A History of Rome During the Later Republic and Early Principate

This work will be comprised in six volumes. According to the plan which I have provisionally laid down, the second volume will cover the period from 104 to 70 B.C., ending with the first consulship of Pompeius and Crassus; the third, the period from 70 to 44 B.C., closing with the death of Caesar; the fourth volume will probably be occupied by the Third Civil War and the rule of Augustus, while the fifth and sixth will cover the reigns of the Emperors to the accession of Vespasian.

The original sources, on which the greater part of the contents of the present volume is based, have been collected during the last few years by Miss Clay and myself, and have already been published in an abbreviated form. Some idea of the debt which I owe to modern authors may be gathered from the references in the footnotes. As I have often, for the sake of brevity, cited the works of these authors by shortened and incomplete titles, I have thought it advisable to add to the volume a list of the full titles of the works referred to. But the list makes no pretence to be a full bibliography of the period of history with which this volume deals. The map of the WÄd Mellag and its surrounding territory, which I have inserted to illustrate the probable site of the battle of the Muthul, is taken from the map of the "Medjerda supÉrieure" which appears in M. Salomon Reinach's Atlas de la Province Romaine d'Afrique.

I am very much indebted to my friend and former pupil, Mr. E.J. Harding, of Hertford College, for the ungrudging labour which he has bestowed on the proofs of the whole of this volume. Many improvements in the form of the work are due to his perspicacity and judgment.

A problem which confronts an author who plunges into the midst of the history of a nation (however complete may be the unity of the period with which he deals) is that of the amount of introductory information which he feels bound to supply to his readers. In this case, I have felt neither obligation nor inclination to supply a sketch of the development of Rome or her constitution up to the period of the Gracchi. The amount of information on the general and political history of Rome which the average student must have acquired from any of the excellent text-books now in use, is quite sufficient to enable him to understand the technicalities of the politics of the period with which I deal; and I was very unwilling to burden the volume with a prÉcis of a subject which I had already treated in another work. On the other hand, it is not so easy to acquire information on the social and economic history of Rome, and consequently I have devoted the first hundred pages of this book to a detailed exposition of the conditions preceding and determining the great conflict of interests with which our story opens.

A. H. J. G.

OXFORD, August, 1904

CHAPTER I: Characteristics of the period. Recent changes in the conditions of Roman life. Close of the period of expansion by means of colonies or land assignments. Reasons for social discontent. The life of the wealthier classes. The expenses of political life. Attempts to check luxury. Motives for gain amongst the upper classes. Means of acquiring wealth open to members of the nobility; those open to members of the commercial class. The political influence of the Equites. The business life of Rome; finance and banking. Foreign trade. The condition of the small traders. Agriculture. Diminution in the numbers of peasant proprietors. The Latifundium and the new agricultural ideal. Growth of pasturage. Causes of the changes in the tenure of land. The system of possession. Future prospects of agriculture. Slave labour; dangers attending its employment; revolts of slaves in Italy. The servile war in Sicily (circa 140-131 B.C.). The need for reform.

CHAPTER II: The sources from which reform might have come, too. Attitude of Scipio Aemilianus. Tiberius Gracchus; his youth and early career. The affair of the Numantine Treaty. Motives that urged Tiberius Gracchus to reform. His tribunate (B.C. 133). Terms of the agrarian measure which he introduced. Creation of a special agrarian commission. Opposition to the bill. Veto pronounced by Marcus Octavius. Tiberius Gracchus declares a Justitium. Fruitless reference to the senate. Deposition of Octavius. Passing of the agrarian law; appointment of the commissioners; judicial power given to the commissioners. Employment of the bequest of Attalus. Attacks on Tiberius Gracchus. His defence of the deposition of Octavius. New programme of Tiberius Gracchus; suggestion of measures dealing with the army, the law-courts and the Italians. Tiberius Gracchus's attempt at re-election to the tribunate. Riot at the election and death of Tiberius Gracchus, Consequences of his fall.

CHAPTER III: Attitude of the senate after the fall of Tiberius Gracchus. Special commission appointed for the trial of his adherents (B.C. 132). Fate of Scipio Nasica. Permanence of the land commission and thoroughness of its work. Difficulties connected with jurisdiction on disputed claims. The Italians appeal to Scipio Aemilianus. His intervention; judicial power taken from the commissioners (B.C. 129). Death of Scipio Aemilianus. Tribunate of Carbo (B.C. 131); ballot law and attempt to make the tribune immediately re-eligible. The Italian claims; negotiations for the extension of the franchise. Alien act of Pennus (B.C. 126). Proposal made by Flaccus to extend the franchise (B.C. 125). Revolt of Fregellae. Foundation of Fabrateria (B.C. 124). Foreign events during this period; the kingdom of Pergamon. Bequest of Attains the Third (B.C. 133). Revolt of Aristonicus (B.C. 132-130). Organisation of the province of Asia (B.C. 129-126). Sardinian War (B.C. 126-125). Conquest and annexation of the Balearic Islands (B.C. 123-132).

CHAPTER IV: The political situation at the time of the appearance of Caius Gracchus as a candidate for the tribunate (B.C. 124). Early career of Caius Gracchus. First tribunate of Caius Gracchus (B.C. 123). Laws passed or proposed during this tribunate; law protecting the Caput of a Roman citizen. Impeachment of Popillius. Law concerning magistrates who had been deposed by the people. Social reforms. Law providing for the cheapened sale of corn. Law mitigating the conditions of military service, 208. Agrarian law. Judiciary law. Law permitting a criminal prosecution for corrupt judgments. Law concerning the province of Asia. The new balance of power created by these laws in favour of the Equites. Law about the consular provinces. Colonial schemes of Caius Gracchus. The Rubrian law for the renewal of Carthage. Law for the making of roads. Election of Fannius to the consulship and of Caius Gracchus and Flaccus to the tribunate. Activity of Caius Gracchus during his second tribunate (B.C. 122). The franchise bill. Opposition to the bill. Exclusion of Italians from Rome; threat of the veto, and suspension of the measure. Proposal for a change in the order of voting in the Comitia Centuriata. New policy of the senate; counter-legislation of Drusus. Colonial proposals of Drusus. His measure for the protection of the Latins. The close of Caius Gracchus's second tribunate. His failure to be elected tribune for the third time. Proposal for the repeal of the Rubrian law. The meeting on the Capitol and its consequences (B.C. 121). Declaration of a state of siege. The seizure of the Aventine; defeat of the Gracchans; death of Caius Gracchus and Flaccus. Judicial prosecution of the adherents of Caius Gracchus. Future judgments on the Gracchi. The closing years of Cornelia. Estimate of the character and consequences of the Gracchan reforms.

CHAPTER V: The political situation after the fall of Caius Gracchus. Prosecution and acquittal of Opimius (B.C. 120). Publius Lentulus dies in exile. Prosecution and condemnation of Carbo (B.C. 119). Lucius Crassus. Policy of the senate towards the late schemes of reform. Two new land laws (circa 121-119 B.C.). The settlement of the land question with respect to Ager Publicus in Italy (B.C. III). Limitations on the power of the nobility; the Equestrian courts; trials of Scaevola (B.C. 120) and Cato (B.C. 113). Consulship of Scaurus (B.C. 115); law concerning the voting power of freedmen. Sumptuary law; activity of the censors Metellus and Domitius (B.C. 115). Triumphs of Domitius, Fabius (B.C. 120) and Scaurus (B.C. 115), for military successes. Confidence of the electors in the ancient houses. Recognition of talent by the nobility; career of Scaurus (B.C. 163-115). The rise of Marius; his early career (B.C. 157-119). Tribunate of Marius (B.C. 119). His law about the method of voting in the Comitia carried in spite of the opposition of the senate. He opposes a measure for the distribution of corn. Marius elected praetor; accused and acquitted of Ambitus (B.C. 116). His praetorship (B.C. 115), and pro-praetorship in Spain (B.C. 114). Further opposition to the senate; foundation of Narbo Martius (B.C. 118). Glaucia; his tribunate and his law of extortion (circa 111 B.C.). The spirit of unrest; religious fears at Rome (B.C. 114). First trial of the vestals (B.C. 114). Second trial of the vestals (B.C. 113). Human sacrifice. Great fire at Rome (B.C. III).

CHAPTER VI: The kingdom of Numidia. The races of North Africa. The Numidians. The Numidian monarchy. Reign of Micipsa (B.C. 148-118). Early years of Jugurtha. Jugurtha at Numantia (B.C. 134-133). Joint rule of Jugurtha, Adherbal and Hiempsal (B.C. 118). Murder of Hiempsal (circa 116 B.C.); war between Jugurtha and Adherbal. Both kings send envoys to Rome; the appeal of Adherbal. Decision of the senate. Numidia divided between the claimants. Renewal of the war between Jugurtha and Adherbal (circa 114 B.C.). Siege of Cirta (B.C. 112). Embassy from Rome neglected by Jugurtha. Renewed appeal of Adherbal. Another commission sent by Rome. Surrender of Cirta and murder of Adherbal. Massacre of Italian traders. Its influence on the commercial classes at Rome; protest by Memmius. Declaration of war against Jugurtha. Command of Bestia in Numidia (B.C. III). Attitude of Bocchus of Mauretania. Negotiations of Bestia with Jugurtha; conclusion of peace. Excitement in Rome on the news of the agreement with Jugurtha. Activity of Memmius. Jugurtha induced to come to Rome (B.C. III). Jugurtha at Rome; the scene at the Contio. Murder of Massiva. Jugurtha leaves Rome and the war is renewed, 365. Spurius Albinus in Numidia. He returns to Rome leaving Aulus Albinus in command. Enterprise of Aulus Albinus; his defeat and compact with Jugurtha (B.C. 109). Reception of the news at Rome; the senate invalidates the treaty. Return of Spurius Albinus to Africa. The Mamilian Commission (B.C. 110). Metellus appointed to Numidia (B.C. 109).

CHAPTER VII: Metellus restores discipline in the army. Jugurtha attempts negotiation; Metellus intrigues with the envoys. First campaign of Metellus (B.C. 109). Seizure of Vaga. Battle of the Muthul. Reception of the news at Rome. Second campaign of Metellus (B.C. 108). Siege of Zama. Correspondence of Metellus with Bomilcar. Negotiations with Jugurtha. Discontent in the province of Africa at the progress of the war; ambitions of Marius. Plans for securing the command for Marius. Massacre of the Roman garrison at Vaga. Recovery of Vaga by Metellus. Trial and execution of Turpilius, Intrigues of Bomilcar. Bomilcar put to death by Jugurtha. Marius returns to Rome. His election to the consulship (B.C. 108 or 107); Numidia assigned as his province. Enrolment of the Capite Censi in the legions. Metellus's expedition to Thala (B.C. 107); capture of the town, Leptis Major appeals for, and receives, Roman help. Jugurtha finds help amongst the Gaetulians. Junction of Jugurtha and Bocchus. Metellus moves to Cirta. Close of Metellus's command.

CHAPTER VIII: Marius arrives in Africa (B.C. 107). Return of Metellus to Rome: his triumph. First campaign of Marius. Expedition to Capsa and destruction of the town. Second campaign of Marius (B.C. 106); operations on the Muluccha. Arrival of Sulla with cavalry from Italy. Early career of Sulla. Renewed coalition of Jugurtha and Bocchus. Retirement of Marius on Cirta; battles on the route. Marius approached by Bocchus; Sulla and Manlius sent to interview Bocchus. Envoys from Bocchus reach Sulla in the Roman winter-camp (B.C. 105). Armistice made with Bocchus; he is then granted conditional terms of alliance by the Roman senate. The mission of Sulla to Bocchus. The advocates of Numidia and Rome at the Mauretanian court. Sulla urges Bocchus to surrender Jugurtha. Betrayal of the Numidian king; conclusion of the war; settlement of Numidia. Fate of Jugurtha. Triumph of Marius. Lessons of the Numidian War. Growing rivalry between Marius and Sulla. Internal politics of Rome; reaction in favour of the nobility; election of Serranus and Caepio (B.C. 107). The judiciary law of Caepio (B.C. 106). The measure supported by Crassus. Reaction against the proposal; victory of the Equites; renewed coalition against the senate due to the conduct of the campaign in the North. The consular elections for the year 105 B.C. Effect of the defeat at Arausio (6th Oct. 105 B.C.). Election of Marius to a second consulship.

MAPS

The WÄd Mellag and the surrounding territory.
Numidia and the Roman Province of Africa.
Titles of modern works referred to in the notes.

     Does the Eagle know what is in the pit?
        Or wilt thou go ask the Mole?
      Can Wisdom be put in a silver rod?
        Or Love in a golden bowl?
                                        BLAKE

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A HISTORY OF ROME

DURING THE LATER REPUBLIC AND EARLY PRINCIPATE

BY

A. H. J. GREENIDGE, M. A., D. LITT. TUTOR AND LATE FELLOW OF HERTFORD COLLEGE AND LECTURER IN ANCIENT HISTORY AT BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD

VOLUME I

FROM THE TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS TO THE SECOND CONSULSHIP OF MARIUS B.C. 133-104

WITH TWO MAPS

TO

B. G.

AND

T. G.

PREFACE

A. H. J. G.

CONTENTS

MAPS