SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.—A resourceful worker in foods is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize all materials, allowing none to waste.

During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It was found that the substitution should be based upon the relative weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals rather than upon their relative measures.

By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.

For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:

l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour 5/6 cupful buckwheat flour 1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal 1 scant cupful peanut flour 7/8 cupful rice flour 1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats 1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground in food chopper 1/3 cupful tapioca flour 7/8 cupful soy-bean flour 3/4 cupful potato flour 1 cupful rye flour

Although yeast breads are not so satisfactory if made entirely of a grain other than wheat, quick breads of desirable grain and texture may be made without wheat. It has been found, however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more satisfactory results than a single substitute.

When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of substitutes are suggested by the United States Department of Agriculture, States Relation Service.

Rolled oats (ground) or
Barley flour or
Buckwheat flour or
Peanut flour or
Soy-bean flour

and

Corn flour or
Corn-meal or
Rice flour or
Potato flour or
Sweet potato flour

Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials together.

By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding materials together.

When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads) it is advisable to increase the quantity of baking powder,—1/2 teaspoonful for each cupful of the substitute used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.—In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,—tender but firm enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger than those made with other cereals.

Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we have favored it more than other cereals.

COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.—Make a comparative study of the composition of the following:

Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more ash?

Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing corn breads.

It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow and of white corn-meal.

Wheat Flour and Oatmeal.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash? Which contains the more carbohydrates?

Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in order to make it palatable.

Wheat Flour and Rice.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice (average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein and ash?

Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.

Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94: Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02; fat, 1.96; carbohydrates, 76.98; ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other

grains.

Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye.—From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in buckwheat and in rye.

CORN MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 2/3 cupful corn-meal 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/3 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 1/4 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at 400 F.

Rye meal may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.

RICE MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 2/3 cupful milk 1/2 cupful cooked rice 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.

OATMEAL MUFFINS

Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool. Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

QUESTIONS

Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see Wheat Flour and Corn-meal).

Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain
Muffins. Account for the difference.

From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?

By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?

Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values).