, 324.

261 Ibid.

262 Ploss, Das Kind, vol. ii, p. 291.

263 See A. Richter, Zur Geschichte des deutschen Kinderspieles. Westermanns Monatshefte, 1870.

264 Rochholz, p. 421.

265 Forbes, op. cit., vol. i, p. 234. See also vol. ii, p. 45, where a simpler game is described which is played by boys also, and is more like European quoits.

266 NordenskiÖld, Die Umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega, Leipsic, 1881-’82, vol. i, p. 70.

267 Gutsmuths, p. 69.

268 Ibid., p. 198.

269 A peculiar and difficult game of catching is played by the Gilbert Islanders. A light feather ornament is loosely attached to a stick which is thrown into the air. As the stick descends the ornament floats away, and the players’ task is to fish for it, as it were, with a stone fastened to a long line and bring it down. This game is called “Tabama.” R. Parkinson, BeitrÄge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert Insulaner.

270 See Ernst Meier, Deutsche Kinderreime und Kinderspiele aus Swaben, p. 145.

271 R. Parkinson, op. cit.

272 H. Wagner, Illustrirtes Spielbuch fÜr Knaben, p. 92.

273 Op. cit., p. 177.

274 See Baldwin, Mental Development, etc., p. 315. Baldwin uses the term “coefficient of recognition.”

275 Ibid., p. 308, where the motor process is emphasized in connection with attention.

276 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 38.

277 F. Pollock, An Infant’s Progress in Language. Mind, vol. iii, 1878.

278 Sully, Studies in Childhood, p. 421. See also Sikorski’s report on his eight-months-old child, who recognised the crescent shape of the holes in a pigeon house as connected with the moon (p. 414).

279 The French animal psychologist, E. Alix, says the same thing of an Arabian dog which he owned (see The Play of Animals, p. 91). Play with shadows by adults might be dwelt upon. With us it is hardly more than trivial amusement for an idle company, but among other peoples it becomes much more important, as witness the highly interesting silhouettes hanging in the Berlin Museum. See, further, F. v. Sumasch, Das tÜrkische Schattenspiel, Internat. Archiv fÜr Ethnographie, vol. ii, p. 1.

280 Kind und Welt, p. 169. See Miss Shinn, op. cit., p. 71.

281 K. v. d. Steinen, Steinzeit-Indianer in Paraguay. Globus, vol. lxvii, 1895, p. 249.

282 R. AndrÉe, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, p. 57.

283 We may perhaps find the moving “QualitÄt der Bekanntheit” in the recurrence of the keynote of a melody.

284 Zola frequently applies the Wagnerian leading-motive method to the characterization of some figure in his novels, often with wearisome persistence, yet a not uninteresting study might be made of the subject.

285 See Fr. Kaufmann, Die Deutsche Metrik nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung, Marburg, 1897, p. 224. We may find a fine English example in a triolet of Walter Crane’s:

“In the light, in the shade,
This is time and life’s measure;
With a heart unafraid
In the light, in the shade,
Hope is born, and not made,
And the heart finds its treasure
In the light, in the shade;
This is time and life’s measure.”—Tr.

286 R. M. Meyer records the refrain as a survival from the first beginning of poetry. Ueber die Refrain, Zeitschr. f. vgl. Literaturgeschichte, vol. i (1887), p. 44.

287 See Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, pp. 393, 460.

288 See Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, pp. 393, 460.

289 Grasberger, p. 46. For other forms of this game see Gutsmuths, p. 377.

290 “The third year,” says Sully, “is epoch-making in the history of memory. It is now that impressions begin to work themselves into the young consciousness so deeply and firmly that they become a part of the permanent stock in trade of the mind.”—Studies of Childhood, p. 437.

291 Sonntagsbeilage zur Vossischen Zeitung, January 10, 1897.

292 Die Erziehung der TÖchter, wie solche Herr von FÉnelon, Erzbischoff von Cambray beschrieben, aus dem FranzÖsischen Übersetzt. LÜbeck, 1740, p. 36.

293 FÜr wirklich halten: It is recommended by the authorities of Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy that the term “semblance” be used as the equivalent of the German “Schein?” or illusion—that which is “taken for real”—in this field of the Æsthetic and play functions.—Ed.

294 See A. Oelzelt-Nevin, Ueber Phantasie-Vorstellungen. Graz, 1889, p. 42.

295 It may often be observed that the child’s eyes lose their convergence as their interest is absorbed—a means of detachment from surrounding reality. Even in half-grown children the power of detachment is much greater than in adults. The great modern poets are at a disadvantage in that their appeal is to an audience whose power of imagination is on the wane. It was otherwise with less cultured people when, first, the adults were less literal and, second, the poets themselves less intellectualized.

296 See Baldwin’s Handbook of Psychology, vol. i, p. 227.

297 That some temperaments play with dreams of an unhappy future there is no doubt. We shall encounter such phenomena later in noticing enjoyment of pain.

298 Games of chance which keep the participants long in suspense are among the special forms of adult play which make use of such picturing of the future.

299 Even the serious Lucca Signorelli was not ashamed to place two clouds, which, showing distinct faces, back of the Christ in his Crucifixion.

300 See in this connection the more thorough treatment in the section on inner imitation.

301 StrÜmpell, Psychologische PÄdagogik, p. 364.

The child, of course, spoke a baby German. This effort at translation serves only to show the versatility of her imagination and its disjointed expression.—Tr.

For example of amentia, see Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 331.

302 While StrÜmpell’s example was suggestive of the wanderings of a diseased mind, this one recalls the tales told by savages. Compare it, for example, with the Bushman’s story of the grasshopper in Ratzel’s VÖlkerkunde (vol. i, p. 75). Of course, we do not know whether there may not be some closer connection of ideas than we can trace.

303 See Paola Lombroso, Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino, chap. ix, especially p. 155; B. Perez, L’art et la poÉsie chez l’enfant, chap. ix.

304 John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens, vol. ii, p. 71.

305 They diverge from play, first, in that an end outside of the sphere of play is added to that of satisfaction in production for its own sake; and, second, that much of the artist’s effort is spent in improving, altering, and being otherwise occupied with technical conditions, etc., and not engaged in for the pleasure which it affords. We may compare what was said above in regard to sport.

306 Grosse, op. cit., p. 250.

307 When Daudet was thirteen years old he took an independent voyage on a ship with some soldiers on their way home from the Crimea. “With my southern power of imagination,” he writes in Gaulois, “I made myself out an important personage.”

308 Op. cit., p. 309. See Guyan, Éducation et HÉrÉditÉ, p. 148.

309 Perez, Les trois premiÈres annÉes, etc., p. 121.

310 Like ancient and modern wonder tales, whose occurrences always take place in distant and almost inaccessible lands.

311 The close of this recalls the numerous efforts of primitive folk to account for natural phenomena.

312 Op. cit., p. 148.

313 See, too, Sully’s Studies of Childhood, p. 254.

314 B. Perez, L’enfant de trois À sept ans, Paris, 1894, p. 239.

315 The Play of Animals, p. 214. Zum Problem der unbewussten ZeitschÄtzung, Zeitschr. f. Psycholog. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. ix.

316 Op. cit., pp. 418, 545.

317 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 212.

318 A Biographical Sketch of an Infant, Mind, vii (1877), p. 289.

319 See Stern’s remark quoted above on watching movement.

320 Op. cit., p. 418.

321 La psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.

322 Die Reize des Spiels, Berlin, 1883, p. 61.

323 James says that the stimuli of scientific curiosity “are not objects, but ways of conceiving objects.” Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 430.

324 Fr. Nansen, In Nacht und Eis, Leipsic, 1897, vol. i, p. 151.

325 H. Spencer, The Principles of Sociology, vol. i, p. 86.

326 Unter den NaturvÖlkern Centralbrasiliens, pp. 59, 67, 79.

327 Ibid.

328 Ibid.

329 Im Australischen Busch, etc., p. 526.

330 Dietrich Tiedemann, Beobachtungen Über die Entwickelung der SeelenfÄhigkeiten bei Kindern, Altenburg, 1897, p. 14.

331 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 140.

332 Les trois premiÈres annÉes, etc., p. 117.

333 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 383.

334 M. W. Shinn, Notes on the Development of a Child, p. 11.

335 CompayrÉ, op. cit., p. 308.

336 Ernest H. Lindley, A Study of Puzzles. Amer. Jour. of Psychol., viii (1897), p. 436.

337 The amusing rhymes illustrating cause and effect which children are so fond of, are in point—for instance, The House that Jack Built—and this one in German:

“Der Teufel holt den Henker nun,
Der Henker hÄngt den SchlÄchter nun,
Der SchlÄchter schlÄgt den Ochsen nun,
Der Ochse lÄuft das Wasser nun,
Das Wasser lÖscht das Feuer nun,
Das Feuer brennt den PrÜgel nun,
Der PrÜgel schlÄgt den Pudel nun,
Der Pudel beisst den Jockel nun,
Der Jockel schneidet den Hafer nun,
Und kommt auch gleich nach Haus.”

See the similar Hebrew verse about the kid in Tylor’s AnfÄnge der Culture, vol. i, p. 86.

338 Op. cit., p. 353.

339 Ernest Lindley, loc. cit., p. 455.

340 A. Seidel, Geschichten und Lieder der Africaner, Berlin, 1896, pp. 176, 309. Similar riddles used for the amusement of children are given by Tylor. Op. cit., vol. i, p. 91. Words used in a double or multiple sense (homonyms) are particularly effective.

341 Annoyance over one’s own enjoyment is, of course, not play.

342 The Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic. Amer. Jour. of Psychol., vol ix.

343 See Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 64.

344 Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 590.

345 Kuno Fischer, Arthur Schopenhauer, Heidelberg, 1893, p. 125.

346 Ribot, La Psychologie des sentiments, p. 64.

347 See Hubert Rotteken’s interesting article, Ueber Ästhetische Kritik bei Dichtungen (Beilage zur Allgem. Zeit., 1897, Nos. 114, 115). Volkelt (Aesthetic des Tragischen, p. 389) seems to me to undervalue this point.

348 Max Reischle, Das Spielen der Kinder in seinem Erziehungswerth, GÖttingen, 1897, p. 17.

349 Lipps gives special attention in his Psychologie der Komik to this point (Philosph. Monatshefte, 24 and 25).

350 I shall not here discuss the relative importance of the two.

351 Even the first shock is not entirely unpleasant, since we usually have a premonition of the approaching counter shock.

352 La Suggestion dans l’art, p. 39.

353 See Sully, Studies in Childhood, p. 501.

354 “The first stage, depression, is in itself considered entirely extra-Æsthetic. For as soon as inner imitation comes into play—that is, as soon as the Æsthetic aspect is assumed—the projection of the I into the object begins and depression gives place to exaltation.” Op. cit., p. 336.

355 Herman Wagner, Spielbuch fÜr Knaben, p. 572.

356 H. Wagner, Spielbuch fÜr Knaben, p. 542.

357 I. von Kreis, Ueber die Natur gewisser Gehirnzustande. Zeitschrift f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, viii (1894), p. 9.

358 See p. 4, note 3.

359 Die Reize des Spiels, p. 131.

360 I remember a serious fight between two boys of about fifteen, in which the stronger was content to throw the other over and over again and quietly let him regain his feet.

361 In the fight between Odysseus and Ajax the position of the contestants was compared to the sidewise posture of two sparring dogs.

362 Von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvolken Central-Brasiliens, pp. 127, 383.

363 Among the Greeks throwing three times was the rule.

364 H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen, p. 417.

365 Some of the succeeding examples are taken from M. Zettler’s article on prize lighting in Euler’s encykl. Handbd. ges. Turnwesens.

366 In Switzerland this play is called Katzenstriegel. Grown boys try to pull each other over thresholds in this way.

367 When Milon, of Croton, held an apple in his fingers, it was said to be impossible to get the fruit away from him, or to bend even his little finger.

368 Fr. Fedde’s article Griechenland, in C. Euler’s encykl. Handb. d. ges. Turnwesens.

369 W. Richter, Die Spiele der Griechen und RÖmer, p. 38.

370 H. Raydt, Ein gesunder Geist in einem gesunder KÖrper, Hanover, 1899, p. 102.

371 G. J. Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 485.

372 Altnordisches Leben, p. 294.

373 See E. v. Hartmann, Tagesfragen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 135.

374 A very interesting example from ethnology is contained in the article by W. Svoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vi, 1893, p. 6.

375 We shall return to this subject in the consideration of love plays.

376 Strutt, op. cit., p. 8.

377 Alwin Schultz, Das hÖfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger, Leipsic, 1889, vol. ii, p. 118.

378 K. Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 297.

379 K. Weinhold, Geschichte der menschlichen Ehe, Jena, 1893, p. 158.

380 Studies in Childhood, pp. 268, 269, 271, 274.

381 Ibid.

382 Ibid.

383 Paolo Lombroso, op. cit., p. 126.

384 Carl Vogt, Aus meinem Leben, Stuttgart, 1896, pp. 70, 98.

385 See R. M. Werner, Lyrik und Lyriker, Hamburg, 1890, p. 220. RÜckert and Uhland engaged in another beautiful contest in which they carried on a narrative alternately and in such a manner that each stanza was intended to make the next one difficult.

386 See Lazarus, Die Reize des Spiels, pp. 88, 89.

387 Ibid.

388 K. Plischke, Kurze Mittheilung Über zwei malaysische Spiele. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., iii (1890).

389 H. M. Schuster, Das Spiel, p. 2.

390 K. Weinhold, Die deutschen Frauen im Mittelalter, vol. i, p. 115.

391 J. BÜttikofer, Einiges Über die Eingeboren von Liberia. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., i (1888).

392 According to AndrÉe it is played in Arabia and a large part of Africa. The Berlin Museum has such boards from various African districts, notably one from central Africa, with two rows of six holes and a carved head on the end.

393 See R. AndrÉe, Ethnog. Parall. u. Verg. Neue Folge, p. 102. Petermann’s description, which I have not fully transcribed, seems to me to be deficient in that it does not make clear how the reckoning is kept.

394 H. Petermann, Reisen im Orient, Leipsic, 1860, vol. i, p. 162.

395 See A. v. d. Linde, Geschichte und Litteratur des Schachspiels, Berlin, 1874, vol. i, note 2.

396 See T. v. d. Sasa, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur des Schachspiels, Leipsic, 1897, p. 19.

397 J. Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 247.

398 E. B. Tylor, On the Game of Patolli in Ancient Mexico and its probably Asiatic Origin. Jour. of the Anthrop. Instit. vol. viii (1878). On American Lot Games as evidence of Asiatic intercourse previous to the time of Columbus. Internat. Archiv. f. Ethnogr., supplement to vol. ix (1896), p. 55.

399 See, too, in this connection J. Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 239.

400 Lazarus, op. cit., p. 98. I differ totally from Lazarus’s unwarranted conclusion that in some card games, where the cards are distributed accidentally, the chief stimulus is in the “battle of reason against chance.”

401 See v. d. Steinen, Unter den NaturvÖlkern Zentral Brasiliens, p. 230.

402 Op. cit., pp. 90, 102–109. Lazarus treats exhaustively of this symbolic significance of play and likens it to the symbolism of music, which may be effective without clear consciousness of it on the part of the subject.

403 Ibid., p. 91.

404 Second edition, Paris, 1895.

405 Playful rivalry is quite rare among animals, and for that reason it was not considered in my former work. It is only during courtship that animals engage in such contests, which are accordingly included under courtship plays.

406 R. Andree, Ethnogr. Parall. u. Vergl., pp. 95, 96.

407 Ibid.

408 The Eclipses Politico-Morales draws the picture of a fashionable lady of the early eighteenth century. She says: “We have our sprees in spite of the men; we dance and carouse the whole night long.... We smoke and chew tobacco and make wagers about them.” A. Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau, etc., p. 186.

409 K. Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 315.

410 Colozza, op. cit., p. 85.

411 Grosse, Die AnfÄnge der Kunst, p. 231.

412 Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, pp. 462, 463.

413 Many of the new games for children which appear every year are simply modifications of backgammon.

414 When it is known in advance that the chances are unequal it is common to make the stakes so as well, sometimes ten to one, or a cow to a hen, etc.

415 J. Schaller, p. 269.

416 Schuster, op. cit., p. 9.

417 A. Seidel, Geschichten und Lieder der Africaner, p. 162. See Globus, vol. lxvii (1895), p. 387.

418 The two Englishmen who placed two snails on a table and bet high stakes on which would reach the other side of it first furnish a fine instance of this kind. M. Schuster, Das Spiel, p. 216. The English have always been and especially at the beginning of this century famous for their bets.

419 Tagesfragen, p. 162.

420 Guhl und Koner, Das Leben der Griechen und RÖmer, Berlin, 1864, p. 354.

421 R. Parkinson, BeitrÄge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert-Insulaner.

422 A particularly pretty oracle, affording no less than four alternatives, is described by Hall Caine (The Manxman, London, 1894, p. 120) as in use on the Isle of Man. A maiden, anxious to know her fate, throws a willow bough in the water, while she sings:

“Willow bough, willow bough, which of the four,
Sink, circle, or swim, or come floating ashore?
Which is the fortune you keep for my life,
Old maid or young mistress, or widow or wife?”

423 Die AnfÄnge der Kultur, vol. i, p. 80.

424 Tylor, op. cit., pp. 78, 125.

425 A. WÜnsche, Spiele bei den Arabern in vor- und nachmohamedanischer Zeit. Westermanns Monatshefte, MÄrz, 1896.

426 Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 326.

427 Bastian, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 358; vol. iii, p. 323.

428 Ibid.

429 W. Richter, Die Spiele der Griechen und RÖmer, p. 76.

430 H. Peterman, Reisen im Orient, vol. i, p. 157.

431 Hans Egede, Beschreibung von GrÖnland, Berlin, 1763, p. 178. See R. Andree, Ethnogr. Par. Neue Folge, p. 104.

432 The New Zealand game “ti” consists in counting on the fingers. One of the players calls a number and must instantly touch the right finger; while in the Samoan game “Lupe” (see Andree, op. cit., p. 99) one player holds up a certain number of fingers, whereupon his opponent must do the same or be loser.

433 Tylor, Anf. d. Kult., vol. i, pp. 74, 75.

434 Andree, op. cit., p. 98.

435 Bastian, Die VÖlker d. Östl. Asien, vol. ii, p. 394.

436 See Becq de FouquiÈres, p. 294.

437 Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.

438 Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.

439 Op. cit., p. 60.

440 See Schaller, pp. 258, 268.

441 See Schaller, pp. 258, 268.

442 J. E. Erdmann, Ernste Spiele, p. 161.

443 Op. cit., p. 76.

444 Schuster, p. 83.

445 See anecdote of Goethe’s youth, p. 105. For the destructive impulse in animals, see The Play of Animals, pp. 91, 200, 220.

446 Saggi di psicologia del bambino, p. 118.

447 L’Éducation progressive, Paris, 1841, vol. i, p. 302.

448 H. Emminghaus finds many points of resemblance between the period of life during which such actions are most rife and a condition of mania. (Die psychischen StÖrungen des Kindersalters, TÜbingen, 1899, p. 179.)

449 Fr. Scholz, Die charakterfehler des Kindes, Leipsic, 1891, pp. 148, 149. See F. L. Burk, Teasing and Bullying. The Pedagogical Seminary, vol. iv (1897), p. 341.

450 See S. Sighele, Psychologie des Auflaufs u. der Massenverbrechen, Dresden, 1897, p. 13.

451 A portion of this section appeared in the periodical Die Kinderfehler. It may be compared with Burk’s article on teasing and bullying, which was then unknown to me. The latter, however, is more concerned with serious than with playful aspects of the subject.

452 The Play of Animals, p. 167.

453 See Schneegan’s Geschichte der Grotesken Satire, p. 443.

454 Leopold Wagner, Manners, Customs, and Observances, London, 1895, p. 34.

455 Becq de FouquiÈres, p. 273.

456 W. Joest, Ethnographisches und Verwandtes aus Guayana, supplement to vol. v, Intern. Arch. fÜr Ethnographie (1892), p. 49.

457 Gutsmuth, op. cit., p. 25.

458 Becq de FouquiÈres, p. 2B1.

459 Sixth edition, Leipsic, 1896, pp. 321–323. This recalls tales of Roman emperors who sat before their guests dishes containing the heads of their own wives and children. See Hall and Allin, loc. cit., p. 22.

460 F. Pollock, An Infant’s Progress in Language, Mind, vol. iii (1878).

461 Sigismund, p. 151. See Burk, op. cit., p. 356.

462 L. Wagner, Manners, Customs, and Observances, p. 255.

463 See on this subject Perez, Les trois premiÈres annÉes, p. 320.

464 Hall and Allin’s Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic, p. 21.

465 O. Beauregard, La caricature il y a quatre mille ans. Bulletin de La Soc. de l’Anthropol. de Paris, 1889.

466 Marcano, Caricature prÉcolombienne des Cerritos. Bulletin Soc. de l’Anthropol. de Paris, 1889.

467 Deutsches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, liv.

468 Grosse, p. 235.

469 F. M. Bohme, pp. 271, 277.

470 See E. H. Meyer, Deutsche Volkskunde, Strassburg, 1898, p. 337: “This practice is very ancient, and seems to have given their names to some German tribes.”

471 Ibid.

472 To cover all the ground, the teasing application of wit would have to be included here. It is taken up and treated briefly in the next section.

473 Carl Sittl, Die GebÄrden der Griechen und RÖmer, Leipsic, 1890, p. 90.

474 Ibid.

475 Early History of Mankind, second edition, 1870, p. 45. See the analogous behaviour of the Dakotas in Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions, p. 257.

476 See Sittl, p. 99.

477 Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 222.

478 Ernste Spiele, p. 10.

479 The Human Mind, vol. ii, p. 148. Psychologie des sentiments, p. 342.

480 See Hall and Allin, op. cit. The remark of a little girl who danced about the grave of her friend and rejoiced thus, “How glad I am that she is dead and that I’m alive!” is in the same line.

481 In my Einleitung in die Esthetic I have tried to show how the feeling of superiority is gradually supplanted by inner imitation. In the humorous contemplation of inferiority Erdmann’s “maliciousness” need have no place, and we can conceive of a God as laughing in this way. As Keller’s poem has it, “Der Herr, der durch die Wandlung geht, Er lÄchelt auf dem Wege.”

482 The fact that the humorous temperament is so much more rare in women artists than in men supports the theory of its involving the fighting impulse. (See Mario Pilo, La psychologie du beau et de l’art, Paris, 1895, p. 145.)

483 G. H. Schneider, Der Menschliche Wille, Berlin, 1882, p. 62.

484 Semon, Im Australischen Busch, pp. 168, 197.

485 Strutt, op. cit., p. 62.

486 The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 427.

487 Grasberger, pp. 52, 57.

488 Grasberger, pp. 52, 57.

489 Das Kind, second edition, Leipsic, 1896, p. 53.

490 Bastian, Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 325.

491 Alwin Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau, etc., p. 8.

492 Die VÖlker des Östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 325.

493 They do not, of course, form the essence of poetic enjoyment.

494 Der dramatische Konflikt, Grenzboten, 1897, No. 39.

495 Volkett, Aesthetik des Tragischen, MÜnchen, 1897, pp. 83, 87.

496 W. Wetz, Ueber das VerhÄltniss der Dichtung zur Wirklichkeit und Geschichte. Zeitschr. f. vgl. Litt.-Gesch., vol. ix, p. 161. He admits in the sequel that in Corneille’s Cid, for instance, there is no such working out of psychical individuality.

497 Ibid.

498 Volkett, Aesthetik des Tragischen, MÜnchen, 1897, pp. 83, 87.

499 Psychologie des sentiments, p. 225.

500 Nietzsche, GÖtzendÄmmerung, p. 136.

501 I shall return later to the discussion of Wundt’s use of imitation.

502 Vorles. Üb. d. Menschen-u. Thierseele, third edition, 1897, p. 405.

503 The Psychology of Love, p. 53.

504 L’enfant de trois À sept ans, p. 273.

505 Zeitschr. f. Psychol. u Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. ii (1891), p. 128.

506 Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen SÜd-Afrikas, p. 140.

507 Colin A. Scott, Sex and Art, Am. Jour. of Psychol., vol. vii, p. 182.

508 Westermarck, op. cit., p. 156.

509 Westermarck, op. cit., p. 192.

510 Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, Jena, 1897, p. 45.

511 Altum, one of the highest authorities on birds, confirms this view (Der Vogel und sein Leben, fifth edition, MÜnster, 1875, p. 137). I have to thank Baldwin, too, for the reference to Guyau, who considers that the innate modesty may be “nÉcessaire À la femme pour arriver, sans se donner, jusqu’au complet dÉveloppement de son organisme.” [See also Havelock Ellis, Geschlechtstrieb und SchamgefÜhl, p. 10. This view was worked out in some detail, it seems, together with a view of sexual selection similar to Professor Groos’s, by Hirn, in a chapter on Animal Display in a Swedish work in 1896: it is now reproduced in that author’s Origins of Art (1900), chap. xiv; cf. also the preface to the same work.—J. M. B.]

512 Op. cit., p. 87.

513 Mind, October, 1880.

514 Colin A. Scott, op. cit., p. 181.

515 We may compare, too, our watch charms. They, like the trophies and tribal symbols of savages, show much more the desire for ownership than the principle of self-exhibition.

516 The examples of decoration by animals apply to their dwellings rather than to their persons.

517 Grosse, p. 233.

518 In an article on Sex and Art, Scott has developed similar ideas, and has rightly connected the vagaries of fetichism with the abnormal sexual excitement produced by special materials, such as fur, velvet, etc.

519 The Play of Animals, p. 211.

520 Page 76.

521 A. StÖckl, Lehrbuch der Aesthetik, second edition, Mainz, 1889, p. 229.

522 Wagner and Liszt are especially strong in such effects.

523 Vischer, Aesthetic, sec. 189. Hall and Allin, op. cit., p. 31.

524 R. J. Dodge, Modern Indians of the Far West, pp. 146, 164.

525 Op. cit., p. 68.

526 Op. cit., p. 14. Hall and Allin.

527 According to R. J. Dodge, who is a thorough student of Indian life, among those of the far West it is a polite fiction not to observe the wooing lover, “because they consider love a weakness.”

528 G. Tarde, Les lois de l’imitation. Second edition, Paris, 1895.

529 J. M. Baldwin, Mental Development, and Social and Ethical Interpretations.

530 Habit and Instinct. London and New York, 1896, p. 168.

531 Baldwin’s further distinction between tradition and social heredity seems true enough, but not especially practical.

532 Gedanken Über Musik bei Thieren und beim Menschen. Deutsche Rundschau, October, 1889.

533 See Baldwin’s A New Factor in Evolution, in The American Naturalist, June, July, 1896.

534 The Senses and the Intellect, p. 408.

535 James Mill, Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, vol. ii, chap. xxiv. Tiedemann’s remarks on the subject, too, are clear and brief. Op. cit., p. 12.

536 See A. PfÄnder, Das Bewusstsein des Wollens. Zeitschr. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sin., vols. x and xvii.

537 The strong emphasis of imitation in hypnosis seems to support this, for there we have a decided narrowing of the consciousness, so that the antagonistic motive has little showing compared with the idea of movement.

538 An attempt to explain the charm of what is forbidden, not by means of the fighting impulse but on the ground of psychic inhibition may be found in Lipps’s Grundthatsachen des Seelenleben, pp. 634, 641.

539 In this triumph we find a means of explanation for the exhilarating effect of simple—that is neither mischievous nor mocking—imitation.

540 The biological criterion of practice of the impulse is not very well applicable to imitation. We do not copy playfully in order to be able to copy seriously, and, moreover, playful imitation itself accomplishes the purpose. Yet the practice theory is of course indebted to the contributions of imitation in the highest degree.

541 The question as to whether play may not be more extensive from a purely biological standpoint is touched upon in the theoretical division.

542 “I looked for great men,” said Nietzsche once, “and found them only aping their ideals.” Vol. viii, p. 66.

543 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 103.

544 Fr. Tracy, The Psychology of Childhood, fourth edition, Boston, 1897, p. 104.

545 Mental Development, etc., p. 123. Egger, Le dÉveloppement de l’intelligence et du langage chez les enfants, p. 10.

546 Op. cit., p. 354. See Perez (Les trois premiÈres annÉes, etc., p. 124), who assumes involuntary imitation in the second month.

547 Die Seele des Kindes, p. 186.

548 Preyer, op. cit., p. 188.

549 Kind und Welt, p. 129.

550 Lloyd Morgan calls one imitation and the other copying (Habit and Instinct, p. 171).

551 Op. cit., p. 188.

552 Op. cit., p. 88.

553 Mental Development, p. 123.

554 Op. cit., p. 88.

555 Notes on the Development of a Child, p. 112.

556 Op. cit., pp. 314, 321.

557 See, on the other hand, Preyer’s conclusion given below. Op. cit., p. 369.

558 See Ufer’s article on Sigismund’s Kind und Welt.

559 Jodl calls the root word, which he and others refer neither to interjectional nor imitative origin, ideal roots; I prefer to call them experimental roots.

560 It should be remembered that the appearance of an imitative speech is quite natural in connection with gesture language. We do not know certainly, however, which preceded the other.

561 Lehrbuch der Psychologie, p. 570.

562 See Franz Magnus Boehme, op. cit., p. 218.

563

“The howling blast through the groaning wood
Wrenching the giant pine, which, in its fall,
Crashing sweeps down its neighbouring trunks end boughs,
While with the hollow noise the hills resound.”
Miss Swanwick’s translation.

564 Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik auf entwickelungsgeschichtlicher Grundlage. Zeitschr. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. xiv (1897).

565 Hall and Allin, Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, etc., pp. 15–17.

566 Miss Shinn reports a kind of animal dance by a child in its third year (op. cit., p. 127).

567 Among the varied decorations which the natives of British New Guinea wear at their holiday dances is the bushy tail, which is placed quite as high as on the antique fauns. See A. C. Haddon, Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. xi (1893).

568 Hall and Allin, Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, etc., pp. 15–17.

569 Livingstone’s last Journals from Central Africa.

570 Captain Jacobsen’s Reise an der NordwestkÜste Amerikas, 1881-’83, Leipsic, 1884, p. 85.

571 Signe Rink, Aus dem Leben der EuropÄer in GrÖnland, Ausland, vol. lxvi (1893), p. 762.

572 Mental Development, p. 357.

573

“Time’s passage shall unfold for him

Fortune bright and fortune dim.”

574 W. Svoboda, Die Bewohner de Nikobaren-Archipels. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. v (1892).

575 W. Joest, Weltfahrten, Berlin, 1895, vol. ii, p. 162.

576 PechuËl-Loesche’s report of a monkey’s play with a doll shows that it was mere experimentation (The Play of Animals, p. 169).

577 B. Altum, Der Vogel und sein Leben, MÜnster, 1895, pp. 188, 189.

578 Mental Development, p. 362 (omitted from the German version).

579 Thus, to mention one example, Marie G—— had no sooner adopted a small thermometer as a baby than she spied the tassel which it hung up by, and called everybody’s attention to its lovely head.

580 The Japanese collection in the Berlin Museum is the finest that I have ever seen.

581 See J. Walter Fewkes, Dolls of the Tusayan Indians. Int. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. vii (1894). Fewkes is very careful about committing himself on this point.

582 Op. cit., p. 254.

583 Unter den NaturvÖlkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 230.

584 Ibid.

585 Op. cit., p. 98. See also Sully’s Studies, p. 333.

586 Op. cit., p. 195.

587 See on this point Grosse’s AnfÄnge der Kunst and the chapter on The Young Draughtsman in Sully’s Studies of Childhood. If space allowed I could give similar particulars of my nephew Max K——’s work. In this boy the artistic impulse all turned to the representation of animals, in which he became a master. He took the great scissors and cut away almost without looking, and with every turn of the shears he turned his body too (an instance of the outer effects of inner imitation).

588 H. T. Lukens, Die Entwickelung beim Zeichnen, Die Kinderfehler, ii (1897).

589 Von den Steinen, Unter den NaturvÖlkern, p. 235.

590 Unter den NaturvÖlkern, etc., p. 251.

591 Unter den NaturvÖlkern, pp. 251, 254, 255, 257.

592 Ibid.

593 Ibid.

594 G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Leipsic, 1889, vol. iii, p. 133. See, too, Knabenspiele im dunkeln Welttheil, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, 1898, No. 42.

595 Conrads Ricci, L’arte dei Bambini, Bologna, 1887. The young Canova, when a kitchen boy, betrayed his talent as a sculptor by moulding a lion in butter.

596 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 106.

597 Ibid. pp. 94 ff.

598 B. Perez, L’art et la poÉsie chez l’enfant, Paris, 1888, p. 200. The self-evident truth that forces the contrary of imitation are also operative in the progress of art is not the proper subject of this investigation.

599 J. Volkelt, Der Symbol-Begriff in der neuesten Aesthetik, Jena, 1876; and P. Stern, EinfÄdlung und Association in der neueren Aesthetik, Hamburg and Leipsic, 1898.

600 Jouffroy, Cours d’esthÉtique, Paris, 1845, p. 256.

601 Dr. Lipps, RaumÄsthetik und geometrisch-optische TÄuschungen, Leipsic, 1897, p. 5.

602 See P. Stern, op. cit., p. 46.

603 Op. cit., p. 7.

604 I have dwelt on this point both in my Einleitung in die Aesthetik and in the Spiele der Thiere. Further treatment of it may be found in K. Lange’s KÜnstlerischer Erziehung der deutschen Jugend.

605 Ueber das optische FormgefÜhl, Stuttgart, 1873.

606 La BeautÉ plastique. Revue philosophique, vol. xxxv (1893).

607 Studien Über die Bewegungsvorstellungen, Wien, 1882.

608 Beauty and Ugliness. Contemporary Review, 1897.

609 A confirmation of this, which is especially valuable because it is not intended as a contribution to Æsthetics, is found in Stricker, op. cit., pp. 16, 21, 26.

610 Stricker, op. cit., p. 23. The application to the observation of dancing is self-evident.

611 See Hubert Roetteken, Zur Lehre von den Darstellungsmitteln in der Poesie.

612 See KÜlpe, Grundriss zur Psychologie, p. 149. KÜlpe is of the opinion that possibly voluntary recollection is never unaccompanied by movement.

613 Kalligone, Leipsic, 1800, vol. i, p. 116.

614 Mental Development, p. 407.

615 Op. cit., pp. 554, 677.

616 Ibid.

617 For the bearing of this on the doctrine of promiscuity, see the works of Starcke, Westermarck, and Grosse; also P. and Fr. Sarasin, Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon, vol. iii, Wiesbaden, 1892-’93, pp. 363, 458.

618 See G. F. Pfisterer, PÄdagogische Psychologie, second edition, Gutersloh, 1889, p. 146.

619 A. Kohler (Der Kindergarten in seinem Wesen dargestellt) says, however, that the child’s longing to associate with others of its own age is so strong as to require daily satisfaction (Pfisterer, op. cit., p. 145).

620 Pfisterer, op. cit., p. 147.

621 Op. cit., p. 65.

622 Studies in Childhood, p. 268.

623 Handbuch der praktischen PÄdagogik, p. 699.

624 A. Marty finds, as does Whitney, the impulse for communication an essential for the origin of the so much more varied language of men than of animals. Ueber Sprachreflex, Nativismus und absichtliche Sprachbildung. Vierteljahreschr. f. wissensch. Philos., vol. xiv (1890), p. 66.

625 Op. cit., p. 228.

626 Chamberlain, op. cit., pp. 260, 263.

627 Ibid.

628 See F. S. Krauss, Geheime Sprachweisen. Am. Urquell, vol. ii-vi; P. Sartori, Sondersprachen, ibid., vol. v.

629 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 148.

630 Æsthetic Principles, New York, 1895, p. 68.

631 Essays, vol. ii, p. 41.

632 The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 227.

633 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 238.

634 La Logique sociale. PrÉface, p. vii. Les Lois de l’Imitation, second edition, p. 215.

635 Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 243.

636 Gutsmuths, p. 251.

637 Svoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobaren Archipels, p. 29.

638 W. James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 428.

639 Unter den NaturvÖlkern, etc., p. 267.

640 J. von d. Steinen, Unter den NaturvÖlkern, p. 267.

641 Op. cit., p. 219.

642 Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 328.

643 Op. cit., p. 268.

644 In an inquiry as to children’s preferences in the matter of playmates, Will S. Monroe found 335 boys who wanted male against 20 who asked for female comrades; 328 girls preferred their own sex and only 28 the other. (Development of the Social Consciousness of Children. The Northwestern Monthly, September, 1898.)

645 O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der VÖlkerpsychologie, Leipsic, 1894, p. 24.

646 A more thorough account of this theory may be found in The Play of Animals. The recreation theory, on the contrary, is peculiarly applicable in this connection.

647 O. KÜlpe, Grundriss der Psychologie, Leipsic, 1893, p. 216.

648 H. Steinthal, Zu Bibel und Religionsphilosophie, Berlin, 1895, p. 249.

649 The foregoing observations are somewhat modified by Kraepelin’s view that active recreation conquers the feeling of fatigue rather than fatigue itself.

650 A. Moll, Der Hypnotismus, third edition, Berlin, 1895, p. 63.

651 The principle of repetition in poetry, too, is sometimes like this. See von Biedermann, Die Wiederholung als Urform der Dichtung bei Goethe. Zeitschrift f. vgl. Literat.-Gesch., vol. iv (1891).

652 Games of chance pre-eminently have this power over adults.

653 Mental Development, p. 132.

654 Souriau, Le plaisir du mouvement, Revue Scientifique, vol. xviii, p. 365.

655 O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der VÖlkerpsychologie, p. 129.

656 G. H. Schneider, Der menschliche Wille, Berlin, 1882, p. 68.

657 The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 281.

658 Op. cit., p. 464.

659 Sec F. v. Wagner, Das Problem der Vererbung. Die Aula, 1895.

660 The much-discussed question of telegony seems to me out of place in this connection, for if it actually exists at all it must be effected by some intricate modification in the germ substance itself, and does not concern the inheritance of somatogenic qualities.

661 J. W. Spengel, ZweckmÄssigkeit und Anpassung, Giessener Rectoratsrede, 1898.

662 G. R. Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin, vol. ii.

663 Baldwin, Organic Selection. Amer. Naturalist, June, July, 1896, and Biolog. Centralblatt, vol. xvii (1897), p. 385. Weismann, Ueber Germinal Selection, Jena, 1896. (Also in English translation.)

664 Baldwin calls this directing influence of organic selection orthoplasy; he attempts to replace Eimer’s “orthogenesis” by means of a principle which does not involve the inheritance of acquired characters. [A recent exposition of organic selection is by Conn (Method of Evolution, 1900). See also Baldwin’s Dict. of Philos. and Psychol., sub verbo.—Tr.]

665 The process is, of course, reversed in degeneration.

666 Weismann insists that individual selection must give the impetus to such specially directed evolution of the germ substance; but it seems to me that his theory can not escape the objection that it lacks proper grounds for selection unless the specially directed variations in the germ substance arise independently of individual selection. It may then be said that even in a quite constant species there are, as a result of germinal selection, dispositions to specially directed variations (the lower jaw of the Hapsburgs, for instance, or the appearance of a specialised genius in a talented family), which, so long as the environment remains constant, very soon meet the opposition of individual selection. But when outer conditions are changed, the useful variations arise again, encounter and finally overcome individual selection. Whether the struggle for existence really plays such a rÔle in the germ substance, however, it is difficult to assert with assurance.

667 Ibid.

668 The previous discussion of this question need not be repeated here.

669 R. Sommer, GrundzÜge einer Geschichte der deutschen Phys. und Aesth., WÜrzburg, 1892, pp. 98, 266.

670 Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik auf entwickelungsgeschichtlicher Grundlage. pp. 270, 273.

671 A similar view is expressed in Lange’s work.

672 Op. cit., pp. 404, 406.

673 Ibid., p. 411. Here play is called “unconscious imitation necessitated by hereditary impulses.” In this notice Wundt refers to my views expressed in The Play of Animals as though to me “the playful fights of dogs with their young appeared earlier in the evolution of species than genuine fighting among animals.” But this is not my meaning. I insisted on the presence of hereditary impulses, and assumed that these are brought to perfection during a period of youth devoted to play. Play would, on the whole, contribute more to the weakening of existing instincts than to strengthen them or create new ones.

674 Ibid.

675 I have not made this distinction sufficiently clear in The Play of Animals, as K. Lange rightly points out.

676 See, too, K. Lange, Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik, etc., p. 258.

677 [By “not psychological at all” was meant not psychological semblance (ScheinthÄtigkeit) at all, while still such from an objective point of view; so that psychological semblance can not be taken as a universal criterion of play.—J. M. B.]

678 Children show conscious self-illusion very clearly when they play something like this: “Now I am playing that I am papa and have shot a lion,” etc.

679 Note, however, the rhythmic action of attention, which frequently admits of “coming to” at relatively regular intervals.

680 Lipps’s dritten Aesthetischen Litteraturbericht (p. 480) seems to me to state the problem clearly, but does not contribute to its solution.

681 Lange has treated of the contrary case where Nature is regarded as a work of art. I do not think, however, that it has the significance that belongs to the conversion of appearance into reality.

682 “À la vue d’un objet expressif,” says Jouffroy, “qui me jette dans un État sympathique de soi-mÊme dÉsagrÉable, il y a en moi un plaisir qui rÉsulte de ce que je suis dans cet État.”—Op. cit., 270.

683 RaumÄsthetik, p. 6.

684 Cf. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 146.

685 Baldwin, op. cit., p. 141.

686 K. A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. iv, p. 282.

687 Colozza’s book on play contains in its second part, Il guoco nella storia della pedagogia, a good historical review of this subject.

688 Moller on Play, in the EncyklopÄdie des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens.

689 This Swabian preacher had made a prodigy of his son by this method.

690 K. A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. iv, pp. 279, 401.

691 See Max Reischle, Das Spielen der Kinder, etc., p. 32.

692 I refer not merely to rivalry, but to the accomplishment of tasks as well.

693 Brough Smith, The Aborigines of Victoria, London, 1878, vol. i, p. 50.

694 Reischle, op. cit., p. 24.

695 See Colozza, op. cit., p. 253.

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