Thomas Greenhill

To Dr. John Lawson, sometime President of the College of Phisicians, London.

SIR,

As your Knowledge in the Coptic or antient Egyptian Language, in the Arabic and Oriental Tongues, as likewise your extraordinary Skill both in Phisic and Philology, best testifie you to be the fittest Judge of an Art of such Antiquity as Embalming; so your favourable Approbation of my Notions herein, has encourag’d me to endeavour finding out the true Progress and exact Method of practising that Art. In order hereunto I first think it not amiss to give a short Geographical Description of the Kingdom of Egypt, as also to take notice of the Salubrity of its Air and Water, "What to be consider’d as relating to Embalming." Fertility of its Soil, and Sagacity of its Inhabitants, together with several necessary Remarks on their Religion, Customs, Arts, Diseases and Phisic, nay, whatever else may tend to the right Understanding of this Noble but lost Art.

Tho’ Embalming be the chiefly intended Scope of this Letter, yet considering the Egyptians have been always allow’d the first Inventors of Arts and Sciences, and that this particular manner of Embalming was at first us’d by them only, it may be requisite to consider every particular circumstance of Time and Place, the several Drugs, Plants, Minerals and other Advantages which accru’d to them beyond other Nations, and likewise to inquire into the Reasons which induc’d them to study this Art, as also by what means and after what manner they came to find it out.

This indeed may seem to some a Digression from our Subject, yet the Consequence of it will not prove a little advantageous to the Reader, besides, like the Interlude of a Tragedy, may somewhat divert the Melancholiness of our Discourse about the Dead. But before I proceed to particulars, I shall speak somewhat of Egypt in general, "Egypt, how scituate and bounded." which the antient Geographers plac’d partly in Africa and partly in Asia, making the River Nile the Boundary between those two great parts of the World; but Egypt, according to the most common receiv’d Opinion, is at present held to be all scituate in Africa, and bounded on the East by IdumÆa, and the Arabian Gulph or Red Sea, on the West by the Desarts of Barca, Lybia and Numidia, on the North by the Egyptian Sea, being part of the Mediterranean, and on the South by Nubia, the last City of Egypt, that way being Assuan. "Its Denomination." This Country, says Heylin in his Cosmography, p. 841. has had several Names given it by prophane Authors, as, First, Aeria, from the Serenity of its Air, which is seldom Cloudy. Secondly, Potamia, from the propinquity of the Sea, which washes two sides of it. Thirdly, Ogygia, from Ogyges, a suppos’d King thereof. Fourthly, Melampodus, from the black colour of its Soil. Fifthly, Osiria, from the God Osiris, here in high esteem. Sixthly, and lastly, it was call’d Ægyptus, which in the end prevail’d over all the rest, either from Ægyptus Brother of Danaus, once King hereof (in the Stories of this Nation better known by the Name of Rameses) or else from Ægyptus, the old Name of the River Nile, whose annual overflowings bringing Soil and Rubbish from the higher Countries, gave occasion to some to believe it rais’d into firm Land, and gain’d out of the Sea, who therefore call’d it Nili Donum, the Gift of Nile; yet some there are who would have it call’d Ægyptus, from Aiguphtus, deriv’d from Aicoptus, which signifies the Land or Country of Coptus, that being suppos’d to have been antiently its chief City, built by Coptus, whose Genealogy and Descent is thus describ’d by Father Vansleb in his Relation of Egypt, p. 3. Cham, says he, one of the three Sons of Noah, had four Male Children, Cus, Misraim, Fut and Canaan; Cus was Father of the Abyssins, Misraim of the Copties and Nubians, Fut of the Africans, and Canaan of the Syrians and their Neighbours. Misraim after the Deluge, as Macrizi an Arabian Historian says, pitch’d upon Egypt, made there his Abode, and left that and the Country, as far as the farthest Part of Africa, to his Posterity: He had likewise four Sons, Ischemun, Atrib, SÀ and Coptus, among whom he equally divided the Land of Egypt. Coptus had all that Tract of Land from Assuan or Isvan to the City of Coptus; Ischemun all the Country from that City to Menuf or Memphis, Atrib had the heart and middle of Egypt; now call’d Delta; and SÀ all the Continent, from the Province of Beheire as far as Barbary: They all built Cities in their several Dominions, calling them after their own Names. After the decease of their Father, the four Brothers were at variance about the Soveraignty, neither of them caring to endure a Partner; at length they resolv’d to end their Controversy by Battel, which was to give the chief Command to the Victor. "Govern’d by Coptus." Coptus the youngest overcame the rest, and was consequently acknowledg’d chief Lord by all. He chose the City of Menuf or Memphis, where his Father liv’d, for his Residence: From this first King all the Race of the Egyptians have been since call’d Copties: From him likewise the Greeks gave the Name of ????pt?? to the Land of Egypt, by changing K. into G. which was allowable not only in that Language, but also in the Arabian. The Moors and Copties, natural Inhabitants of Egypt, now call it Massr, from Misraim, eldest Son of Cham, and Gran-Child of Noah, who first laid the Foundation of that Kingdom after the Deluge: From this Misraim the Turks have also nam’d Egypt Missir, which is very near the Hebrew Misraim; and the Jews to this Day call it Eretz Misraim, the Country of Misraim. This may suffice as to its Denominations and Etimology.

Its Extent.

Nubiensis Geographia makes it to extend in length from Assuan to the Mediterranean, 25 Days Journey, which is about 655 English Miles, and in breadth 8 Days Journey or 200 Miles; but Sandys and Vansleb agree ’tis from North to South only 560 Miles, the latter alledging it scarce possible to declare its length precisely, by reason they are not wont in that Country to measure by Miles or Leagues, but by Camels Journeys only. As to its breadth, Leo Africanus says, p. 296, it is from East to West 50 Miles, being narrow towards the South, but broader to the North towards the Mediterranean. Sandys likewise, p. 72. says, That by reason of its being so contracted among barren Mountains, it is in many Places hardly 4, in few above 8 Miles broad, till not far above Cairo it begins by degrees to enlarge it self, and so continues even to the Sea, being between Rosetta and Damiata, which stand on the West and East-Confines of that which is overflow’d by the natural Course of the River, 140 Miles, and from Rosetta to Alexandria 30.

Antient and modern Division.

Concerning the Division of this Country, the Ancients have taken occasion to divide it first into high and low, and then into high, middle and low; the higher they call’d Thebais, from a Place call’d Thebes, at present Saida; the middle they nam’d Septanomos, from the seven Nomi, Provostships or Governments it contain’d, at present Bechira or Demesor; the lower and more particular Egypt they call’d Delta, from its likeness to the Figure of the Greek Letter ?. Egypt, according to Sandys, p. 85. is now divided into three Parts or Provinces; that which lies South of Cairo is call’d Sahid, that between Cairo, Rosetta and Alexandria, Errif, that between Cairo, Damiata and Tenese, Maremnia, Bechiria: The Pharaohs and Egyptian Nobility resided in Saida, the Ptolomies in Errif, and the Romans and Greeks along the Sea-Coasts.

The River Nile.

I must now proceed to speak of the River Nile, which crossing great part of Æthiopia, and then entring Egypt, runs the whole length of that Kingdom, and after dividing and spreading it self into many Branches, ends in the Mediterranean Sea. This River was thought by the Ancients not to have its equal, and is still reputed one of the most considerable of the World, having somewhat wonderful and peculiar to it self, whether one considers its Source or Effects. To this River Egypt ows its Fertility, and its Inhabitants the greatest of Felicities, their Health and Fortunes, yet neither could their rich Princes or wise Priests ever discover its Source or Origin. ’Tis this has baffl’d the greatest Philosophers, and withstood the Attempts of all their Kings, Roman Emperors, Sultans and other Potentates, who, notwithstanding they endeavour’d it with vast Expenses, always prov’d unsuccessful: Thus Sesostris, Ptolemy and Cyrus sought for it in vain; Alexander the Great consulted the Oracle of Jupiter Ammon in order to find it out, and Cambyses, as Strabo witnesses, spent a whole Year to the same purpose, yet both were disappointed: Julius CÆsar also, if we may believe Lucan, said, He would have given over his pursuit of the Civil War, could he but have been sure to find out this Secret, yet has its Spring-Head remain’d undiscover’d till of late Years, when it was happily pitch’d upon by the Portugueses, which makes me of the Opinion of Le Bruyn, That no Persons are more capable of making these Searches and Discoveries than the Roman Missionaries; for on one hand they make it their Duty and perpetual Employment to go about everywhere gaining Proselites, and subjecting them to the See of Rome, and on the other, under pretence of Devotion, and by virtue of their poor and simple Habit, may easily penetrate the most remote Countries, inaccessible to other Travellers by reason of the Dangers that are to be met with. Now ’tis certain almost all those Missionaries, especially the Jesuites, are most capable of making these Searches, by reason of their insinuating and cunning Ways, so that making it their Business, as they commonly do, they must be most likely to succeed therein; ’tis therefore to their Care and Pains we are indebted for two considerable Discoveries, of the Source and Rise of this River; the first made by Peter Pais, and the second by Father Telles a Jesuit, which last being the shorter Account, yet no less Correct, I shall here insert it as he has given it us in his History of Æthiopia, printed at Lisbon.

The Rise and Course of the River Nile.

In the Kingdom of Gojam, about 12 Degrees from the Equinoctial towards the West, and in the Province of Sacahala, inhabited by the Agaus, in a Field of no great extent, incompass’d by many high Mountains, is a small Lake, over which one may cast a Stone, full of Bushes and low Trees, whereof the Roots are so thick and intangl’d, that in Summer one may pass over them dry shod. In the middle of this Lake are two great and deep Fountains very near each other, whence issues out a clear Water that runs under these Bushes and Shrubs, in two several Channels. Towards the East, and about the distance of a Musket-Shot, they turn to the North. About half a Mile from thence there appears a great deal of Water, and a considerable River, into which run many other Streams. About 15 Miles farther it receives another larger Water call’d Gema, which looses then its Name. A little farther, turning towards the East, it receives two other considerable Streams call’d Kelti and Branti: Near this Place is the first fall of the River; not much farther running towards the East, it enters the Lake of the Abyssins, nam’d Bahr Dembea, or the Sea of Dembea. When it has pass’d through this Lake, without mingling with its Waters, it receives many other great Rivers, and chiefly the River Tekeze near Egypt. So soon as Nile is out of the Lake Dembea, it turns to the South-East, leaving on the left the Kingdoms of Beg-amidr, Amhara and Voleca; afterwards running towards the South, it has on the South-East the Kingdom of Sauva, and then turning again to East-North-East, has on the South, Ganz, Gafata and Bizamo, passing through the Countries of Gonga and Gafre; a little farther it passes by Fascalo, then enters the Country of Funch or Nubia, whence it runs into Egypt, as Father Telles affirms. But how it is there distributed and divided, I shall shew by and by, after I have mention’d two of its Principal Cataracts or Cascades of a surprizing Nature.

Its Cataracts.

One of these is at Ilack, in Numidia, and the other above Siene in Egypt, being 12 Days Journey from each other. Ptolomy calls the most Southern, the Great Cataract, and the other, which he places about Siene, now Assuan, the Lesser. This falls about 50 foot, but the other three times as high, which last rouling off the Rocks into a vast Abyss, the Waters, says Sandys, p. 73. make such a roaring Noise, that a Colony, planted there by the Persians, were made almost Deaf with it, and glad to abandon their Habitations, tho’ otherwise plentifully provided with all Necessaries of Life. The adjoyning People nevertheless are of that incredible boldness, that daring to commit themselves in little Boats (capable of holding only two, whereof the one Steers and the other Rows) unto the raging Current, and impetuous Eddies, have been seen to pass the Streights of the Rocks by little Channels, and at length to rush down with the Stream, to the amazement of all Beholders, who giving them up for lost, beheld them a while after as if shot out of an Engin, far from the place of their Fall, rowing safely in the asswaged Waters; but Danet will not allow the Noise made by the Cataracts, renders the neighbouring Inhabitants Deaf, tho’ the same may be heard 3 Days Journey off, and the Waters which rush down appear like Smoak, being forc’d with so great a violence, that they form a kind of Arch, and leave so great a space between, that a Man may pass it without being wet: There are also Seats cut under the Rocks, where Travellers may rest themselves.

The other Cascade, as Sandys, p. 73. tells us, is a little above the place where once stood the City Elephantis: There two pointed Rocks nam’d Crophi and Mophi, or the Veins of Nilus, lift up their eminent Heads, making the lesser Cataract by falling down with a furious Cascade into the upper Egypt; then running from South to North very leisurely, it divides its self into two navigable Branches. That towards the East runs into the Midland Sea near Damiata, heretofore Pelusium, while the other inclining to the West, and formerly call’d Canopus, falls into the self same Sea a little below Rosetta, making, of the richest Portion of the Land of Egypt, a triangular Island, call’d Delta, in that being thus inclos’d between these two Branches and the Sea, it bears the form of that Letter. Two other Branches there are which run between these, but poor in Water, besides divers Channels cut by the Labour of Man, for better Conveyance during the Time of Inundation.

Its Ostiaries or Mouths.

Herodotus and Strabo reckon up seven Mouths of the Nile, but Egypt has been so much chang’d since their Time, that there is hardly any appearance or remembrance of the seven Cities they mention. Ptolemy, in his Geography, expresly gives the names of nine; but surely most of them must have been stop’d up by the Sands, since at present there are but three or four at most, as is affirm’d by William Arch-Bishop of Tyre, in his IX. Book, De Bell. Sac. cap. 33. and by Le Bruyn in his Voyage to the Levant, p. 161. who went on purpose to make such Discoveries. But this is however remarkable, that the fresh Waters of the Nile, keeping themselves united in a Body, and falling into the salt Water or Sea, change the Colour of the Mediterranean farther than any part thereof can be seen from the Shore. "Its Inundation." Yet amongst all the Misteries of Nature, none is more wonderful than the Overflowing of this River, nor any Thing more Beneficial; since to this alone the Inhabitants owe not only their Riches but their Health, the most malignant Diseases immediately ceasing at the Approach of it, and Famine and Dearth are as quickly expell’d. It brings a Mirth and Joy to those People, and of a meer Desart it was before, for such is Egypt unwater’d by the Nile, makes that Country the most fruitful of any in the habitable World.

Now the Earth, which had been so long scorch’d by the violent heat of the Sun, is plentifully refresh’d with abundant Waters, and the very Cattel seem to rejoyce at the approaching verdant Season: Boats are row’d where not long before Men trod, and the Waters fill up the dusty Channels and long empty’d Cisterns, covering in many Places the whole superficies of the Land, making it appear as a troubl’d Lake. Nor is this an unpleasant sight to the Natives, who think the less they see of their Country, the more their Comfort will be. During this Inundation they keep their Beasts and Cattel on the tops of such little Hills, as either the Providence of Nature, or Industry of Man has prepar’d, where they abide, waiting patiently for the decrease of the Waters. On these Hills also stand most of their Towns and Villages, appearing, in the time of the Flood; like so many Islands, the People in the mean Time holding Commerce and continual Traffick, by intercourse of Boats and Shallops, in which they transport their marketable Commodities from one Place to another.

Time of its Increase.

This Increase of Waters begins about the 16th or 17th of June, when the Nile swells above its Banks for the space of 40 Days, and in as many more gathers its Waters again to their proper Bounds; so that its greatest height is about the end of July, and decrease about the beginning of September. If it begins sooner or later, the People give Judgment whether there will be more or less Water, and consequently are advertis’d to the end they may take Order for what they have to do. The Increase is known by certain Pillars in their Towns, and particularly in the Castle of Roude, which stands in a little Isle opposite to old Cairo, where the Bassa resides, during the Solemnity of opening the Khalis or Channel, which passes thro’ and fills the Cisterns of Grand Cairo. It is also known in the Fields by Asps, Tortoises, Crawfish, Crocodiles, &c. who remove their Eggs or Young from the Banks of the Nile, immediately before the Inundation, and lay them up where they may be preserv’d.

Its Effects.

Now answerable to the Increase of this River is the Plenty or Scarcity of the succeeding Year. Heylin in his Cosmography writes, If it flow not to the height of 15 Cubits, then the Earth will be deficient in her Abundance or Increase for want of Moisture; and if it surmount the superficies of the Earth, more than 17 Cubits, then, like a drunken Man, it cannot produce its natural Operation, having its Stomach cloy’d and surcharg’d as it were with too much Liquor; but if a moderate flowing happen, then can no Country boast of a like Fertility, the Flood bringing with it both Earth and Water into a sandy and thirsty Soil, which as well manures as moistens it with the Fat and pregnant Slime it leaves behind, and, as I said before, produces both Riches and Health; for the Plague, which here oftentimes miserably rages, upon the first Day of the Flood instantly ceases, insomuch, that whereas 500 had died at Cairo the Day before, on the Day following there dies not one Man. But if it at any Time happens that the River does not thus overflow the Country, then is it commonly the fore-runner of a following Dearth. Thus, when this River flows but to 16 Degrees, they fear a Famine, but when it comes to 23, ’tis a sign of a good Year, whereas when ’tis too high the Inundation is dangerous. Thevenot says, If it rises but to 16 Foot, a Famine unavoidably follows for want of Water; and if it swells to 24, there will be a Dearth, because the Seed-Time must be lost. There are besides many other rare Properties belonging to this River, which to relate would make my Digression too long, and my intent was only to mention such Things as chiefly tend to a Natural History, among which, those curious Observations made by Father Vansleb are most to my purpose, which therefore I shall insert as follows:

Remarkable Observations on the Nile.

This is remarkable of Nile, says my Author, That it begins to increase and decrease on a certain Day, and that when it first increases, it grows green and afterwards appears red: The Day on which it begins to increase is Yearly the 12th of June, according to the Copties Account, or the 17th according to Ours, when the Natives observe the Feast of St. Michael the Arch-Angel, on which Feast the Drops begin to fall: Now these Drops, according to the Opinion of the Inhabitants, are Tokens of the Mercies and Blessings of GOD. They believe GOD sends the Arch-Angel, St. Michael, on that Day to cause the River to be Fruitful; this is the common sentiment the People have, but the Learned say, these Drops are a kind of Dew, which falls towards the last quarter of the Night, near the Morning, and causes the River to be Fertile, Purifies the Air from all Infection of Camsin, and gives Strength and Virtue to whatever it falls upon.

Cause of its Fertility.

These Drops are doubtless the sole Cause of the Fertility of the Nile; for as soon as the Dew is fallen, the Waters begin to corrupt and turn of a greenish Colour: This Colour increases more and more till the River appears as a Lake cover’d all over with Moss; this Colour is to be seen not only in its great Channel, but also in all the Bounds and Branches that come from it, the Cisterns only preserving their Water pure; some Years this green Colour continues about 20 Days, and sometimes longer, but never above 40. The Egyptians call this Time il chadraviat, for then they suffer much, the Water being corrupt and unwholesome, and because good Water is very scarce. These Drops or Dew purifie the Air, for so soon as ever they begin to fall, the Plague ceases to be mortal, none die of it; the Air becomes wholesome, all Diseases are disarm’d, and if any Person happens to be sick of it, he shall be sure not to die. This Dew gives Life to every Thing, and when it falls on the Wheat, causes it to continue many Years without Corruption or Worms, nay makes it far more Nourishing than any Corn on which it has never come. For this Reason the Natives never house the Grand Signiors Corn till this Dew be fallen, to the end it may keep the longer free from Worms.

Its Increase.

The Increase of this River proceeds from several Causes; the first and chiefest of which, is the Fermentation caused therein by this Dew, which falls precisely at the Time before-mention’d. The continual Rains of Æthiopia, that come in July, August and September, which is the Winter Quarter of this Country, together with the great Torrents of Water that rush down from the Mountains, into the Rivers that flow into the Nile, may be look’d on as another Cause of its Increase; for I cannot conceive the Fermentation can last 100 Days, and singly cause it to increase so much as it is wont. The third Cause are the Westerly Winds call’d Maestrals, and by the Egyptians Maltem, which begin about 12 Days before the Dew comes, and continue about four Months without Cessation; they blow directly into the Nile, and hinder the fresh Water from coming out, so that it returns back, which causes the River to swell. So soon as the green Colour is gone, the River begins to turn red and very muddy; ’tis then no doubt the Fermentation is past, and the Waters of Æthiopia are arriv’d in Egypt, which are of that Colour, by reason of the red Earth the furious Torrents from the Mountains carry along with them; for ’tis not probable the Land of Egypt, which is very black, should give that Tincture. In the Year 1673, at the beginning of July, the Water began to turn red, which continu’d to the end of December, the Time the River ordinarily returns to its usual bigness. The Egyptians have an Art to make this muddy Water as clear as Cristal; so soon as the Water-Bearers have fill’d their Vessels, they rub them in the inside with a Paste made of pounded Almonds, which in a short Time causes the Water to become very clear. In such Places where this Paste is not to be had, they use instead of it the Kernels of Apricocks, pounded after the same manner, and some say the Flower of little Beans will have the same Effect.

Operation of its Waters.

The Waters of this River have several Operations, for, First, They bring a Loosness on new Comers, in case the Parties drink them at their first arrival, and it continues about eight Days. Secondly, They cause an Itching in the Skin, which troubles those that drink them when the River increases: This Itch is very small, appearing first about the Arms, then on the Stomach, and afterwards spreading all over the Body, which causes grievous Pain. This Itch comes not only on such as have drunk of the River, but such as drink out of the Cisterns fill’d with River-Water; it lasts about six Weeks. Thirdly, About the Months of June, July, August and September it turns into Sweat, but is not so in any other Time of the Year. Fourthly, When this Water covers the Earth, it fattens the Land with the Slime it leaves behind. Monsieur Thevenot is mistaken in his Travels into the Levant, where he says, This Slime makes the Ground so fat, that if Sand were not mingl’d with it, it would Rot and Choak whatever is put into it; and that in Egypt they take as much Pains to carry Sand upon their Land, as we do to lay Dung. This is not generally so, for they never use Sand but for Melons, Cucumbers, and such like Fruits, which grow best in sandy Grounds; they never use it for other Fruits and Grains. Thus far Vansleb.

Their Virtues and Goodness.

Sandys, speaking in Commendation of these Waters, says, They procure liberal Urine, curing Pains in the Kidnies, and are a most sovereign Remedy against the Hypocondriacus Affectus, or Wind-Melancholy. They are not unpleasantly cold, but of all others the most sweet and wholsome, by reason of their being well concocted by the Sun, which at all Times is, in some part or other, directly over them, and by the length of their Course, running from South to North, besides Ambages above 41 Degrees, so that from this River there ascend no Vapours, the Humour being rarifi’d by so long a Progress, which tho’ exhal’d, assumes no visible Body, but undistinguishably mixes with the pure Air, agreeing with the same in tenuity. Thevenot speaks much to the same purpose in his Travels to the Levant, fol. 245. where he says, This Water is so wholsome, it never does any harm, tho’ drank to never so great a degree, by reason it comes a great way over Land, to wit, from Æthiopia, so that in so long a Course, thro’ so hot a Country, the Sun has Time to correct and purifie it from all Crudities, and indeed it is sweated out as fast as one drinks it.

Used instead of Drink.

They have no other Water to drink in Egypt, therefore most of their Cities, Towns and Villages stand on the Borders of this River; there are also many Canals and deep Ponds which have been caus’d to be cut at convenient Distances, by the Care and Magnificence of their Kings, for the Refreshment and Use of the People, who indeed need no other Drink. The Waters of this River are of such excellent Taste and Virtue, that when Pescennius Niger heard his Souldiers murmur for want of Wine, he thus reply’d, What! crave ye Wine and yet have Nile to drink of? The first Kings of Egypt made such account of them, that they almost drank nothing else; and when Ptolomy Philadelphus marry’d his Daughter Berenice to Antiochus Theos, King of Assyria, he gave orders that from Time to Time the Waters of Nile should be carry’d her, that she might drink no other Liquor. And indeed all Authors agree these Waters are sweet, healthful and nourishing, and that they keep a long Time without corrupting, for being left to settle but a small Season, they become clean, clear, and so sweet and pleasant, that they excel all others for smoothness and flavour. Gabriel Sionata in his Tract De Moribus Orientalium, p. 27. observes, That the Waters of Nile, being only kept in Pans three Days, and during that Time expos’d to the heat of the Sun, turn to a pure white Salt; so that the Land of Egypt has an inexhaustible supply of that which is so needful for the Life of Man, and that at small Expence. Moreover, whatever is here valuable proceeds from the Munificence of this River, whose Annual overflow is the only Cause of that wonderful Fertility of the Soil of this Country, which is so great that it is rather to be admir’d than describ’d.

Fertility of Egypt.

In Times past it was reputed the Granary of the whole World, insomuch, that it was not thought possible for the Roman Empire to subsist without its affluence. Also, after Selimus Emperor of the Turks had conquer’d this Country, he was heard to say, That now he had taken a Farm would plentifully feed his Jemoglans. Monsieur Thevenot says, Egypt may well be stil’d an Earthly Paradise; for so great is its increase, that in many Places they reap two considerable Crops a Year; Hay they mow four Times, and as for Pease, Beans, and other Garden-Ware, those grow spontaneously all the Year round. All kinds of Fruit are exceeding plentiful, Grapes only excepted, which it may be Nature keeps back as thinking the Natives of Egypt can want no Wine, since they have so good Water. In a Word, Lucan thus characterizes this Country:

Terra suis contenta Bonis, non indiga Mercis

Aut Jovis, in Solo tanta est fiducia Nilo.

A Land that needs nor Trade nor Rain, a Soil

Pleas’d in it self as confident in Nile.

The Red Sea.

Next we shall speak of the Red Sea, as having been so very Famous, both for the miraculous Passage of the Israelites as upon dry Land, and the drowning of Pharaoh Cenchres, and all his Followers, as likewise for that thro’ it the Spices of India and Arabia were first brought to Alexandria, and thence dispers’d by the Venetians throughout all Europe, Africa and America, as Heylin, p. 852. testifies. The Turks call this Sea the Gulf of Mecca, and the Ancients nam’d it the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea, the reason of which last, see in Sir Thomas Brown’s Vulgar Errors, p. 261 and 262. who also tells us several Princes have attempted to cut thro’ the Isthmus, or narrow Tract of Land, that parts the Arabian and Mediterranean Seas, but whose intent was not immediately to unite those Waters, but to make a Navigable Channel betwixt the former and the Nile, the Marks whereof remain to this Day. This was first attempted by Sesostris King of Egypt, and afterwards by Darius King of Persia, but, for fear of drowning the Country, at length relinquish’d by them both; yet the same Thing was long after re-attempted, and in some measure effected by Ptolomy Philadelphus. Now the Grand Signior, who is Lord of all this Country, conveys his Gallies into the Red Sea by the Nile; for bringing them down to Grand Cairo, they are there taken to pieces, carry’d upon Camels Backs, and afterwards put together again at Sues, his Port and Naval Station for that Sea, whereby he in effect puts the Design of Cleopatra in execution, who after the Battle at Actium, in a different manner, would have convey’d her Gallies into the Red Sea. Here, as the same Author affirms, Coral grows in great abundance.

The Lake of Moeris.

As concerning the Lakes of Egypt, that of King Moeris is not only the most admirable, but likewise the largest of all, denominated after his own Name, as is testify’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and Pliny; a Work the most useful and wonderful, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 11. if rightly consider’d, that ever was attempted by Man. In the midst of this Lake that King erected two Pyramids, one in Memory of himself, and the other of his Wife, each being 600 Feet in height. The Description of both these and of this Lake we have in Herodotus; the latter we find also in Strabo, but no where so fully as in Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. therefore I shall relate his Words: Ten SchÆnes (600 Furlongs, tho’ Strabo and Artemidorus before him observe a difference of SchÆnes in Egypt) above the City Memphis, Moeris dug a Lake of admirable Use, the Greatness of which is incredible, the Circumference of it being said to be 3600 Furlongs, and the Depth in many Places 50 Fathom (200 Cubits or 300 Feet.) Now who that shall seriously consider the vastness of this Work, can forbear asking how many Myriads of Men were employ’d on it, and in how many Years they accomplish’d it? The common Benefit of this Undertaking to those that inhabit Egypt, as also the Wisdom of its Royal Contriver, no Man can sufficiently admire; for since the increase of Nile is not always the same, and that the Country is ever made more Fertile by its moderate Rise, this King contriv’d a Lake to receive the superfluity of the Water, that neither the greatness of the Inundation unseasonably drowning the Country, might occasion Marshes or Lakes, nor the Rivers flowing less than required, corrupt the Fruits for want of Water. This Prince therefore caus’d a Ditch to be cut from the River Nile to this Lake, 80 Furlongs long and 300 Feet broad, by which, sometimes receiving in, and sometimes letting out the Water, he exhibited a seasonable quantity thereof to the Husbandmen, the mouth of this Ditch being sometimes open’d and sometimes shut, yet both not without much Art and great Expence, for he that would either open the Sluces or shut them, was under a necessity of expending at least 50 Talents. This Lake, thus benefiting the Egyptians, has continu’d even to our Times, and from its Author is at this Day call’d, The Lake of Moeris. He left a dry place in the midst, on which he built a Sepulcher and two Pyramids, each a Furlong high; one of these he made for himself, and the other for his Wife, placing on each a Marble Statue sitting on a Throne, imagining that by these Works he should transmit to Posterity an indelible Remembrance of his Worth. The Revenue arising from the Fish of this Lake he gave to his Wife for her Unguents and other Ornaments, which is said to have been not less worth to her than a Talent a Day; for according to common report there are 22 sorts of Fish in it, which are taken in such huge quantities, that those who are perpetually employ’d in salting them, of which there is a very large number, can hardly dispatch the Work. Thus far Diodorus Siculus, whose Description of this Lake, as it is much fuller than that of Herodotus, so Herodotus, Lib. 2. has this memorable Observation which Diodorus omitted. He says this Lake was made by Hand, as is apparent, because almost in the midst of it there stand two Pyramids, 50 Fathoms above Water and as many under: On each of these there is a Colossus of Stone, sitting on a Throne; so that by this means, these Pyramids must in all be 100 Fathoms high. Strabo likewise, Lib. 17. says, This Lake is wonderful, being like a Sea both for largeness and Colour.

The Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites.

But now I am speaking of Seas and Lakes I will mention one more, which tho’ not in Egypt but in Palestine, is not yet above 2 Italian Miles off Damiata, as Le Bruyn, p. 138. assures us. This Lake is very beneficial as well to the Holy Land, in that it plentifully furnishes that Country with Salt, as to Egypt, by reason of its large store of Bituminous Matter, of great use in Embalming: By some it is call’d Mare Mortuum, and by others the Lake Asphaltites. The Name of this Sea is suppos’d to have been given it from its largeness and saltness, being 70 Miles long and 16 broad, and so extream salt, that its Water burns like Fire when tasted, and boils up weighty Bodies, insomuch that whatever living Creature is thrown into it, sinks not easily. It is call’d the Dead Sea, perhaps from its heavy Waters hardly to be mov’d by the Winds, or else because it has no visible efflux into the Ocean, nor is at all increas’d by the River Jordan, and many other Waters that flow into it, or Thirdly, In that no living Creature can breath in it, but is on the contrary suffocated by its Bituminous Steams, the great abundance whereof also occasions it to be call’d Lacus Asphaltites. Now of this Asphaltum or Bitumen there are several Camel-Loads taken out of it Dayly, as Thevenot assures us, which raise a very great Revenue. Diodorus Siculus moreover tells us, there rise such large pieces of Bitumen out of the midst this Lake, as are 2 or 300 Feet square; the greater sort the Inhabitants term Bulls, and the lesser Calves, which, swimming on the surface of the Water, appear at a distance like so many Islands. The Time of the Lakes throwing up this Bitumen, which is Yearly, may be perceiv’d above 20 Days before it comes; for everywhere round, for many Furlongs, a Steam arises with great stench, which changes the natural Colour of all Gold, Silver or Brass near it, till it be again exhal’d; and inasmuch as all adjoyning Parts are thus corrupted with the heat and stench of this Lake, the Inhabitants are commonly infected with Diseases, and their Lives thereby shortn’d. This was once a fruitful Valley, compar’d for delightfulness with Paradise, and call’d Pentapolis from its five Cities; but which being destroy’d by Fire from Heaven, it was thereupon converted into this filthy Lake and barren Desolation which surrounds it, a fearful Monument of Divine Wrath, for the Wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrha, two of these five Cities, from the former of which it is also call’d the Lake of Sodom. But I make mention of this Lake chiefly for the sake of its Asphaltum, so much us’d in the Embalmings of the Egyptians, and not that its stench can any ways incommode or prove unhealthful to Egypt; for that Country has neither Seas Lakes nor Rivers less prejudicial or more beneficial than the Nile, a River sufficient of it self to water the Country, fertilize its Soil, and thereby render its Inhabitants both chearful and healthy.

Climate of Egypt.

Another Thing to be consider’d, as very useful in the Natural History of Embalming, is the Climate of Egypt, whether hot or cold, dry or moist, or compriz’d under other general Heads, such as those of the Heavens, Air, Water, Earth, Winds, Seasons, &c. which Qualities, as they are in great measure occasion’d by the Nile, so are they also best explain’d by setting forth those of that River, with their Effects; for Egypt by reason of its Southerly Situation is very hot, and during the whole Summer almost insupportable, which being farther increas’d by the reflexion of the Sun on its sandy Soil, renders the Air so exceedingly warm that one can hardly breath in it, which is indeed one of the greatest Inconveniencies Egypt lies under. This heat unavoidably dries up all the Rivers for near six Months together, so that the People must of necessity die with Famine, did not the Nile overflow and fill up their empty Channels, thereby relieving them, thirsty as their Soil. Now the Property of this River is the more remarkable, in that it differs from those of all others, which are only full in Winter; whereas, on the contrary, this overflows in Summer, when there is most occasion for it, as if purposely design’d by Providence to save a famish’d and scorch’d Country. Moreover this is worth taking notice of, that the Soil of Egypt being naturally Sandy and Steril, and withal very dry and scorch’d, is by means of the overflowing of Nile sufficiently water’d, and by the fat Mud it leaves behind made very Fertile and fit for Tillage.

The Air very hot.

The Air also of this Country, especially about Cairo, and farther towards the South, because so near the Line, is extream hot, for there, says Ogilby in his Description of Egypt, p. 115. the Sun casts its Beams perpendicularly from Cancer, during which Time of violent Heat the People are wont to dwell in Caverns; nay in Cairo, in the midst of every House, there are Wells with Water in them, which not only cool the Mansions but refresh their Inhabitants: They have likewise contriv’d large Pipes or Funnels in the midst of their Houses, which standing right up into the Air, with broad Mouths like Bells, and lying open to the North, receive the cool Air, which is thereby sent down into the lowermost Rooms. For shade also in the Streets, every Dwelling has a broad Penthouse; and for further refreshment the Inhabitants use Bathing, having curious Bagnio’s of fresh and clear Water from the River Nile, without any mixture either of Herbs or medicinal Ingredients.

Cool’d by the Nile and Annual Winds.

The Heat of this Country is moreover somewhat moderated by the overflowing of Nile, and the continual blowing of cool Northerly Winds, otherwise it would be so vehement, neither Man nor Beast could be able to breath in it. In Winter the Air is hot and dry, tho’ sometimes a little cool, yet generally extream hot, and more prejudicial to the Head than any other part of the Body. Sandys says, p. 76. It is as hot with them in the depth of Winter, as with us in the midst of July. The Air a Nights is cool, which after Sun-rising becomes a little warm, at Noon very hot, but at Night returns to be cold again, so that its inequality breeds many Diseases; nevertheless, in as much as it is exceeding Serene, being constantly free both from Rain, Clouds, Mists, Fogs, Hail, Snow, &c. which rarely happen, it is accounted very healthful; and in this Sense we must take Herodotus Lib. 2. where he says, The Egyptians are the Healthiest People of the World, by reason of the immutability of their Air. But that it Rains, Hails and Snows sometimes in that Country, tho’ many of the Ancients deny it, is plainly confirm’d by several modern Writers, wherefore Sir Thomas Brown places that assertion among his Vulgar Errors, and p. 260 thus confutes it. ’Tis confirm’d, says he, by many, and believ’d by most, that it never Rains in Egypt, the River Nile plentifully supplying that Defect, and bountifully requiting it by its Inundation; yet this must be understood in a qualify’d Sense, that is, that it Rains there but seldom in Summer, and very rarely in Winter. "Rain in Egypt." But that great Showers do sometimes fall on this Region, besides the Assertion of many Writers, is confirm’d by the Honourable and Occular Testimony of Sir William Paston, Bar^t. who affirms, That not many Years since it rain’d in Grand Cairo for divers Days together. The same is likewise attested as to other parts of Egypt by Prosper Alpinus, who liv’d long in that Country, and has left us an accurate Treatise of the Medicinal Practice there: Cairi, raro decidunt PluviÆ, AlexandriÆ, Pelusiiq; & in omnibus Locis Mari adjacentibus, pluit largissime & sÆpe. That is, It Rains seldom at Cairo, but at Alexandria, Damiata, and other Places near the Sea, very often and plentifully. The same likewise is to be inferr’d from this Author concerning Snow, Rarissime Nix, Grando, &c. It seldom either Snows or Hails, wherefore we cannot deny Snow or Hail never to fall because they happen but seldom. The rarity of them however may be the occasion of that Saying of Horace, Lib, 3. Ode 26.

To all this may be added the Testimony of the Learn’d Mr. Greaves, whose Words, as you may find them, p. 74, 75. of his accurate Description of the Pyramids, I will here insert, by reason they not only prove these Rains, but likewise impart some curious Observations on the Air of Egypt and Nile. I cannot, says he, sufficiently wonder at the Ancients who generally deny’d the fall of Rains in Egypt. Plato in his TimÆus speaking of this Country, where he had liv’d many Years, writes thus, ?at? d? t?? d? t?? ???a? ??te t?te, ??te ????te, ????e? ?p? t?? ?????a? ?d?? ?p???e?. i. e. But in that Country no Rain falls on the Ground at any Time. Pomponius Mela in express Terms relates, That Egypt is Terra expers Imbrium, mirÉ tamen fertilis; whereas for two Months, viz. December and January, I have not known it Rain so constantly, and with so great impetuosity at London, as I found it to do at Alexandria, the Winds continuing N. N. W. which caus’d me to keep a Diary, as well of the Weather as of my Observations in Astronomy, and that not only there, but also at Grand Cairo. My very noble and worthy Friend, Sir William Paston, observ’d at the same Time that there fell much Rain; so likewise about the end of March following, being at the Mummies somewhat beyond the Pyramids towards the South, there fell a gentle shower of Rain for almost an whole Day together: But it may be the Ancients meant the upper part of Egypt, beyond Thebes, about Siene, and near the CatadupÆ or Cataracts of Nile and not the lower Parts; for there indeed I have been told by the Egyptians it seldom Rains, wherefore Seneca Lib. 4. Natur. QuÆst. may have written true, where he says, "Snow in Egypt" In ea parte quÆ in Æthiopiam vergit, speaking of Egypt, aut nulli Imbres sunt aut rari. But where he says, AlexandriÆ Nives non cadunt, ’tis false; for at my being there in January it snow’d one whole Night. However, farther towards the South than Egypt, between the Tropicks, and near the Line, in the Country of Abyssinia or Æthiopia, there falls every Year, for many Weeks together, store of Rain, as the Abyssins themselves have related at Grand Cairo, which may likewise be confirm’d by Josephus Acosta, Lib. 1. De natur Orbis novi, where he observes, that in Peru and some other Places, lying in the same Paralel with Æthiopia, they have abundance of Rain. "Cause of the Inundation of Nile." This then is the true Cause of the Inundation of Nile in the Summer-Time, it being then highest when other Rivers are lowest, and not those which are alledg’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Aristides, Heliodorus and others, who are all extreamly troubl’d to give a Reason for the Inundation of this River, imputing it either to the peculiar Nature of its Water, the obstruction of it by the EtesiÆ, or else to the melting of the Snows in Æthiopia, which however I verily believe rarely fall in those hot Countries, where the Natives, by reason of the extream Heats, are all Black, and where, if we credit Seneca, Argentum replumbatur, Silver is melted by the scorching Climate, or in a word, to some other such like Reasons of small weight. In Diodorus Siculus I find Agatharcides Cnidius giving almost the same Reason I have done, whose Assertion however those Times gave but little credit to, yet does Diodorus seem to agree with it in these words, Lib. 1. Agatharcides Cnidius has come nearest the Truth, he affirming that every Year, in the Mountains about Æthiopia, there are continual Rains from the Summer Solstice to the Autumnal Equinox, which cause this Inundation of Nile. The Time of this is so certain, that I have known the Egyptian Astronomers put down many Years before in their Ephemerides, That such a Day of such a Month the Nile will begin to rise. Thus far Greaves, to which I may add an Experiment of the Lord Bacon’s concerning the scarcity of Rain in Egypt. "An Experiment concerning the scarcity of Rain in Egypt." ’Tis strange, says he, p. 161. of his Natural History, the River Nile overflowing as it does the Country of Egypt, there should nevertheless be little or no Rain known in that Country. The Cause must lye either in the Nature of the Water, the Air, or of both. As for the Water, it may, First, be ascrib’d to its long Course; for swift running Waters vapour less than those that are standing, as those that have been sometimes boyling on the Fire, do not cast so great a steam as they did at first: Now ’tis certain the Waters of Nile are sweeter than others in taste, and excellent good against the Stone and Hypocondriacal Melancholy, which shews they are Lenifying. Secondly, The Reason of this Inundation may be, that these Waters running thro’ a Country of a hot Climate and flat, without shade either from Woods or Hills, the Sun must thereby necessarily have greater power to concoct them. As for the Air, whence I conceive this want of Showers chiefly comes, the Cause must be, that the Air of it self is thin and thirsty, and therefore so soon as ever it gets any moisture from the Water, it imbibes and disperses it throughout its whole Body, not suffering it to remain in a Vapour whereby it might breed Rain. Now tho’ it is not to be deny’d that Rains fall sometimes in Egypt, yet this may however be averr’d, that they happen but seldom, therefore the Air must consequently be more settl’d than ours and freer from Vapours, Fogs, or the like, which renders it not only healthful, but very beneficial in preserving and Embalming Bodies, they being by nothing so much damnify’d as by uncertain Weather, "Moist Air prejudicial to Embalming." of which we have too sad Experience in this our moist Climate. We are therefore forc’d to supply the want of this, either by a total exclusion of the Air by Air-Pumps, by immerging our dead Bodies into Spirituous or Balsamic Liquors, or else by driving away all Damps and Moistures by moderate Fires. This every one knows who has been us’d either to Confectionery, preserving natural Curiosities, or the like, to whom the giving, relaxing or molding Things, serves as a Thermometer whereby to distinguish the several changes and varieties of the Weather.

Egypt has not only an advantage of other Countries by the goodness of its Water, serenity of its Air, and warmth of its Climate, but also derives a yet farther Benefit in regard of Embalming, "Sand how useful in Embalming." from the Nature of its Sand and Soil, the usefulness of which has in this respect been sufficiently experienc’d by Modern Artists. Thus it is reported curious Florists preserve both the form and colours of beauteous Plants, by laying them in Sand, drying them in an Oven, or the like; and thus some modern Embalmers have, by hot Sand laid on prepar’d Bodies, dry’d up the superfluous Moisture, and reduc’d their Embalming Matter to a just Consistency: ’Tis likewise observable some Sands will naturally Embalm without any addition of Balsamic Ingredients. Moreover, ’tis probable the Sea-Sands may have the like Effect, provided they be not too often wet; for thus a Body being first pickl’d or salted, as it were with the Sea-Brine, may afterwards, when dry’d by the Wind or Sun, remain firm and durable as long as it shall be preserv’d free from Wet or Moisture; and partly of this Opinion perhaps was Mr. William Glanvill of the Temple, who having so order’d it in his Will, was bury’d in the Goodwin-Sands, which tho’ they cannot preserve him, as before alledg’d, because so often wet, yet he being inclos’d in a leaden Coffin, that must in Time sink to the bottom, they may by their coolness help to keep his Corps entire for many Years; or at least by being so secur’d, he will be defended from the rapine of Animals, or disturbances of Sextons: But the Sands of Egypt being much more hot, from the reflection of the scorching Sun, are capable of Preserving Bodies without either Salination or Embalming, and that only by exhaling and drying up the Humidities and adventitious Moisture, insomuch that it has occasion’d no small Contests among some Authors, which of the two is the truer Mummy, that dry’d in the Sands, or that which is Embalm’d with Balsams and Aromatics. Le Fevre in his Chymistry, p. 138. is entirely of the first Opinion; but I shall refer such Disputes to their proper Places.

Mummies found in the Sands.

Of those sorts of Mummies there have been many casually found in the Desarts of Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, &c. suppos’d to have been Travellers suffocated by great drifts of Sand, rais’d by sudden Tempests; for it sometimes so happens, that contrary Winds arising of a sudden, agitate the Sands with such impetuosity, that they over-whelm Passengers and Beasts with their Burthens, who perishing thus unawares, are thro’ the power of the hot Sun and parching Sand so dry’d, they become fix’d and for ever undissolvable.

Drying Quality of the Earth.

Next as to the Medicinal Virtue of the Soil of Egypt, and how far it may be serviceable in Embalming and preserving Bodies, every one, who does but consider its great Stipticity and drying Nature, will be very well satisfy’d: Besides this Earth is never much dampt by Rains or Springs, but kept constantly dry by the warmth of the Sun. Aetius and Galen commend it as good against Phlegmons, Oedematous Tumors, and immoderate Fluxes of the HÆmorhoids; also that it cures Dropsies meerly by anointing with it, of which see more in Olaus Borrichius, p. 146. Thus having consider’d the Water, Air and Earth of Egypt, I will next add some Observations of Father Vansleb on the Seasons of the Egyptian Year, with their Computation of Time, calculated according to the Account of the Copties.

Seasons of the Year.

The Egyptians reckon their Autumn from the 15th of September to the 15th of December. Winter begins with them the 15th of December, and ends the 15th of March. Spring begins the 15th of March, and ends the 15th of June. Summer begins the 15th of June, and ends the 15th of September. They allot every Season just Three Months, and begin their Year in September, as I observ’d before. Every Month has Thirty Days, which in Twelve Months make Three hundred and sixty Days; but because there yet want Five to complete the Year, they add those at the end of all, and call them Epagomene, which signifies added.

Temperate Season.

The most temperate Season, has still somewhat of Spring or Autumn in it, which two last cannot well be distinguish’d in Egypt. Now the mild Weather commences in September, then they begin to breath the fresh Air, but, as about this Time, the Fields are all so cover’d with Water, one cannot Walk nor Travel by Land; an Abode there is not pleasant till the middle of November, for then the Country’s dry, the Ways free, the Waters run into their Channels, the Air pleasant, the heat of the Sun supportable, the Fields green and sweet, and refreshing Gales blow every-where. In short, the Season is then very comfortable, and so continues ’till the middle of April.

Cold Season.

The cold Season, answerable to our Winter, begins about the middle of December. It is a delightful Time, unless in those seven Days which the Arabians term, Berd il agiuz, (the cold of the old Hag.) They begin about the 7th of February, and continue to the 14th. The Mornings are then exceeding cold, the Sky cloudy, Rains fall, and the Winds are continually boisterous. Now tho’ Winter be in this Country extream mild, yet do Persons of Quality always wear furr’d Gowns from the Month of November to that of March, not on account of any great cold, for there is hardly any at this Time; but because the Weather is then more variable, and the Egyptians fear to be incommoded by Distempers, which such a changeable Time occasions.

Intemperate Season.

Summer is the worst and most troublesome Season, by reason of the excessive heat of the hot Winds, and the perilous Diseases that are rife about this Time, which the Egyptians term Camsins, and we Easter: This dangerous Season begins about the Easter-Monday of the Copties, and ends with their Whitson-Monday. About this Time the Winds, the Arabians term Merissi, are boisterous; they are so hot and troublesome, People are ready to be stifl’d by them, and raise in the Air so much Straw and Sand, the Sky is almost darkned with it: This Sand is so subtile, it penetrates every little chink and cranny. About this Time Malignant Fevers, Dysenterys, and many other Diseases commonly reign, the least of which is incurable if not resisted by necessary Remedies timely apply’d; nay, when these Winds blow, Bodies that were healthy before, will sicken and grow out of order.

The Winds which blow most in Egypt.

These Southerly Winds blow not every Day in this Season, nor every Year in the same manner, or with a like impetuosity. ’Tis not possible to express the Peoples Joy when they favour them by becoming mild. Besides the two chief Winds which blow in Egypt, viz. Merissi and Maltem, I must farther take notice, that not only the Southern Winds are term’d Merissi, but also the Eastern. These blow commonly twice every Year, at Easter, call’d, as I have already said, Camsin, and from the Month of November to the middle of February. The Winds call’d Maltem or Teijah are Westerly ones; they begin about Twelve Days before the Rains fall, and last ’till the Month of November, during which Time scarce any other Wind blows. The Winds Merissi are hot and spoil the Corn, whereas these nourish and refresh it, and not only so, but prove comfortable both to Man and Beast, since they are cooling and afford strength.

Rains or Mists of Egypt.

The ordinary Time for Rains and Winds, which might be compar’d to our Autumn, begins in the Month of December, and lasts ’till January or February, tho’ at Rosetta and Alexandria the Rains fall at other Times, by reason of the propinquity of the Sea, nay sometimes it happens to be misty and moist at a Season when none expect it, which often proves so considerable as to wet ones Cloaths, as much as a shower of Rain: But these moist Mists are more frequent about Cairo than any where else. They usually begin about November, before the rising of the Sun, and continue all Winter. Some happen in other Seasons, and many times in Summer, as Vansleb observ’d in the Year 1672. at the beginning of August, when returning back from Fium to Mocanan, a Village about Four Hours from Cairo, he saw over that City so thick a Mist, he could neither see the Buildings there, nor the Pyramids that are near, tho’ the Air was clear where he stood.

Dew of Egypt.

Throughout all the Seasons of the Year, when the Nights are serene, so much Dew falls it may well be taken for a moderate Shower, whereas when ever the Sky is cloudy no Dew must be expected. Were it not for these Dews, there would neither be Grass nor Corn in Egypt; the Trees would bear no Fruit, nor could the wild Beasts in the Desarts live, here being neither Fountains nor Rivers, and the Rains falling but seldom. "Thunder seldom heard." Thunder is rarely heard, for in all the Time Vansleb liv’d in Egypt, he says, he heard that noise but twice, viz. on the First of January and the Fourth of May, 1673.

Seasons why to be observ’d in Embalming.

These Things are to be regarded the more particularly, in that the temperature of Seasons conduces much to the preservation of Bodies, which is so far to be consider’d, as it acquaints us when is the best and most proper Time for Pickling, Preserving or Embalming Bodies; what Time of the Year, Day or Moon is best for gathering Fruits, Flowers, Plants, &c. in order to the well preserving and laying them up, as also what Places are fittest for Repositories for them after they are gather’d and prepar’d; for there are some, both Places and Airs, where Sweet-Meats will give and dissolve, bak’d Meats, Pyes, &c. gather mould, Liquors mother, and Flesh or Fish corrupt sooner than in others, wherefore such Places are to be avoided as exceeding prejudicial to Embalm’d Bodies, in as much as they will dispose what is not preserv’d, to Putrifaction, and what is, to Relaxation. For this Reason my Lord Bacon advises us well, to be very careful in our choice of Places for this purpose, and to the end the aptness or propensity either of the Air or Water, to corrupt or putrifie, may be easier found out, proposes the following Experiments: "Experiments of the Air." First, To lay Wool, Sponge or a piece of Bread in a Place one would make Tryal of, and then to observe whether it be wetter or more ponderous than the same was when laid in other Places, by which one may judge whether the Place design’d be in a moist or gross Air. Secondly, To expose raw Flesh or Fish to the open Air, or lay them on the Earth, when if they quickly corrupt, ’tis a sign of a disposition in that Air to Putrifaction. Thirdly, The quick Putrifaction of Waters or Dews may likewise disclose the Qualities of the Air and Vapours of the Earth more or less corrupt: ’Tis good also to make Trial not only of the moisture and dryness of the Air, but of the Temper thereof in heat or cold; for that may concern Health variously, and whatever in this respect conduces thereto, the same is to be observ’d in Embalming. Fourthly, The goodness of Airs is likewise to be known by placing two Weather-Glasses in several Places, where no shades or inclosures are, and then remarking their difference, and the like. Now these sorts of Experiments serve for a natural Divination of Seasons, shewing them much better than any Astronomers can do by their Figures. They also inform us of the wholsomness or unwholsomness of Dwelling-Places, and where to erect Granaries for Corn, Store-Houses for Fruits, Green-Houses for Plants, Vaults for Wine, and Conservatories for other Things which require keeping either hot, or cold and dry.

Of the Water.

Next as to Waters, this may serve for one Trial of their goodness, viz. To observe which will keep sweet the longest, for such likewise denote the Healthfulness of any Place: Now, how far the goodness of Waters tend to the preservation of Bodies and Things, may well enough be observ’d from Brewing, Washing, Baking, and the like; for those that make the strongest Drink, are ever the best concocted and most nourishing; those that bear Soap well, fret not out Cloaths like those that are hungry, but are fat, smooth and soft in Taste, which is also allow’d to be a general sign of good Water; so likewise such as are lightest and most apt quickly to boil away, are always best. Now these are the most useful in making Bread, Pyes, &c. and will keep them longest without moulding; but of all European-Waters that of the River Thames is the most noted for making Sea-Beer and Bisket, which are carry’d the longest Voyages, and into the hottest Countries of both East and West-Indies.

The Air and Water of Egypt very good.

By these Considerations on the Air and Water, we may see the great advantage Egypt receiv’d from the clearness and dryness of the one, and sweetness and softness of the other, to which Herodotus chiefly attributes the Health and long Life of those People, as we, in some measure, may the continuance and duration of their Embalmings; for, as inequality of Air is pernicious to Health, so it is also to Embalming, therefore we find the Winter-Seasons are not so proper for this Art as the Summer, as producing much Rain, with misty or foggy Weather, which disposes all things to Putrifaction, in so much that Flesh is then hardly to be kept from being musty or stinking, by reason it will not so well take Salt at that Time. Things preserv’d with Sugar relax, and dry’d Things, imbibing the moisture, either rot or mould, which Mouldiness is a beginning of Putrifaction, that afterwards turns to Worms or odious Stinks. "Inequality of Air bad for Embalming." Now as inequality of Air produces Putrifaction, so does also an interchangeableness of heat and cold, wet and dry, as may be observ’d from the mouldring of Earth in Frost and the Sun, or in the more hasty rotting of Wood that is sometimes wet and sometimes dry; so likewise a certain degree of heat or cold preserves and keeps Bodies from Putrifaction, whereas a tepid heat inclines them to it; for, tho’ such a weak degree of heat may put the Spirits in a little motion, yet is it not able to digest the Parts, or rarifie them, as may be seen by Flesh kept in a Room that is not cool, whereas in a cold and wet Larder ’twill keep much longer, and we observe that Vivification, as the Lord Bacon says in his Nat. Hist. p. 74. (whereof Putrifaction is the bastard Brother) is effected by such soft Heats, as the hatching of Eggs, commonly practis’d at Cairo, the heat of the Womb, &c. whereas such a heat as breaths forth adventitious Moisture best preserves Bodies; for as wetting hastens Corruption, so convenient drying (whereby the more radical Moisture is only kept in) puts back Putrifaction: So we may also observe that Herbs and Flowers, when dry’d in the shade or hot Sun, for a small space keep best. For these Reasons the warm Climate of Egypt must needs conduce best to the preservation of Things and Embalming Bodies, provided it be not attempted in the extream heat of the Summer, which is between Easter and Whitsontide, at which Time the hot Southerly Winds blow, which bring malignant Fevers, Plagues and great Putrifactions. Thus much as to the temperature of the Air shall suffice; next we must speak of the Egyptians.

The antient Egyptians.

The antient and true Egyptians were the Copties or Copts, so call’d, as I have formerly shown, p. 126. from Coptus, Son of Misraim, who became King of Egypt upon the Decease of his Father, and his Conquest over his Brothers; for those who now inhabit that Country, according to Sandys, Heylin and others, "Character of the modern Egyptians." are much degenerate from the Ingenuity and Worth of their Ancestors, being not only Ignorant but Barbarous, devoted to Luxury and Venery, and naturally addicted to detract from what is Good and Eminent, nay, in a word, they are both Cowardly and Cruel. In their Dealings they are more Observant than Faithful; of a Genius much inclin’d to Craftiness, and very eager of Profit. Such as inhabit the Cities apply themselves to Merchandize, grow Rich by Trading, are reasonably well Habited, and not very differing from the Turks in Dress and Fashion. Those in the Country, who follow Husbandry, are affirm’d to be a brutish and nasty People, crusted over with Dirt, and stinking of Smoak and their abominable Fuel; for they burn their own Dung, and that of Cattle, instead of Wood, which is here so scarce it is sold by weight, and us’d only by Foreigners and the richer sort. Nothing now remains among them of the laudable Arts of their Ancestors, but a ridiculous affectation of Divination and Fortune-telling, in which, and some other cheating Tricks, they are very well vers’d, great numbers of them wandring from Place to Place, to get their Livelihoods that way. This occasions Vagabonds and Straglers of other Nations, who pretend to the same false Arts to assume their Names. The whole Body of the present Inhabitants is an hotchpotch or medly of many foreign Nations, such as Moors, Arabians, Turks, Greeks, Jews, Franks, &c. the natural Egyptians making the least part of the number.

The Make, Complexion and Temper of the Egyptians.

Now as concerning the Make, Complexion, Temper and Constitution of the Egyptians in general, that varies according to the different Quality or Employ of the Person or Sex. Those that dwell in Cairo and other Cities are gross, corpulent and sanguine, whereas the wandring Arabians and Husbandmen are meagre and slender, very active and nimble, yet withal hairy, sweaty, and almost scorcht and burnt up with the Sun. The People in general are of a mean Stature, tawny Complexion, and spare Bodies, and this is remarkable of them, that tho’ their Country be in the same Climate with Barbary, yet are they not black, but tawny or olive-colour’d. The Women are of the same Complexion with the Men, yet well shap’d and featur’d, did not they too much affect a seeming Corpulency, which if they cannot get in Flesh they will be sure to have in Cloaths. "Their Women fruitful in Children." They Marry at Ten, or at farthest at Twelve Years of Age, being very fruitful, some bearing Three or Four Children at a Birth; and those that are born in the Eighth Month live to a good Age, and are not in such danger of Death, as in other Countries.

Their Constitutions and Habits of Body.

As to the Constitutions of the Egyptians, they are hot and dry, being by nature very wakeful and little inclin’d to sleep. They are of a chearful Temper, yet delight much in an idle and lazy kind of Life, being immoderate Votaries to Venus. Their continual Bathing, drinking the Waters of Nile, and using cold Food, mightily lessen and alter their heat and drought; but then this inconveniency ensues, that they have cold and raw Stomachs full of Phlegm, which not only proceeds from such cold Dyet, but also from the extraordinary heat of the Air, whereby the natural heat is overcome.

Are very long liv’d.

They are nevertheless said to be longer liv’d than those of other Countries, it being common to find among them People of above a Hundred Years of Age. The reason of this longoevity Phisicians differ greatly about, yet assign, as the chiefest Cause of it, next to the Air, the spare way of living of that People, they eating little Flesh, but store of Roots, Fruits and Herbs, nor often drinking any Wine, but commonly Water, and sometimes Beer, which Herodotus Lib. 1. Sect. 77. assures us the antient Egyptians made. On the contrary, all Europeans, who drink abundance of Wine, and eat much Flesh, are for the most part short liv’d. "A Problem concerning Diet." Therefore whether it were not better for us to conform to the simple Diet of our Forefathers? Whether pure and simple Waters be not more healthful than fermented Liquors? Whether there be not an ample sufficiency in the Food of Honey, Oil, and several parts of Milk; in the great variety of Grains, Pulses and all sorts of Fruits, since either Bread or Beverage may be made almost of all of them? Whether Nations have rightly confin’d themselves to peculiar Meats? Whether the common Food of one Country be not more agreeable to another? How indistinctly all Tempers apply to the same, and how the Diet of Youth and old Age is confounded, are Considerations worth our notice, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Vulgar Errors, p. 138. and might not a little prolong our Days; yet must not this Discourse, therefore I will proceed to speak of some Diseases the Egyptians have been always liable to. "Their Diseases." These are occasion’d either by the intemperate Air, the Summers here being exceeding hot and sultry, or else by reason the Poor, who are very numerous, are necessitated to eat foul and unwholsome Food, such as the flesh of Camels, of Crocodiles, (by some worshipp’d and consequently held Irreligious) rotten salt Fish, and mouldy stinking Cheese, by them call’d Gibnehalon. They are also accustom’d to drink muddy and corrupt Waters, whereby is ingendred much Choler, thick and adust Blood, gross and crude Humours, which create many Distempers, the chief of which, and most to our purpose, are Sore Eyes and Blindness, Scabs and Leprosie, Dropsie, Frenzie, Malignant Fevers, Poxes of both kinds, Plague and Pestilence, &c. which tho’ other Nations are likewise subject to, yet it being not so constantly or grieviously, these may properly enough be nam’d, The Plagues of Egypt; wherefore I shall a little expatiate upon them, with a suitable Application to our Subject of Embalming.

Sore Eyes and Blindness.

First, I shall take notice of the incredible number of blind People in Egypt, but more-especially in Cairo, where sore Eyes or Opthalmia are so common, scarce half the Inhabitants escape them. Nay, new-born infants are so troubl’d with this Distemper, that it is sometimes hardly to be cur’d, for it seems a Disease lodg’d in the Blood, of which the Natives give this Reason, viz. That the subtile Particles of the Lime, wherewith their Houses are built, being carry’d about by the Wind, stick so close to the Eyes, that they not only cause Inflammations, but likewise insensibly mixing with the Blood, occasion this Distemper to be Hereditary; to which Sandys adds, as other Causes of this Disease, the reflecting heat of the Sun, the salt Dust of the Soil, and the Inhabitants excessive Venery; wherefore did they not use frequent Bathings in this Country, the stinking Sweat of their Bodies, mix’d with this Dust, which so continually rises and adheres to them, wou’d, by stopping their Pores, not only render them nasty and frowzy, but also their Blood becoming Pruriginous, and exalted by the salt and corrupt Diet, "Scabs and Leprosie." wou’d, as it often does, produce Mange, Scabs and Leprosies; so that to keep themselves sweet, clean and free from these Diseases, they are wont to use constant Bathings, and refrain from salt Meats, which are very unwholsome to these Eastern Nations. Herodotus assures us they in his Time abstain’d from Swines Flesh, as particularly apt to beget Leprosie in hot Countries, if salted, and if not, or well roasted, infallibly brings a DiarrhÆa, or else turns to some dangerous Fever or Surfet. Hippocrates, Lib. Poss. p. 5. observes, it throws some People into a Cholera Morbus, that is, It works vehemently upon them by Choleric Vomits and Stools. Plutarch likewise remarks, that the very Milk of this Beast being drank, produces the Scab, &c.

Dropsie.

The Egyptians also from their too frequent use of Colocasia, Bammia, Melochia, Beets, and such like Herbs as occasion thick and tough Flegm, are often troubl’d with the Dropsie, which swells and puffs up their Legs, with abundance of hard and gross Humours, like the Legs of an Elephant, tho’ indeed they feel no pain, but are only unweildy to walk.

Apoplexy.

At Cairo rages that most terrible Disease call’d by the Arabians, Dem el Muia, which in few Hours seizes the Brain like an Apoplexy, and bereaving it of Sense, soon dispatches the Patient. Every Year once the Egyptians are surpriz’d by this Disease, and multitudes die dayly of it. At the same Time Children are wont to be greatly afflicted with a malignant kind of Pox, "Small Pox." bred out of venemous Damps, arising from the corrupt Waters of Caleg, a Branch or rather Trench cut from the Nile to Alexandria. Every Year, when that River rises 8 or 10 Cubits, it falls into this Trench, and so runs thro’ the whole City; so that, at the retiring of the River, this Water, remaining without motion, stagnates and corrupts: It first becomes green, then black, and at length sends fourth Pestilential Vapours, whereby the Air is polluted and this Infection caus’d, wherefore, some Time before it is expected, all the Children thereabouts are remov’d to other Places. Sandys also tells us, "French Pox." the French Pox is exceedingly rife among the Egyptians, which however is not to be wonder’d at if we consider their hot Constitution, excessive Venery, &c.

Malignant Agues.

In Alexandria many malignant and mortal Agues reign about the Time of their Harvest, occasion’d by drinking the tainted and foul Waters, which the Townsmen keep from Year to Year in Wells under their Houses. But the most destructive of all Diseases to the Egyptians is the Pestilence or Plague, "Plague." which very frequently visits them, and is the more prevalent in that they seek no Remedy for it, as believing none can die of it but such as are destin’d by GOD. For this Reason they never go about to avoid any infected Person or Place, for that they look upon as Irreligious. Nay the very Cloaths or Houshold-Goods of such as die of this Distemper, are instantly sold in the open Market by Outcry, which none are afraid to buy, thro’ which mad obstinacy, in this their foolish Opinion, the Plague has in Cairo, during only the space of six or seven Months, sometimes swept away above Five hundred thousand People, as was observ’d in the Year 1580.

Those Plagues which come out of Barbary are the most pernicious and of longest continuance, of which kind was the before mention’d; whereas such as come from Greece or Syria are more mild and of a shorter duration; for this Disease is seldom or never occasion’d by Putrifaction of Air in Egypt, unless the Nile, overflowing the Country too high, leaves its Waters a long while on the Ground, whereby the whole Land becoming a corrupt and standing Lake, that by the Southerly Winds and Summers heat, may be ripen’d and made fit to send up infectious Steams. That Plague which begins in the first Months of Summer is the worst, whereas that which comes later is milder and ceases sooner. But let the Plague rage never so fiercely, when the Sun enters Cancer, which is the Time of Nile’s overflowing, it wholly ceases, insomuch that not one then dies of it, as has been before shown. The Reason of this so sudden alteration seems to be the even and constant Temperature of the Air, thro’ the blowing of the anniversary North Winds, which then begin to rise and oppose the moist Nature of the South Winds, call’d Camsin. Now these cooling, as well the Air as Mens Bodies, and taking away the Cause (the infectious Heat) the Effect soon ceases.

Thus far have I shown how the infection of Air and Water may occasion many Diseases, which therefore are carefully to be avoided as pernicious to Embalming: I shall now only observe, that as the even Temper and good Humour of Man tends much to his Health and long Life, so that healthy State and Constitution, either affords a Natural Embalming, or at least such Bodies are easiest to be preserv’d. But whether those Bodies that dy’d of the Plague, or other malignant Distempers, could with any Art be preserv’d, is a QuÆre of no small concern in this our Natural History, and must needs to the Egyptians bring a great scruple of Conscience, who believ’d the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of Souls, to think what must become of such Bodies as were not Embalm’d? Since therefore no History can give us any satisfaction herein, we are inclinable to believe they could not any ways be preserv’d, by reason of the immediate tendency of such tabid Carcasses to Putrifaction, and yet we know not but the Egyptians might do more in this case than others could, both thro’ the efficacy and goodness of their Medicines, and their not being afraid of the infectious Steams which issue from such Bodies, during their hot Embalming; which brings me next to enquire into their Skill in Physic, Anatomy and Chymistry. In order to this, I shall first begin with the Rise and Progress of their Physic, according to the Opinion of the Learned Dr. Grew; and then shew its Effects, and how it was practis’d, as affirm’d by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Prosper Alpinus, and others.

Egyptians first Authors of Medicine.

‘The Egyptians, says Dr. Grew in his Cosmologia Sacra, p. 265. being from sundry Causes (some of which we have already discours’d of) the most diseas’d of all People, were also the first Authors of Medicine. Mizraim their first King, otherwise call’d Menez, Osiris, Dionisius and Bacchus, all being Names of the same Person, together with his Wife Isis, apply’d himself to furnish his People with wholsome Food. He with Wine, which he had learn’d to make of his Grandfather Noah; "Osiris taught them Drink and Food." and with Water, in making the best use of the River Nile; and She, by teaching them, among so many various sorts of Roots and Fruits, "Isis salubrious Plants." wherewith Egypt abounds, to distinguish the Noxious, many of which, as Sulpitius Severus and P. Alpinus observe, are very sweet and tempting, from those which are wholsome and fit to eat; from whence she was call’d ??e?a and Salus.

‘Their next King was Orus, by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and Athenagoras in his Apology to the Christians, said to be Osiris’s Son. This Prince seeing Food already provided for, bethought himself of some means, such as they were, for the cure of Diseases. The first step he took, being affrighted with a Plague, was to offer Sacrifice to the Celestial Bodies, which he suppos’d Gods, and the only Arbiters of Life and Death. Therefore Anebo the Egyptian Priest, "These Orus, Son of Osiris, apply’d for Physic, by Sacrificing them." personated by Jamblichus, in his Book of the Egyptian Mysteries says, That, even in his Time, they knew no other way of curing that Disease; and what Isis had found out for Food, he thought best apply’d to this purpose. So Porphyrius in his Book of Sacrifices tells us, the most ancient Egyptians, Coelestibus litabant, with Herbs, Roots and Fruits, which at first Orus offer’d singly, but afterwards compounded, supposing them thereby, as is intimated by Proclus, the more acceptable.

‘The Plague and other contagious Diseases, being blown away, as they commonly were and are, by the North Winds, Orus thought it decent to solemnize his Sacrifices with Music; "To which he added Music." and that he had excellent Skill herein, is witness’d by Diodorus, from whence also he is taken to be the Egyptian Apollo. Now finding Music acceptable to the People, he apply’d that also, with the Sacrifices to which it was annex’d, towards the cure of Diseases; for which Reason Music is by Jamblichus, in his Book aforesaid, enobl’d with the Title of Divine. And it seem’d, for many Ages after, so necessary to Medicine, as to give occasion to Thessalus, Head of the Methodic Sect in the Reign of Nero, to brag, That he could make Physicians without the help either of Astrology or Music. Thus all Music consisting in a proportionate Measure, he saw it requisite the Notes or Tunes, and Words he us’d with them, should be commensurate one to the other, and so became the first Poet or Maker of Verses; "And Poetry." which being us’d with Music, were suppos’d to have the same Divine Virtue, and came at length to be us’d alone in the cure of Diseases. And it is by Sanchuniathon affirm’d, that Misora, that is Misraim, "Thence thought to be the Egyptian Apollo." was one of those two antient Gods, whose Sons were the Inventors of Medicinal Charms, which as it seems were all the means Orus, or the Egyptian Apollo, invented for the cure of Diseases, viz. Sacrifices, Music and Charms, upon which three he began likewise to build the Art of Divination; and as a branch hereof, his Magical Prognostics in relation to Diseases. ’Next to Orus succeeded Athothus; by Sanchuniathon nam’d, Taautus; by the less antient Egyptians, "Athothus the antient Egyptian Mercury," Thoyth, and by the Greeks in Alexandria, Thoth. He was the most antient Egyptian Mercury; said by Manetho and Eratosthenes to be Son of Menez or Mizraim, and was therefore younger Brother to Orus, whom he succeeded by Noah’s Gift, as is witness’d by Sanchuniathon: Saturnus, in Deum Taautum a Misore Natum, Egypti Regnum contulit. This Man, to add to what his Predecessor had done, "The Inventor of Images," was the Inventor of Images, dedicated to the Sun, Moon and Stars, with their Figures upon them, according to their position in the Heavens, supposing they would be more effectually mov’d by the Sacrifices offer’d to them, if thereby honour’d and represented. And that none might be without what he thought so necessary for the Peoples Health, he caus’d the making not only of Images of Gold and Silver, but certain Sculptures or Paintings upon Wood or some other Ground. The Figures or Marks, made upon all these, "Characters," were properly call’d Characters, and were the original of all those us’d by Magicians in after Times for the cure of Diseases: Whence it is these Characters, which were properly made, are said by Jamblichus to be Diis congrui, that is, agreeable to the Celestial Bodies, they were suppos’d to represent; in which Sense also the Author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, speaking of the Second Person in the Sacred Trinity, uses the same word.

‘The same Athothus, observing how naturally the Music of the Sacrifices put the Body into many Motions, "and Dancing." took thence occasion to reduce the motion of the Feet, as Apollo had done those of Speech, to a proportionate Measure, that is, to an artificial Dance. That he was first Author hereof, is agreed from his being describ’d with Wings, not only on his Shoulders, but Heels; and that he had taught the People to apply it to Religion, is as evident from the Jews, who had learn’d of the Egyptians to dance about the Golden Calf. Now, seeing this naturally conduces towards the cure of some Diseases, ’tis likely he hereupon invented several sorts of Dances, not as yet considering their natural but magical Aptitude to divers kinds of Diseases, supposing certain Numbers and Measures, might as well as Words, have a Divine Power. Now that he might make his Motions with greater ease in so hot a Country, ’tis probable he danc’d half naked, as David did before the Ark, disdaining the Author of this Ceremony should shew more Zeal before an Idol, than he did before the true GOD. Therefore as the word Gymnasium does properly signifie the Place where People exercise themselves when stripp’d; so upon this Foundation, which Athothus or the first Egyptian Mercury laid, was afterwards rais’d the Gymnastic Art. For this Cause also Jamblichus, speaking of the Powers which flow from the Gods, among those which co-operate with Nature, mentions only the Medicinal and Gymnastic as the two principal, and of kin to each other; nor is there ground to imagine, that in Medicine, Athothus or the first Mercury, understood any Thing more. So that all the means the Egyptians made use of hitherto in the cure of Diseases, viz. ’till about the 350th Year after the Flood, were to be referr’d intirely to their practical Theology, stil’d by Jamblichus ?e??????? t????, of which their magical Medicine was a principal part. "Sacrific’d Animals, and learn’d Embalming and Anatomy." After him they began to Sacrifice Animals as well as Plants, and learn’d the Art of Embalming. The Priests had hereby an opportunity of observing the structure of the inward Parts; and so of making many, both Anatomic and Pathologic Remarks. In doing this it appears by what Pliny says, Lib. 19. 5. That Kings themselves did often assist. Also frequently perceiving the inefficacy of their Magic, they began likewise to enquire into the Physical power of Herbs, and other Remedies proper for the cure of Diseases, and the Cures suppos’d to be made, whether by natural or magical Arts, were preserv’d by some sort of Memoirs made of them by the Priests, "Serapis or Apis the Egyptian Æsculapius." wherein a more especial care was taken by Serapis or Apis one of the Chief, and the Egyptian Æsculapius. Upon these accounts, the Priests, as they were the Doctors in Philosophy, "Priests the proper Physicians." so were they the only Physicians, properly so call’d, by whom Directions were given to Surgeons, Embalmers, and all other Operators appertaining to Medicine. They were also of that honourable Degree, as Gyraldus reports from Plato, that out of them the Kings were often chosen. For altho’ the Servants of Joseph, who Embalm’d his Father, were term’d Physicians, yet are we to understand those Men, who were directed by the Priests, the true Physicians, to be only Operators in curing the Infirm or Embalming the Dead. Wherefore the Septuagint, who knew the Law in this Case, do not say, the Command was given t??? ?at???? but t??? ??taf?asta??, a sort of Men to whom the Care of Funerals was committed.

‘The next and greatest Improver and Patron of the Egyptian Medicine, "Hermes Trismegistus." was Hermes Trismegistus, so call’d says Diodorus Siculus, and others after him, from ????e??, by reason he interpreted the Hieroglyphics and Sacred Language: But this tho’ he did, yet the derivation of his Name from thence is a fiction; for according to the Greek manner of deriving a Noun from a Verb, he should not have been call’d ???? but ????e??; and therefore on the contrary, as ????????, ???????? and other like Words, are all deriv’d from ????? the Son of Deucalion, who first planted Greece; so ????e??, ????e??, and other Words of the same nature are all deriv’d from ????; for the Original whereof, we are not to look into Greece but Egypt, where we find Armais, one of their Kings, and somewhat junior to Moses, "Suppos’d to be Armais." as Hermes is also said to be. The radical Letters in both are also the same. This Armais was also call’d Amersis or Mersurius, and so by mistake Mercurius; the Coptic Letter Sima being written like the Roman C, and also Trismegistus, or thrice very great, answerable to a like Egyptian Name, now lost, given him, "A great Philosopher, Priest and King." as he was esteem’d a great Philosopher, a great Priest and a great King.

‘This second Mercury, having before him a considerable stock of Observations provided by the Priests, and several others of his own, compos’d all, as Jamblichus from Sulencus and Manetho reports, into many thousands of Volumes, that is, of so many Leaves roul’d up of Books, afterwards made of these Volumes. Clemens Alexandrinus, Strom. 6. says, There were Forty two which were useful; six of them appertaining to Medicine, viz. of Anatomy, Diseases, Surgery, Pharmacy, particular Medicines for the Eyes, infected with many Diseases in Egypt, and lastly for Women; which Books became, as may be gather’d from Diodorus Siculus, as it were the Statute-Law in Egypt, for the practice in Physic in after Times. "The great establisher of Magic." Yet in all these Books, it is certain, with the physical Account of Things, there was a mixture of Magic; the Author of them being the great Establisher of this Art. Now if some Chronologers are not mistaken when they say Armais was the King who was drown’d in the Red-Sea, then this same Armais, that is, Hermes Trismegistus must be the very Man, who by his Magicians contended with Moses; and was therefore rais’d up, the more remarkably to confound them at his fall. It is manifest the Books now and antiently extant, under this Hermes’s Name, are all of this Nature; which tho’ not written by him, but by certain of the later Egyptian Priests, are believ’d by Jamblichus, Porphirius and others, faithfully to represent his Sense. Therefore Celsus, also quoted by Origen against him, Lib. 8. tells us, as a piece of Egyptian Philosophy, in his Time current, That the Body of Man was divided into Thirty six Parts; each of which was possess’d with a God or DÆmon, which being call’d upon by the Magi, cur’d the Diseases of the parts they possess’d. And as they appropriated several unto one Man, so, says Herodotus, did they to every Beast one; to all, says Justin, but the Hog. And by the Author of the Book entitul’d, Trismegisti Asclepias, the same in effect is said of Plants and Stones, viz. That there was t? Te???, something of Divinity in them all; nor was the magical Ceremony laid aside in Galen’s Time, as appears by what he reports of one Pamphilus, Qui ad PrÆstigiaturas Ægyptias versus fuit, junctis Incantationibus quas obmurmurat, cum Herbas colligunt. Also the Author of the Book, De Medicamentis Expertis, ascrib’d to Galen, speaking of the Egyptian Priests, has this passage, Laudamus Medicos Altarium, Ægyptiorum puta, qui curant cum Cibis Sacrificiorum.

Magical Medicine spread over most Countries.

‘Nor did magical Medicine keep within Egypt only, but was thence spread abroad into most other Countries, partly as they fell under the Government of some of their conquering Kings, and partly as Egypt was the great Academy, to which the Philosophers of other Nations made their resort, and whence Physicians were often call’d unto Foreign Princes, who, with their physical, carry’d abroad their magical Skill. The younger Apollo was Author of Divination in Greece, as the elder was in Egypt. Also in Epidaurus, Cous and other Places, his Temple was always full of sick People; as was likewise that of Æsculapius.

Medicines, why call’d Pharmaca.

‘Medicines were term’d Pharmaca, which antiently signify’d Poysons, because it was believ’d, unless they were magically us’d, they would do more hurt than good; therefore Jarchas, in his Life of Apollonius, tells us also, They who were esteem’d Sons of Æsculapius had made but small proficiency in the Art of Medicine, Nisi Æsculapius, juxta Patris sui Vaticinia, Morbis proficua Remedia composuisset. Nor were the Oriental Nations without their Teraphim, a sort of constellated Images, by them so call’d, and us’d, among other purposes, in the cure of Diseases; from whence ?e?ape??, signifies both to worship and heal. Eusebius also in his Prol. ad Lib. 4. PrÆp. Evang. reduces all to Theology, as in Egypt, so among the rest of the Gentiles: In Gentilium Theologia Civili, continentur Oracula, Responsa, & CurÆ Morborum. So true is that Saying of Celsus, concerning Hippocrates in his PrÆface: Primus Disciplinam hanc, Medicinalem puta, ab studio SapientiÆ separavit: that is, from magical Theology, the reputed Wisdom of those Times.’

That this was the antient state of Medicine in Egypt, and all over the World, is farther apparent from the Hebrews, being peremptorily requir’d to expel from among them, all such as practis’d the same, Deut. 18. 10, 11. Those who Sacrifice their Children, as the PhÆnicians did for a Remedy against the Plague, as also Diviners, Observers of Times, Enchanters, Witches, Charmers, Consulters of Familiar Spirits, Wizards and Necromancers; so many kinds of Magicians, who among other Things, undertook the Cure and Prognostics of Diseases, so many several ways, particularly the Charmer, v. 11. term’d by the Septuagint, fa?a??? ?pae?d?? ?pa??d?? one that us’d Medicines and Charms together: "Magic us’d in Embalming." Thus was Magic so generally mix’d by the Egyptians with their Physic, that the very Dead that were Embalm’d were not free from it. This appears from the various Ornaments of their Mummies, being adorn’d with painted Characters and Hieroglyphics, and defended by several little Idols or Averruncal Gods. Some of these were plac’d within the Bodies, as suppos’d, perhaps to preserve them from Corruption; and others were sow’d to their out-sides, plac’d upon their Tombs, or in their Burial-Vaults, there to guard them from external Injuries, and by the various Shapes they represented, to deter Men from violating them; but of these we shall speak more particularly in another place.

Yet however Superstitious and Idolatrous the antient Egyptians were in Magical Physic, they were soon convinc’d of the inefficacy of such Practices, therefore study’d other Methods and Physical Remedies, which might prove more prevalent; and altho’ they did not immediately leave off the former, yet was it to the latter only their admirable success in Physic was owing. In like manner are we to believe the preservation of dead Bodies was not effected by those Charms or Idols, found about them, but purely perform’d by an extraordinary Skill in Medicine and Anatomy, and particularly in that exquisite Art of Embalming. In this, that they might be the better instructed, and more thoroughly knowing, they took such infallible Methods, as none could hardly be ignorant of that part they were to perform; for they had these several Persons belonging to and employ’d in Embalming, "Persons how qualify’d for Embalming." each performing a distinct and separate Office, viz. a Designer or Painter, a Dissector or Anatomist, a Pollinctor or Apothecary, an Embalmer or Surgeon, and a Physician or Priest, which last was a great Philosopher, and taught and instructed the others in these Ceremonies, as we shall shew in its proper Place.

By this means, not only the Art of Embalming, but likewise every branch of Physic, flourish’d and came to the greatest perfection, whereas, in our Age, every Art grows the more imperfect as it incroaches on another, and the civil Wars now a Days between Physicians, Surgeons and Apothecaries have been the chief occasions of reducing Physic to so low an ebb; for whilst these have been fighting for each others Countries, the Monarchy was usurp’d by Quacks and Undertakers, who are the only Vultures that attend such Battles, in order to prey immediately on the vanquish’d Enemy. Now did every one keep to his own Province, as they did formerly in Egypt, there would be none of these Divisions among us, but every Art would flourish and stand upon its own Basis, and yet, I assure you, it would be found more difficult to understand, and perform one Art rightly, than to acquire a superficial Knowledge of many Things, in other Businesses, which relate little to the Purpose. "No Quacks or Undertakers in Egypt." To prevent these, there were in Egypt no Pretenders to Physic in general, nor any Artists who medl’d with anothers Province, each keeping strictly to his own, as Herodotus assures us in his Euterpe, where he tells us, some only profess’d curing Diseases of the Head, others of the Ears; some were Oculists, others Tooth-Drawers; some for particular Diseases in Men, and others for those in Women. In a word, there were Physicians for every Disease, but none pretended to more than one. The same thing was observ’d in other Arts, for better maintaining of which, a Law was enacted, that if any Person exercis’d more than one Profession or Trade, he should incur the most grievous of Punishments; and King Amasis also made a Law, That such as had no Profession or Trade at all, or did not yearly make appear, to the Governors of the Provinces how they lawfully got their Livelihoods, should be punish’d with Death. This Law Solon borrow’d of the Egyptians, and carry’d to Athens, where he had it put in practice: Is it not therefore a shame for us, who, no doubt, esteem our selves a much more polite People than those Heathens were, to suffer a sort of Men call’d Undertakers, to monopolize the several Trades of Glovers, Milliners, Drapers, Wax-Chandlers, Coffin-Makers, Herald-Painters, Surgeons, Apothecaries, and the like.

Art can never Flourish where they are.

Art can never flourish where ’tis assum’d by every ignorant Pretender, nor be brought to any perfection, while practis’d by illiterate Persons. We may as well expect one, that has never seen a Campaign, should understand Military Discipline; or one that has never been at Sea, Command and Steer a Ship rightly, as that an Upholsterer, a Taylor, Joyner, or the like Undertaker, should be well skill’d in the misterious Art of Embalming. These are the present Grievances, as well in Sciences as Trade, and ’till such Time as Quacks and Undertakers, Hawkers, Pedlers and Interlopers, and all such Persons, as were not brought up in the Emploiment they profess, be remov’d; we can think no otherwise but that Art must sink, Trade be ruin’d, and every public Office, as well at Court as in the Country, be ill serv’d: For whence came every Art and Science, nay all kinds of Learning, to flourish so mightily in Egypt? And how came it to pass the Egyptians so much excell’d, and perform’d more wonderful Works, than all the World beside, but only by strictly confining every Artist to his particular Emploiment, and punishing all that any ways interfer’d with another? But lest we may seem to dwell too long on this Subject, which we think also more convenient to be discours’d of in another part of this Book, we will next proceed to consider, besides their Pharmacy, the extraordinary Skill of the Egyptians in other Branches of Physic, such as Anatomy, Chymistry, Surgery, &c.

Egyptians well skill’d in Anatomy.

That the Egyptians must needs understand the natural Oeconomy of the Body, appears in that they were the first that employ’d their Industry in searching out the inward Nature of Animals by Anatomy, and first open’d Human Bodies to discover their respective Diseases. Olaus Borrichius, Lib. de Ægypt. Sap. p. 141. brings many Arguments to prove their Knowledge in Anatomy; and among them, this out of Aulus Gellius, Lib. 10. c. 10. Veteres GrÆcos, annulum habuisse in Digito sinistrÆ Manus, qui minimo est proximus: Romanos quoque Homines aiunt sic plerumq; Annulis usitatos; Causam esse hujus rei Appion in Libris Ægyptiacis hanc dicit; Quod insectis apertisq; Humanis Corporibus, ut mos in Ægypto fuit, quas GrÆci ??at??? apellant repertum est Nervum quendam tenuissimum, ab eo uno Digito, de quo diximus, ad Cor Hominis pergere ac pervenire: Propterea non inscitum visum esse, eum potissimum Digitum tali Honore decorandum, qui continens & quasi connexus esse in principatu Cordis videretur. That the antient Greeks wore a Ring on that Finger of the left Hand, which is next to the little one: And it is likewise said of the Romans, that they for the most part wore their Rings in the same manner; of which Appion, in his Egyptian Treatises, gives this Reason; That the Egyptians in Dissecting, and opening Human Bodies, which was a Custom among them, call’d by the Greeks Anatomy, found a certain slender Nerve, deriv’d from their Finger above-mention’d, which crept along ’till it inserted it self into the Heart; wherefore they thought convenient that Finger should chiefly be adorn’d with such Honour. Macrobius, as quoted by Polydor Virgil, de Rerum Inventione, p. 140. affirms likewise, Quod ille Digitus annulo ornatur, quia ab eo Nervus quidam ad Cor pertinet. Also in Saturnius, Lib. 7. c. 13. Disarius, in consulting the Egyptian Books of Anatomy, says, he found the same. Orus adds, that for this Reason the Egyptian Priests anointed that Finger with sweet Odours; which Doctrine however, Conringius says, deserves rather to be laugh’d at than confuted; nevertheless, Borrichius thinks there may perhaps be a more secret consent between that Finger and the Heart, than young Anatomists are aware of, therefore endeavours to prove the same, p. 143. However, says he, we need not wonder if the Egyptians were sometimes in the dark, when at this Day the Anatomy of the Greeks is so empty; and surely ’twas as easie a matter for the Greeks to have added something more solid, to the Egyptian Anatomy, as for us Moderns to have so much improv’d it after them. But nothing was invented and perfected at the same Time, therefore we must not imagine the Anatomy of the Egyptians to have been so compleat as ours is now. Yet he that shall think the wise Egyptians could be so absurd as to believe the Heart Annually increas’d the weight of two Drams, for the space of Fifty Years, and afterwards gradually decreas’d for Fifty more, must needs be guilty of too great credulity, since none can doubt but that Persons of all Ages were open’d by them, in order to Embalming, and therefore such like Follies must of necessity have been refuted by ocular Inspection and Demonstration. That which Conringius chiefly builds upon, is, that all the Anatomy of the Egyptians was only instituted for the use of Embalming; yet, which is likewise confuted by Pliny, Lib. 19. c. 5. where speaking of the Phthiriasis, he says, The Cure thereof was found out in Egypt, Kings being accustom’d to Dissect dead Bodies, for that purpose: The words are plain, In Ægypto Regibus Corpora mortuorum ad scrutandos Morbos insectantibus. This I look upon to be the chief intent of their Anatomy, and not the use of Embalming, since, if we may believe Diodorus Siculus, those who were the Dissectors very probably understood no more than what they were directed to perform by the Priest and Scribe. The same Author assures us it was even a very unthankful Office to perform that; for no sooner had they finish’d their Incision, but they were forc’d to run away, the By-standers most commonly flinging Stones at them, as abhorring to see them exercise such seeming Cruelty on their Friend or Relation. Yet this does not disprove their Skill or Practice of Anatomy for other Purposes, since, besides the foregoing Arguments, we are assur’d they were well acquainted with Ostiology; "And Ostiology." for Galen, Lib. 1. De admin. Anatom. advising as well ocular Inspection as reading good Authors, says, It is best to be done at Alexandria, where Physicians, expose to the sight of their Auditors, the Discipline of the Bones. On the contrary, tho’ the Egyptian Embalmers did not rightly understand Anatomy, yet is that Art nevertheless very requisite to be known, by those who would be thoroughly acquainted with the more exquisite Methods of the Moderns; for hereby they may be instructed how to keep the Muscles, make Skeletons, and prepare Schemes of the Nerves, Arteries and Veins, as likewise to preserve the Brain, Lungs, Stomach, Bowels, Uterus, and other curious Preparations, which serve instead of Books or Pictures for the Instruction of young Pupils, and refreshing the Memories of more experienc’d Practicers. In a word, I may justly say, to Anatomy are owing those rare Inventions of Steno, Swammerdam, Ruysh, Blanchard, Bilsius and others, for their new Methods of Embalming.

Chymistry Invented by Hermes.

As Chymistry is said to have had its Rise in Egypt, so is it also generally suppos’d to have been invented by Hermes. But that this Art was somewhat different from what we at this Day understand by that Denomination, appears from the Etymology of the Word, which the Greeks call, ??e?a, ? t?? ??????? ?a? ???s?? ?atas?e??, al. ???a, i. e. Fusio Metallorum; prÆfixo artic. "The Art of making Gold and Silver." Arab, Al, Alchimy, Chymistry; or, The Art of melting and counterfeiting Metals. Suidas likewise calls Chymistry, The preparation or making of Gold and Silver. This was the true Philosophers Stone which so enrich’d that Kingdom, and brought all their Arts to a mighty Perfection; and in quest of which, so many Persons of all Nations have since fruitlesly consum’d both their Lives and Fortunes. Whereas, on the contrary, by this Art the Wealth of the Egyptians was increas’d to that immense degree, that they study’d means how to expend what they had heap’d up. On this occasion Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 12. thus writes: Dicuntur, says he, obiter & Pyramides in eadem Ægypto, Regum PecuniÆ otiosa & stulta Ostentatio. But besides their Pyramids, their Obelisques, Colossus’s, Monuments, Pensile Gardens and Cities, their Labyrinth, Lake Moeris, and the like stupendious Works, which cost so many Millions of Talents, are sufficient Arguments of their Skill in Alchymy, whence they receiv’d so vast a supply of Riches. ’Tis recorded of Ptolomy Philadelphus, he spent at one pompous Show at Alexandria, and that even when Egypt was declining, 2239 Talents, as AthenÆus reckons up, Deipn. Lib. 5. c. 8. Not to mention their Statues and Temples of entire Gold, or the Cedar Ship, built by Sesostris, which was 280 Cubits in length, the outside cover’d with Gold, and the inside with Silver, as Diodorus asserts. We have a sufficient remarkable instance of their great Riches in the Tomb of Osymanduas, describ’d by the same Author, about which there was a Circle of Gold 365 Cubits in compass, and one Cubit thick, which Circle was afterwards carry’d away by Cambyses, the Persian Monarch, when he conquer’d Egypt; besides which, as Marcellinus, Lib. 6. reports, he took out of Thebes 300 Talens of Gold, and at least 2300 of Silver. Now, since no Authors mention any Gold Mines in the Time of Osiris or Hermes, whence can we imagine they should acquire such exceeding great Wealth, but from the Chymic Art of transmuting Metals? Besides the Egyptian Mines, which perhaps were afterwards discover’d, could yeild but little Profit, because of the vast Expence and Labour they must be at in Digging them. What farther seems to confirm their Knowledge in this misterious Art, is that, as Suidas reports, the Emperor Dioclesian upon his taking Alexandria, search’d with the utmost diligence for all these Chymical Books, written by the Ancients, and burn’d what he found, both to prevent the Egyptians growing thereby Rich and Rebelling against him. It was nevertheless thought, the Art of making Gold remain’d for some Time, among the Egyptians of the first Rank, at Colchis, and that by Jason’s Golden Fleece, was meant a Book of Chymistry written on Sheep-skin or Vellum, which he fetch’d from thence. However, at last this Art was lost, and perhaps for these following Reasons: "How the Egyptians Arts came to be lost." First, Because the Egyptian Priests, who were Masters of all Sciences, conceal’d their Chymistry as much as might be, lest others, excited by their Happiness, might envy their Treasure, and consequently hasten their Ruin. Secondly, Because these Priests were so obstinate and resolute, they would rather chuse to suffer the greatest Tortures than discover their Art. Thirdly, In that their Chymical Books, &c. being written in secret Characters, and consequently understood by few, were laid up in Subterranean Vaults, or private Recesses of their Temples, for fear of the Incursions of their Enemies, thro’ which means some never came to light. And, Lastly, by reason of the hostile Invasions of the Persians, Ethiopians, Romans and others, who ransack’d the Temples of Memphis, Thebes and Alexandria, where these secret Arts were kept, burnt that famous Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, which contain’d about 700000 Volumes, and destroy’d in like manner the Serapion. All this consider’d, we need not wonder if this, as well as their Art of Embalming, be lost. But ’tis farther to be noted, as their Chymistry was very profitable to them in making Gold and Silver, "The Art of tinging Glass and making Artificial Stones." so in teaching them how to give beautiful Tinctures to Stones and Glass, as also Enamel, make Pastes, and the like, was equally curious and delightful. They were wont to make Drinking-Glasses, call’d ^[3]Allassontes, which would change colour like a Pidgeons Neck; one of which, as Vopiscus relates, being presented by an Alexandrian Priest to the Emperor Adrian, was esteem’d by him as a great Gift and rare Invention. They could likewise tinge the Lapis Obsidianus and Cyanos, with various beautiful Colours, as Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 26. and Lib. 37. c. 9. relates. Also Seneca Epist. XC. tells us Democritus, by being well acquainted with the Egyptians, discover’d how to soften Ivory, and by boiling a Stone, learn’d how to convert it into an Emerald; for those People are said to have made Gems so artificially, they imitated the natural both in lustre and hardness. Moreover, Appion Plistonices writes, there was to be seen in the Labyrinth of Egypt a Colossus of Serapis 9 Cubits high of an entire Emerald, which surely must have proceeded from a Chymical Operation, since neither of the Indies have hitherto been able to produce the like Rarity. By all this ’tis plain the antient Egyptians knew the more secret and profitable part of Chymistry, but whether that relating to Physic was practis’d by them, in the same manner as with us, is a Matter of some concern in Embalming, but, by reason of the scarcity of their Monuments or Books, not so easie to determine. Yet that they were not wholly ignorant thereof, appears by their Æs ustum, Ærugo, Alumen ustum, Diphryges, Misy, Sory, Nitre, Sal Armoniac, Salts latent in Ashes, Calcinations, and the like Operations which require the help of Fire; "The Art of Distilling, Calcining, &c." as also in that they were acquainted with the Art of Distilling, whereby Bodies were made Incorporeal, rarify’d into Fumes, and afterwards kept from evaporating by help of Alembics, Matrasses and Retorts well luted to their Heads and Receivers. These Vessels were made of Glass, and some of them with their Figures have been describ’d by Zosimus, an antient Chymist of Panopolis, in his Book pe?? ??????? ?a? ?a????, from whence Olaus Borrichius had his Plate in his Book De Hermetis Ægyptiorum sapientia, p. 156. Now certainly, after all has been said, no Body will pretend to dispute the use of Chymical Preparations in Embalming, "Chymical Medicines useful in Embalming." who has heard of the wonderful Effects of the Spiritus Solomonis, the Spiritus universalis Clauderi, the Spiritus Matricalis Blancardi, the Sal enixum Paracelsi, Sal mirabile Glauberi, Succinum liquidum Kerkringij, the Arcanum Bilsij, and other Chymical Spirits, Tinctures and Balsams, too many to be enumerated here, therefore I intend to describe them at large in my Pharmacopoeia.

3. ????ss??te?, i. Variantes, Sc. Calices, quod essent versicolores.

Surgery Invented and Improv’d in Egypt.

Surgery, which was another branch of their Physic, was, as Sanchuniathon asserts, invented by Æsculapius the Egyptian, first of that Name, Son of Jupiter, and Brother of Mercury, who reign’d at Memphis according to the report of Clemens Alexandrinus. After his Name several others were so call’d, who, in succeeding Ages, contriv’d any new Methods of dressing or binding up Wounds, or added any thing else which was curious to Surgery. This Art increas’d much in Egypt, as Celsus Lib. 7. PrÆf. witnesses; and Philoxenus, a very good Author, compos’d many Books thereof. Egypt also was the chief place famous for Surgery, insomuch that Cyrus King of the Persians, when he found no Remedy for a Disease in his Eyes, among his own Physicians and Surgeons, friendly besought Amasis King of Egypt, that he would send him an Oculist, whom he accordingly receiv’d with desir’d Success, as Herodotus in his Thalia acquaints us. Likewise both the Greeks and Romans, in case of necessity, requir’d and receiv’d the like Benefit from the Egyptians; but that their Surgery was so complete as ours is now, none will allow, nevertheless, this must be granted, that they had some Medicaments which we stand in need of; for Dioscorides, Lib. 5. c. 158. and Pliny, Lib. 36. c. 7. make mention of the Lapis Memphitis, which being powder’d and mix’d with Vinegar, they us’d to anoint any part with which they intended to Burn or Cut, and it so stupify’d it without any danger, that the Patient underwent the Operation almost without any Pain.

How useful in Embalming.

Surgery therefore being of that antiquity, and so well known by the Egyptians, ’twill be expected I should apply it to our Subject of Embalming: Wherefore, as was before mention’d, p. 177. there being several Persons employ’d to Embalm a Corps, as they were directed by the Physician, so one of those, to wit the Embalmer, we take to be properly a Surgeon, inasmuch as by understanding the nature of Fermentation and Putrifaction, both of the Juices and Blood, as also how to cure Mortifications in the Living, he might thereby be better enabl’d to prevent the like Qualities in the Dead. This he is likewise more capable of, by being well acquainted with Galenical and Chymical Medicines, and Anatomical Preparations and Experiments; in which Matters, seeing Physicians are generally most knowing, Santorellus thought it their Property, and consequently wrote a Book on this Subject, entitl’d, Post Praxis Medica, which shews what a Physician has to do after his Patient is dead, viz. To prescribe proper Remedies for Embalming him, as the Egyptian Priests or Physicians were wont to direct their Operators to do. So that ’tis plain, the true Office of the Physician was to prescribe, the Apothecaries to compound Medicines, anoint the Body, &c. and the Surgeons to Embalm and roul it up; "It teaches the Art of Bandage." an Art which scarce any of our Moderns can equal, and perhaps I may have been the first that has imitated it, as Mr. Talman, one of our Masters of Anatomy, can witness I perform’d on the Body of Sir Robert Jeffrys, whom we Embalm’d.

A Surgeon the proper Embalmer.

He therefore whom the Egyptians call’d the Embalmer, was strictly speaking the Surgeon, for as much as the curing the Corps was to be perform’d by a manual Operation, and local application of Medicines, a Thing which requir’d much care, skill and dexterity, and which, a Person that is not as well acquainted with this, as Balsamic Medicines, can never perform as he ought, or be able to invent any new Method; whereas Frederic Ruysch, a good Physician, a great Anatomist and Reader of Surgery at Amsterdam, was well skill’d in this Art of Embalming, as his several Preparations of the Veins, Arteries, Uterus, &c. testifie, all which, Doctor Brown, President of the College of Physicians London, affirms he saw most accurately done at Ruysch’s House at Amsterdam, and which he particularly mentions in his Book of Travels, viz. The Lymphatic Vessels so preserv’d, that their Valves were very perspicuous, and the very minute Vessels of an excarn’d Liver clear and shining. He likewise says, he saw the Muscles of Children dissected and kept free from Corruption; as also an entire Body preserv’d, and the Face of one without the least spot, change of colour, or alteration of the Lineaments, from what might be expected after Death, and yet Ruysch had kept them Two Years, and hop’d so to continue them.

We have insisted the longer on Physic and its particular Branches, such as Anatomy, Chymistry, Surgery, &c. in as much as they not only teach how to prevent and cure Diseases, but likewise to Embalm dead Bodies. Yet seeing the Egyptians were famous in other Arts and Sciences, such as Painting, Carving, Architecture, Astronomy, Geometry and the Mathematics, some of which conduc’d very much to their Embalmings, and others to the erecting and compleating their Pyramids and Monuments; it may not be impertinent to enquire into those Arts, by which Egypt grew into such repute, that it was generally esteem’d, in respect to its Magnificence, "Egypt Mistress of the World, and Mother of all Arts and Sciences." The Mistress of the World; to its Fertility, The Magazine or Store-House of the World; and to its Antiquity, The Origin, or Mother of all Arts and Sciences. This Digression I hope will be the more pardonable, in that it will be somewhat diverting to the Lovers of Art, and also help to give a true Notion of the several Ceremonies and great Expences us’d about their Embalm’d Bodies. "Egyptians their Antiquity." We will first therefore begin with their Antiquity, for from thence we may expect the first Progress or Invention, tho’ perhaps not the Perfection of Arts; in which point the Egyptians would make us believe, the first Men were form’d in their Country, and give so great a number of their Kings, and so long a duration of their Reigns, as to deduce their Origin some Thousands of Years before the Creation of the World; asserting also that they were govern’d by the Gods about 25000 Years, before their Kingdom fell into the Hands of Men: But however questionable this Tradition may be, yet is it not to be doubted but the Egyptians were of very great Antiquity, and perhaps the antientest People of the World, from whom Laws, Arts, Sciences and Ceremonies were first deriv’d to other Countries. "Their Inventions." Now the Inventions commonly attributed to them are, Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, Astrology, Physic, Necromancy or Sorcery, Carving, Painting, Enameling, Fluxing of Metals and Stones, curious Works in Glass, and making of fine Linnen, Mathematical Machines and Automata, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Engines, and various other Mechanical Curiosities; in a word, all kinds of Learning and Ingenuity, but more particularly they were the first Inventors of the Art of Embalming. Some of these we have already mention’d, therefore shall only speak of those not hitherto treated of. First then, The Thebans boast they were the most antient Philosophers and Astrologers, "Astrology." as having found out the first Rules for the Improvement of those Sciences, since they most accurately observ’d the Courses of the Sun, Moon and Stars, their Eclipses, Constellations, Risings, Aspects and Influences, dividing thereby their Years into Months, and grounding their Divinations on their hidden Properties; yet did they so manage their Prognostications, that they could certainly foretel every particular Event.

Mathematics.

In the Mathematics and Mechanical Powers the Egyptians were particularly famous, for they had Engines whereby they could raise their Obelisques, and hoist up vast Stones to so incredible and prodigious a height as their Pyramids are. They also devis’d other wonderful Machines for divers purposes, as some for dreining Marshes, others for watering Gardens, of which Diodorus Siculus says, In the pensile Garden of Semiramis there was an Engine, that, thro’ certain Conduits or Conveyances from the Platform of the Garden, drew a great quantity of Water out of the River, yet no Body was the wiser or knew how it was done. A third sort of Machines they had for destroying and confounding their Enemy, with which last they had once almost reduc’d Julius CÆsar to extream despair, when he invested Alexandria with his whole Army; for as Aulus Hirtius, Writer of that War, relates, Ganymedes with Wheels and other Machines of great force, pump’d the Water out of the Sea, and threw it from high Places, with that great force and violence on CÆsar’s Men, that they thought of raising the Seige. He farther adds, That by those means he also made all their Water so salt they could not drink it. But besides these they had a sort of Water-Works for pleasure, as their Organa Hydraulica or Water-Organs, and others for measuring Time, as the Clepsydra or Water-Hour-Glass. They had likewise other Machines which mov’d with the Air or Wind, and some Automata that went by invisible Springs; for, as CÆlius Rhodiginus relates, the Egyptians made some Statues of their Gods both to walk of themselves, and also to utter certain Words articulately. As to their Motion, that may be ascrib’d to some Wheels and Springs within, and their Voice or Speech, to some Air forc’d up thro’ Pipes plac’d in their Heads and Mouths. Kircher in Tom. 2. Oed. Ægyptiac. gives many Examples of Pneumatical Engines, among the Egyptians, in their Temples. Yet is there none so remarkable as the Statue of Memnon, which was made by the Theban Priests with that Art and Contrivance, that in the Morning, on the rising of the Sun, and the striking of its Beams upon it, it utter’d a kind of Music. This was so famous a piece of Work, that Men travell’d from far to see it. Lucian the Sophister went to view that Miracle, as he terms it, and as he tells us in his Philopseudes. The same did the Emperor Severus, as Spartianus informs us, and Germanicus, as Tacitus, and Strabo, that judicious Geographer, went to see it; the like did Apollonius TyanÆus, as Philostratus writes, which Matter need not seem fabulous, says Natalis Comes, to any that shall understand the Power of Art and Human Wit, nor how expert the Theban Priests were in all Mathematical Sciences. But I need say no more in particular of their Art of Building, Carving or Painting, "Their wonderful Works in Architecture." since those will appear much more conspicuous by a Relation of such stupendious and beautiful Works as were the City of Thebes, together with its stately Sepulchres, Obelisks and Temples, all built by them. The Sepulchre of King Osymandua, the Cities of Memphis, Cairo, Babylon and Alexandria, the Tower of Pharos, the long Wall built by Sesostris, the Labyrinth, their Pyramids, Obelisks, Columns, Colossus’s, Statues, Sphinx’s, Monuments, Subterranean Vaults and Lamps, and other like admirable Works, testifie their extraordinary Skill and Ingenuity in all kinds of Arts to be such, as neither the Greeks, Romans, nor any other Nation were afterwards capable of. But that you may not, Sir, be put off with a bare enumeration of them, I will give such a particular account of them, as will, I dare say, not only surprise and divert the Reader, but also lead him into every minute Circumstance of their Embalming.

Thebes.

First then of Thebes, a very rich and glorious City, once the Regal Metropolis of all Egypt, and built by Busyris, who resided in it. It was call’d by the Egyptians Heliopolis, or the City of the Sun, and by Strabo, Diospolis, or Jupiter’s City, by reason he was there worshipp’d. It was in circuit about 140 Furlongs, or 17 Miles and an half, and was adorn’d with so many stately Monuments both of Gold, Silver and Ivory, such multitudes of Colossus’s and Obelisks, cut out of entire Stone, such exceeding splendid Temples, Palaces and Tombs of the old Egyptian Pharaohs, and other such like Ornaments and stupendious Rarities, that it was not only look’d upon to be the most beautiful and stately City of Egypt, but of all others in the World; for it is recorded, that not only King Busyris, but all his Successors also from Time to Time beautify’d and adorn’d it, and ’tis certain it had in it 20000 Chariots of War, and that there were 100 Stables all along the River, from Memphis to Thebes, towards Libya, each of which was capable of containing 200 Horses. Pomponius Mela says, Thebes was so exceeding Populous, it could draw out of every Gate 10000 armed Men, and that the Greek Word Hecatompolis, which as some think signifies an hundred Gates, according to which, Thebes was so call’d by Homer, is not to be understood literally, but rather to be explain’d to relate to an hundred Palaces, in which so many Princes had their Residence. Pliny, Lib. 36. c 14. will have the whole City to have stood upon Arches, so made on purpose, that the Egyptian Kings might march their Armies this way and that way under the Houses, without being discover’d. In this City were also four Temples, very wonderful for their beauty and largeness, of which, the most antient was 13 Furlongs, or above a Mile and half in circuit, and 45 Cubits high, and had a Wall 24 Foot thick. The Ornaments of this Temple were suitably magnificent both for Cost and Workmanship, and the Fabric continu’d ’till Diodorus Siculus’s Time, but the Silver, Gold, and other Ornaments of Ivory and precious Stones, were carry’d away by the Persians at such Time as Cambyses burn’d the Temples of Egypt. ‘Here, says Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 4. were the wonderful Sepulchres of the antient Kings of Egypt, which for State and Grandeur far exceeded all that Posterity could attain to even to this Day. The Egyptian Priests say, That in their Sacred Records there were register’d 47 of these Sepulchres, yet which is not only reported by the Egyptians, but by many of the Grecians likewise, who travel’d to Thebes in the Time of Ptolemeus Lagus, and wrote Histories of Egypt. Among these, one was HecatÆus, who agrees with what Diodorus relates, viz. That when he was there, which was in the 180th Olympiad, there remain’d only 17 of these Sepulchres. "Osymandua’s Tomb." Of the first of these, that of King Osymandua was 10 Furlongs in compass, and at the entrance, they say, there was a Portico of vari-colour’d Marble, 45 Cubits in height and 200 Feet long. Thence going forward, you came into a four square Stone-Gallery, every Square being 400 Feet, supported by Beasts instead of Pillars, each of which was of an entire Stone, 16 Cubits high, and Carv’d after the antique manner. The Roof was also entirely of Stone, each Stone being 8 Cubits broad, with an azure Sky all bespangl’d with Stars. Passing out of this, you enter’d another Portico like the former, but more curiously carv’d, and adorn’d with greater variety. At the entrance stood 3 Statues, each of one entire Stone, being the Workmanship of Memnon of Scienitas. One of these was sitting, whose Foot measur’d 7 Cubits, and in the whole magnitude, exceeded all other Statues in Egypt. The other two were much less, reaching but to the Knee, the one standing on the right Hand, and the other on the left, being the Mother and Daughter. This Piece is not only commendable for its greatness, but likewise admirable for its Workmanship, and the excellency of the Stone, that in so great a Work there was not to be discern’d the least flaw or blemish. Upon the Tomb there was this Inscription:

‘I am Osymandua, King of Kings; if any would know how Great I am, and where I lye, let him excel me in any of my Works.

‘There was likewise at the second Gate another Statue, of the Mother by her self, of one Stone, 20 Cubits high; upon her Head were plac’d Three Crowns, to denote she was both Daughter, Wife and Mother of a King. Near this Portico, they say, there was another Gallery, more remarkable than the former, in which were various Sculptures representing his Wars with the Bactrians, who had revolted from him, against whom, ’tis said, he march’d with 400000 Foot and 20000 Horse, which Army he divided into four Bodies, and appointed his Sons Generals of the whole.

‘In the first Wall might be seen the King assaulting a Bulwark environ’d with the River, and fighting at the head of his Men, against some that made up against him, assisted by a Lion in a terrible posture; which some affirm must be understood to be a real Lion that the King bred up tame, went along with him in all his Wars, and by his great strength ever put the Enemy to flight. Others make this Construction, that the King being a Prince of extraordinary Courage and Strength, he was willing to set forth his own Praises and bravery of Spirit, by the representation of a Lion. In the second Wall were carv’d the Captives dragg’d after the King, represented without Hands and Privy Members, to signifie that they were effeminate Spirits, and had no Hands when they came to fight. The third Wall represented all sorts of Sculptures and curious Images, in which were set forth the King’s Sacrificing of Oxen, and his Triumphs in that War. In the middle of the Perystilion or Portico, open to the Air at top, was rear’d an Altar of polish’d Marble, being of excellent Workmanship, and equally to be admir’d for its Magnitude. In the last Wall were two Statues, each of entire Stone, 27 Cubits high, near which three Passages open’d out of the Portico into a stately Room, supported by Pillars, like a Theatre for Music. Every side of the Theatre was 200 Feet square. Here were many Statues of Wood, representing Pleaders and Spectators looking upon the Judges. Those which were carv’d on one of the Walls were 30 in number, and in the middle sat the Chief Justice, with the Image of Truth hanging about his Neck, his Eyes clos’d, and many Books lying before him. This signify’d that a Judge ought not to take any Bribes, but only to regard the Truth and Merits of the Cause. Next adjoyning was a Gallery full of diverse Apartments, in which were all sorts of delicate Meats ready serv’d up. Near this was represented the King himself, curiously carv’d and painted in glorious Colours, offering as much Gold and Silver to the Gods as he yearly receiv’d out of his Mines. The Sum was there inscrib’d (according to the rate of Silver) to amount unto 32 Millions of ^[4]Mina’s, which is about 100 Millions of Pounds Sterling. Next was the Sacred Library, on which were inscrib’d these words, The Cure of the Mind. Adjoyning to this were the Images of all the Gods in Egypt, to every one of which the King was making Offerings, peculiarly belonging to each of them, that Osiris and all his Associates, who were plac’d at his Feet, might understand his Piety towards the Gods, and his Righteousness towards Men. Next to the Library was a stately Room, wherein were 20 Beds to set upon, richly adorn’d, in which were the Images of Jupiter and Juno together with the Kings, and here it’s suppos’d the King’s Body lay interr’d. Round the Room are many Apartments, wherein are to be seen all the Beasts that are accounted Sacred in Egypt, very curiously painted. Thence you ascend to the top of the Monument or Sepulchre, which having mounted, there appears a Border of Gold round the Tomb of 365 Cubits in compass, and one in thickness; within the division of every Cubit were the several Days of the Year ingraven, with the natural Risings and Settings of the Stars, and their Significations, according to the Observations of the Egyptian Astrologers. In this manner they describe the Sepulchre of King Osymandua, which seems far to exceed all others both for Magnificence and curiosity of Workmanship.’ Now he who shall seriously consider this, as also several other Passages in Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus of the stupendious Works of the Egyptians, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 9. must needs acknowledge, that for Magnificence, if not for Art, they far exceeded the Grecians and Romans, even when their Empires were at the highest pitch and most flourishing: Wherefore those Admiranda RomÆ, collected by Justus Lipsius, are hardly admirable, if compar’d with some of these. At this Day there is scarce any great Column or Obelisk remaining in Rome worthy of Note, which has not antiently been brought hither out of Egypt.

4. Every Mina is about 3l. 2s. 6d.

Thebes sunk and fell to decay, upon removing the Court to Memphis, "Memphis." a great and eminent City, built by Uchoreus, as Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. relates, but Sandys says ’twas built by Ogdoo, and call’d Memphis after the Name of his Daughter, compress’d, as they feign, by Nilus in the likeness of a Bull. Hereupon this became the Regal City, and Strength and Glory of all Egypt, being exceeding Populous, and adorn’d with a world of Antiquities. It was particularly famous for the Temple of Apis, the Subterranean Vaults or Burying-Places, and the Pyramids or stately Sepulchres of the Kings, erected within a few Miles of it.

The God most esteem’d by the Egyptians, and ador’d at Memphis, "The God Apis." was Apis, a coal-black Ox, with a white Mark on his Forehead, the figure of an Eagle on his Back, and having Hair on his Tail of two kinds. When this God happen’d to die, none valu’d their Hair, tho’, as Lucian says, they had as good as Nisus, but shav’d it all off in token of their Grief. Also Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 6. says, They were then as much concern’d, as at the Death of their own Children, and laid out in the Burial of this God, as much, if not more than all their Goods were worth; for when Apis thro’ old Age dy’d at Memphis, in the Reign of Ptolomeus Lagus, his Keeper not only spent all the Provision he had heap’d up, in burying him, but also borrow’d of Ptolomy 50 Talents of Silver for the same purpose. Nay even in our Time, says the same Author, some of the Keepers of these Sacred Creatures, have lavish’d away no less than 100 Talents, in maintaining them whilst alive. After the pompous Funeral of Apis was over, those Priests that had the charge of the Matter, sought out another Calf, which they substituted in its stead, with the same Marks as the former; and this pass’d for a great Miracle among them, but certainly it was not difficult for evil Spirits, who might take pleasure in deceiving these People, to represent to a Cow, when she went to Bull, an Ox with those Marks, as Jacob made the Goats and Sheep of the same colours, by placing speckl’d Rods before the Eyes of the Dams at the Time of their Coition. Thus, having found an Ox to their Mind, an end was immediately put to all further Mourning and Lamentation, and the young God was led by the Priests thro’ the City of Nilopolis, fed 40 Days, and afterwards put into a Barge, in a golden Cabbin, transported to Memphis, and plac’d in Vulcan’s Grove. For the Adoration of this Ox, they give this Reason, viz. That the Soul of Osiris pass’d into the Ox Apis, and consequently into all the rest that were successively substituted in his stead: "Sepulchre of Osiris." But some say, the Members of Osiris, kill’d by Typhon, were thrown by Isis into an Ox made of Wood, and cover’d with Ox-Hides (from whence the City of Busiris took its Name;) and this, as it is reported, she did, because, as she was in search of her Husband, a very handsome Bull appear’d to her, which she believ’d to be him, and whom she afterwards caus’d to be Honour’d in Egypt, under the Figure of that Animal. Many other Things are fabulously reported of Apis, which would be too tedious to relate in particular; therefore I need only consider whether the Adoration and Worship of that Creature, came first in use from being the Sepulchre of Osiris, "Of Mycerinus’s Daughter." or from the Account Herodotus in his Euterpe gives of the Daughter of Mycerinus, bury’d in like manner, which we shall here relate, viz. That one of the Egyptian Kings, Mycerinus by Name, seeing himself depriv’d of Heirs by the Death of his Daughter and only Child, spar’d nothing whereby he might express how sensibly he was touch’d with this Loss, and consequently indeavour’d to immortalize her Memory, by the most superb and sumptuous Structure he could possibly devise. Instead therefore of a Monument he order’d a Palace to be erected for her, with a great Hall in the midst of it, adorn’d with abundance of Figures and Statues, all glittering with precious Stones. After this, he caus’d her Corps to be deposited in a Coffin of incorruptible Wood, fashion’d after the likeness of an Ox, which was cover’d all over with Plates of Gold, and had a purple Mantle cast over it. The Figure of this Ox was kneeling, having a Sun of Massy Gold between his Horns, and being enlightn’d by a Lamp hanging before him, whose Flames were fed with a most odoriferous Oil. Round about the Hall stood Perfuming-Pans and Censers, which continually threw up clouds of sweet Scents and Perfumes. In another Parlour adjoyning to this, stood about 20 great Images, partly naked and carv’d in Wood, which as the Priests report were the Concubines of Mycerinus. But some there are who speak otherwise of this Ox and those Figures, viz. That Mycerinus falling in Love with his Daughter ravish’d her, who thereupon hanging herself for Grief, her Father bury’d her in this Ox, and the Servants who betray’d the Daughter, and slew the Mother, were represented by these Images, as having been accessary to such Wickedness. This Sepulchral Story, Porus has very well delineated in Porcachius, after the manner you’ll find represented in this first Plate. But to return to the City Memphis, said to have been in circuit about 20 Miles; Greaves tells us, there is not now so much as the Ruines of any such Place to be seen, altho’ Monsieur Thevenot affirms, those pretty near the Mummies, enclining towards the Nile, are doubtless the Ruines of that City, whose Inhabitants, even at this Day, in imitation of their Ancestors, bury their Dead without the Gates, and consequently make use of the Plain for a Burying-Place. Yet Sandys avers, ’tis not likely they should carry their Dead so far, when they have as convenient a place belonging to their City, and this is also agreeable to what some of the Ancients write, viz. "Subterranean Caves." That on these Subterranean Caves the City Memphis, and several other Places thereabouts were built, as on so many Vaults or Arches. Without doubt they bury’d in both places, tho’ cheifly in the Plains of Egypt and Libya, where, in Caves and Grots under Ground, are said to be about 40 Sepulchres of their Kings. In these they were very curious, sparing no cost, but roofing them over like so many great Halls, and dividing them into several Apartments, with Passages out of one into the other, alotting also to each Family or Person, one suitable to his Quality and Expense he had been at in making them. These were like those Hypogea of the Greeks, or CryptÆ of the Romans, p. 95, 96. and are thus describ’d by Sandys, p. 103. Not far above Memphis, near the brow of the Libyan Desarts, and straitning of the Mountains, are the Sepulchres or Graves of the antient Egyptians, who have been there from the first inhabiting that Country, and who coveted that place of Burial, as suppos’d to contain the Body of Osiris. When discover’d, they are to be seen after this manner: By the removal of a certain square Stone (which is very close fitted, and cover’d over with Sand for privacy sake) a descent appears like the narrow mouth of a Well, with holes on each side of the Wall to descend by, yet which are so troublesome, that many, says Sandys, who go thither on purpose to see them, refuse to go down into them. Some of these are near 10 Fathom deep, leading into long Vaults, hewn out of Rocks, with Pillars of the same, and which seem to have belong’d to particular Families: Under every Arch lye the Bodies that have been Embalm’d, &c. Here also are several Pyramids and Obelisks to be seen, adorn’d with Hieroglyphical Inscriptions, which set forth the Riches and Power of those Kings; but these we shall more particularly treat of in another place, and therefore here only represent to you the Ichnography and Schenography of the antient Burial-Places of the Egyptians, near the Pyramids, out of which the Mummies are brought, with a Prospect of Memphis, Babylon, Cairo, &c. The Scituation and Disposition of these, I presume, will appear very plainly describ’d in this second Plate, taken out of Johannes Nardius, at the end of his Lucretius, with the Mistakes amended.

A. The Ruines of the antient City of Memphis.

B. The City of Babylon, now Grand Cairo.

C. The River Nile flowing from South to North.

D. A carv’d Stone the Cover of the Well.

E. The Well or Passage thro’ which they descended into the arch’d Chamber.

F. A Stone-Coffin carv’d with Hieroglyphicks, containing another of Wood mark’d G. which that it may be the better seen, is shown in another place, having an Image standing thereon, and some Tutelar Gods. At the Well or Passage E. a Servant holding by a Rope, descends with his Master upon his Shoulders, whom having set down at the bottom of the Well, he creeps upon his Belly through a Foramen at H. and then enters into a magnificent arch’d Chamber, in the middle of which is plac’d a Marble-Tomb, F. having a Mummy in it. Out of this, many Passages lead into other Chambers, which are so numerous and intricate, the way out is almost as difficult to find, as that of a Labyrinth.

From Memphis, the Court of the Egyptian Kings is said to have remov’d to Alexandria, and afterwards to Cairo; "Babylon." but in respect that Babylon, now Cairo, lies opposite to Memphis, as is seen at Letter B, and this second Plate thereby better describ’d, I will begin with that first. This, in opposition to the great City of Babylon in ChaldÆa, built by Semiramis, was also for distinction sake call’d the Egyptian Babylon: It is said to have been founded by Cambyses the Persian Monarch, the first that made this Kingdom stoop to the Yoke of a Foreign Power, and was by him peopled with some Babylonians or ChaldÆans transplanted thither. It stood at some distance towards the South of Cairo, where now appear nothing hardly but great Mountains of Ruines, among which many of the Christian Temples and Monasteries lye in rubbish. The Castle hereof serv’d long after for a Garrison of three Legions, appointed to defend this Country in the Time of the Romans. Adjoyning to this Castle are Store-Houses, "Granaries of Joseph." suppos’d to be of the Granaries of Joseph, which, as they say, he built, and therein laid up Corn against the ensuing Famine. In all they were seven, but now three only are standing, which are also employ’d to the same use: From hence, for the space of 20 Miles up the River, there are nothing but Ruines.

From the Ruines of this City, Babylon, Old Cairo was rais’d, being heretofore a most stately City, but now in a manner desolate, having been alter’d several Times, as the Conquerors or Lords of the Country thought fit. At length a more convenient and pleasant place of Abode was pitch’d upon, when about half a League off the Old, "New Cairo." they built New Cairo, which for a long Time has been, and at present is, the chief City or Metropolis of all Egypt. The Italians call it Alcairo, and others, by way of Excellency, Grand Cairo. It is scituate on the East side of Nile, in a very pleasant Plain, at the foot of the rocky Mountain Muccat, winding therewith, and representing the form of a Crescent. It stretches, says Sandys, p. 92. South and North, with the adjoyning Suburbs, five Italian Miles, and is in breadth scarce one and a half where it is broadest; but as to the bigness or circumference of this City, Authors differ very much, because some will have it consist of four Parts, viz. Old Cairo, New Cairo, Boulac and Charafat, which, if we compare with London, the City of Westminster and Borough of Southwark, we shall find it at least three times bigger. For it is said, the parts of Cairo, together with its Suburbs, are 10 or 12 Leagues in length, 7 or 8 in breadth, and 25 or 30 in circuit, and yet is this City so exceeding Populous, that the People pass to and fro in throngs, altho’ the Women, according to the Custom of that Country, seldom or never appear abroad. Once in seven Years ’tis visited with a terrible Pestilence, insomuch that 1000 or 1500 have dy’d in a Day, nevertheless, if not above 300000 die within the Year, the City is reckon’d to be in good Health, and there is hardly any miss of the Deceas’d. There are said to be in it 18000 Streets, 23000 Mosques, and 200000 Houses, besides several Markets, Exchanges, Hospitals, and other magnificent Structures. Every Street is known by its Name, and fortify’d with a great Gate at each end, which at Night, to prevent Tumults and Uproars, are lock’d up with wooden Locks, and open’d with a Key of the same; for here all the Locks and Keys, even of the City Gates themselves, which are plated with Iron, are made only of Wood. The number of Men, which every Night guard this City, is 28000. There is a Canal or Khalis, as they call it, which runs the whole length of the City, and conveys thro’ it Water from the Nile. At the South end it is fortify’d with a stately Castle (the Palace of the Mamaluke Sultans) scituate on the top of a Mountain, overlooking the City and a great part of the Country. It is so large it seems a City of it self, environ’d with high Walls, divided into Partitions, and enter’d by Doors of Iron, and has within it spacious Courts, which in Time past were the places of Exercise. Now the Ruines of those antient Buildings only show how sumptuous they have formerly been, for there are Pillars of solid Marble yet standing, of so immense a Magnitude, that how they came thither is not the least to be wonder’d at. ’Tis not therefore without reason that this City was nam’d Grand Cairo, which is reported in great measure to be encompass’d with a Wall, and in which, says Thevenot, there are so many curious Things to be seen, that a very large Book might be fill’d with the relation of them. Among some of the extraordinary Things to be seen at Cairo, "The Hatching of Chickens." is the artificial way of Hatching Chickens, upon which the aforesaid Author well observes, it might be thought a Fable to relate that Chickens are to be hatch’d without Hens sitting upon the Eggs, and yet a greater to say, that Chickens are sold by the Bushel, nevertheless they are both true. To effect this, they put their Eggs into Ovens, and heat them with a temperate warmth, which imitates so well the natural heat, that Chickens are form’d and hatch’d in them; but for the particular manner of this, I must refer you to Thevenot in his Travels, p. 144. where it is to be found more plainly describ’d. To Cairo are brought, over Land by the Caravan from Mecca, all sorts of Perfumes, Aromatics, precious Stones and Gums, "Drugs brought by the Caravan." such as Olibanum, Frankinsence, Mastic, Myrrh, Amber and Opobalsamum, also Indian Stuffs, Indico, and other rich and valuable Commodities. The Caravan consists of many Thousands of Pilgrims, that Travel yearly to Mecca, out of Devotion and for Traffic. That City is distant from Cairo 40 easie Days Journey, separated by a Wilderness of Sand, that lies in drifts, and is often dangerous to the Traveller, when mov’d by the Wind, thro’ which he is guided in many places by the Stars only, as Ships are in the Ocean. The whole Caravan has above 1000 Horses, Mules and Asses, and 500 Camels. These are the Ships of Arabia, and their Seas are the Desarts. The City of Mecca, Capital of Arabia FÆlix, lying near the Red Sea, is a Place of great Traffic, not only by reason of the Indian Caravans, that repair thither yearly with their Commodities, but also of the Country adjoyning, whose precious Productions have procur’d it the Name of Happy. From hence they go to Medina Talnabi, or the City of the Prophet, where in a little Chappel, lighted by 3000 Lamps that burn there perpetually, lye Mahomet, Omer and Haly, in plain Tombs of the antique Fashion, cut out like Lozenges. That of Mahomet (not hanging in the Air as is reported) is cover’d with green, having on the side a Carbuncle as big as an Egg, which yields a marvellous Lustre. These meet again the rest of the Caravan at the place appointed, as Sandys, p. 97. tells us, who gives the foregoing Account.

Five Miles North-East of the City Cairo, lyes a Village call’d El Matharia, "Matarea." where, in a Garden, is preserv’d the Balsam Plant as a great Rarity: "The Balsam Plant." Some falsly attribute the natural Production of it to this Country, and some to other Places, tho’, truly speaking, ’tis brought from Mecca in Arabia FÆlix, beyond the Red Sea, by the Turkish Pilgrims when they go to visit Mahomet’s Tomb, and so has been cultivated in several Places, and renew’d by the same means whenever it dy’d. Thus the Balsam Plant grew and prosper’d in JudÆa, as is attested by Theophrastus, Pliny, Justin, and many more; nay by Galen also, who purposely travel’d into PalÆstin to see and learn the Virtues of this Balsam of Syria; likewise from the Story of Cleopatra, who obtain’d some Plants of Balsam from Herod the Great, to transplant in Egypt. Yet that this Plant was not in JudÆa before the Time of Solomon, that great Collector of Vegetable Rarities, appears from the Account of Josephus, who relates how the Queen of Sheba, a part of Arabia, brought, among other Presents to that King, some Plants of the Balsam-Tree, as one of the most valuable Things in her Country; whereby it appears it was not an original Native Plant of JudÆa, and others affirm also that it had not its natural Growth there, utterly denying it was peculiar to that Country, or only to be seen in two Gardens about Jericho. We are to rely chiefly on the Credit and Authority of Joannes Veslingius and Prosper Alpinus, who rightly conclude the natural and original Place of this Plant to be in Arabia, about Mecca and Medina, where it still plentifully grows, and Mountains abound therewith. From hence it has been carefully transported, by the Basha’s of Grand Cairo, to the Garden of Matarea, where, when ever it dies, it is renew’d from those parts of Arabia where it grew, from whence the Grand Signior yearly receives a Present of Balsam from the Xeriff of Mecca, still call’d by the Arabians Balessan, and whence ’tis suppos’d the Greek Apellative Balsam arose. The Shrub, which produces this Liquor, is about two Cubits high, with few Leaves, like to those of Rue, always green, and somewhat inclining to white, yet which fall not off in Winter. The Wood is gummy, cleaving to the Fingers, and outwardly of a reddish colour, with Branches of the same that are long, streight, slender and odoriferous, with a few Leaves disorderly plac’d, sometimes three, five or seven together, after the manner of the Mastic-Tree: It bears a few small white Flowers, like Acatia or the Egyptian Thorn, which are of a pleasant scent, but fade in a little Time. After the Blossoms follow yellow fine scented Seeds, inclos’d in a reddish black Bladder, very sweet, and containing a yellowish Liquor like Honey: They are bitterish and a little tart on the Tongue, and of the same shape and bigness with the Fruit of the Turpentine-Tree, in the middle thick, and at the ends pointed. The Juice call’d Opobalsamum, drops in the Summer-Time from the slit of the insected Bark, which no sooner comes into the Air but it turns whitish, afterwards green, then of a gold colour, and lastly becomes paler. When ’tis first dropp’d ’tis clear, but instantly turns thick and cloudy, and when old grows like Turpentine. ’Tis at first of so strong a Smell, that in many it causes the Head-Ach, and in some a sudden bleeding at the Nose; but this strong and sharp Savour at length changes into a pleasant Scent, which in old Balsam is so weak that you can hardly discover any Smell at all.

There is another sort of Balsam brought from Cairo, in Flasks and Leather-Bottles, which is very odoriferous, yet not the pure Liquor or Gum issuing from the Bark of the aforesaid Tree, but drawn out of the Wood and green Branches by boyling. Another sort is press’d out of the Seeds, and many times sold for the right, tho’ not so strong scented nor so bitter in Taste. There is no Medicine more generally us’d by the Egyptians than the True Balsam, which they esteem a kind of Panacea for all Diseases, both external and internal, curing therewith divers sorts of Wounds, as also the bitings of venomous Creatures. They use it moreover as a Preservative against the Plague, and to drive away Agues or Fevers that proceed from Putrifaction. The Seeds and green Branches, are likewise us’d against all Distempers that the Balsam it self is: The same Virtue is ascrib’d to the Wood; but the Balsam, term’d by the Greeks, Opobalsamum, is the strongest, the Seed or Carpobalsamum more gentle, and the Wood or Xylobalsamum the weakest of all. But the chief Use of the Balsam for our Purpose, is preserving the dead Bodies of Kings and Princes; from which Quality, and on account of its Analogy with Embalming, the Art it self deriv’d its Name from it, as we shall show hereafter, when we come to speak of its Etymology: Its other Virtues, which are very many, together with a more general Description of it, the manner of extracting the Liquor, and the true signs of its Goodness when unsophisticated, I intend to treat of more fully in my Pharmacopoeia, in the Chapter of Balsams, &c. therefore shall here only insert the Draft of this Plant, which is very scarce, taken out of Prosper Alpinus de Plantis Ægyptiacis, and represented in our third Plate.

We come next, according to the Method propos’d, to speak of Alexandria, "Alexandria." so call’d from Alexander the Great, who built this City upon a Promontory, thrusting it self into the Sea, by which on the one side, and the Lake Mareotis on the other, it is exceeding well defended. Here Alexander built himself a large and stately Palace of admirable Workmanship, and all the succeeding Kings of Egypt so enlarg’d and beautify’d this City, some with Ports and Arsenals, and others with magnificent Temples, and such like rich Donations, that it was then judg’d by many to be second, if not the first City of the World; being exceeding Populous, and plentifully provided with all sorts of Provisions and other Necessaries. Diodorus Siculus tells us, when he was there, he was inform’d by those that kept the Rolls of the Inhabitants Names, that there were above 300000 Freemen, and the King receiv’d above 6000 Talents yearly Revenue. This City Alexander peopl’d with Greeks, immediately upon his Conquest of Egypt, and some of his Successors had their Residence here for 900 Years. This was the Metropolis of Egypt before Grand Cairo was built; but Alexandria is now so ruinous, says Thevenot, that many Strangers ask where it is even when they are in the middle of it, yet are there such fair remains among the Ruines, as shew it to have been a wonderful Place. One of the finest Things, now to be seen there, are the Walls, which, tho’ ruin’d, are so Magnificent, one must needs confess they have been matchless. These Walls are strengthn’d with stately ranks of Pillars, and have 118 great square Towers, with a little one betwixt every two, nay, they are so neatly contriv’d, that there are stately Casemates underneath, which may serve for Galleries and Walks: In each Tower there is a large square Hall, the Vault whereof is supported by great Pillars of Thebaic Stone; there are a great many Chambers above, and over all a large Platform, above 20 Paces square. In short, all these Towers are so many Palaces, able to contain 200 Men each. The Walls are several Foot thick, and have every-where Port-holes in them, and formerly encompass’d the antient Town, fortify’d by such Towers. Next to the Walls, the finest piece of Antiquity that has withstood the rage of Time, is the Pillar of Pompey, "Pompey’s Pillar." scituate about 200 Paces from the City, upon an Eminence or little Hill, whereby it is seen at a great distance: This Pillar stands on a square Pedestal seven or eight Foot high, and each Face about 14 Foot over; the Pedestal is fix’d on a square Base about half a Foot high and 20 broad, made of several Stones cemented together. The Body of the Pillar consists only of one Stone, which some believe to be of Granit; but Thevenot and others affirm, ’tis a sort of Cement, which, in process of Time, grew into Stone, or else was cast on the spot, for ’tis aver’d for truth, the Ancients had the Secret of casting Stones. But others absolutely deny this Stone was so made, affirming the antient Egyptians got these Pillars and Obelisks, that are to be seen at so many places in Italy, at Saide, where they pretend many have been cut out and brought by Water down the Nile: If this be true, what extraordinary Barks or Water Carriages must they have had, to bring so great a weight, and in so large a bulk, as was that of this Pillar, nay, what Engins to raise it on its Pedestal? Thevenot says, No Artificer could be found that would undertake to remove it to another place, and that it is 120 Foot high, but Le Bruyn, who measur’d it, found it to be but 90, yet as much as six Men could grasp round, which, according to his Calculation is 38 Feet. On the top is a fine Chapiter, proportionable to the bigness of the Pillar, but made of a distinct piece of Stone. ’Tis said Julius CÆsar erected this Pillar in memory of the Victory he obtain’d over Pompey.

At some Paces distant is CÆsar’s Palace, but all ruin’d, says Thevenot, except some Pillars of Porphiry that are now entire and standing, yet the Frontispiece is still pretty sound, being a very lovely piece of Architecture. About 80 Paces wide of Pompey’s Pillar is a Khalis or Canal of the Nile, dug by the antient Egyptians to bring Water to Alexandria, which has no other to drink. This, when the Nile swells and breaks down a Bank, fills the Cisterns that are purposely made under the City, and which are very magnificent and spacious; for Alexandria is all hollow underneath, being an entire Cistern, whose Vaults are supported by several fair Marble-Pillars, and upon these Arches the Houses are built. Now this Water of the Nile, so convey’d by the Khalis under the Town, is by Wheels, with Earthen Pitchers or Buckets, drawn up into the private Cisterns of each House. There are likewise to be seen at Alexandria two very stately Obelisks of Theban Marble, intermix’d or speckl’d with Veins of various colours: One of these remains entire, but so sunk into the Earth, that it appears without a Pedestal. The other is quite bury’d in the Ground, except the Pedestal only, which is about 10 Foot high; each of these are of one entire Stone, 100 Foot in height and eight in breadth, suppos’d to be larger than those at Rome, and mark’d with such like Hieroglyphical Figures.

Near these Pillars or Obelisks are the Ruins of Cleopatra’s Palace, by whose stately Chambers or Apartments, in some part remaining entire, it may reasonably be conjectur’d, it was a very superb and magnificent Building, as likewise by some remains, still to be seen on the Sea-side, of a Gallery supported by many fair Pillars, and running outwards to the Mouth of the Harbour, so that any one might embark there from the Palace. Thevenot tells us, in his Travels to the Levant, p. 125. that this City abounds with Marble, Porphiry and Thebaic Stone or Granit, as also that among the Ruins, there are several very curious Stones to be found, such as Agats, Garnets, Emeralds, &c. like to Medals, some engrav’d with Heads, others with Idols, and some with Beasts, all being different from each other, and serving heretofore for Talismen or Charms. These are so excellently well wrought, that certainly nothing now-a-days can come up to them, whereby it appears either their Engravers were wonderful Artists, or else they had the Art of casting, or at least of softning Stones; for tho’ some of these are so small one can hardly finger them, yet are they nevertheless all engrav’d or otherwise wrought to perfection.

This City of Alexandria was likewise very famous for its Academies or Colleges, endow’d with large Revenues, and planted with such Persons as were eminent in Liberal Sciences, who were drawn thither by Rewards, and cherish’d by Favours, thro’ which means Alexandria became the Parnassus of the Muses, and the School of all good Literature. The chiefest and most memorable Place of all these was the Serapion, "The Serapion." or Temple of the God Serapis, for sumptuous Workmanship and magnificent Building inferior to none but the Roman Capitol. It had a curious Portico of a Mile in length, whereto adjoyn’d a Court of Justice and a Grove: In this last, the Followers of Aristotle’s Doctrine had a peculiar School, whereof the Alexandrians, as Eusebius and Nicephorus write, would needs impose the Charge on Bishop Anatolius, for his extraordinary Knowledge in all Arts. St. Mark the Evangelist was here first Divinity-Professor, whose Successor erected a School for Theology, wherein, for the advancement of the Christian Religion, several of the most learn’d Men were appointed Readers, who scholastically handled the main and fundamental Points only: Among these was PantÆnus, who read both Divinity and Philosophy to all such as came to hear him, which, as it is conceiv’d, gave the first hint to the instituting of Universities throughout the rest of Christendom, insomuch that, from so small a beginning, the Schools of Alexandria became so great and eminent, that Nazianzen gave them the Title of ?a?t??a? pa?de?se?? ???ast?????, The Shops or Workhouses of all Learning. Here also St Jerom, St. Basil, St. Gregory and others were educated, and Philo-JudÆus likewise became eminent, for in this Academy the Jews had a flourishing and populous Synagogue; but what greatly encreas’d the glory of this Assembly, was that most wonderful Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, "Library of Ptolemy." Son of Ptolemeus Lagus, the second of that Name of the Line of the Egyptian Kings, first establish’d by him, and afterwards augmented and enrich’d by his Successors; for this King being an exceeding Lover of all Arts and Sciences, he, with great Labour and much Expence, made a Collection of all manner of Books, as well in Divinity as in all Arts, Sciences, History, and the like, some of which he obtain’d from Greece and other places, but the Pentateuch, and the rest of the Old Testament, he procur’d from JudÆa. Then wrote this King to Eleazer the High Priest, to send him six out of every Tribe to Translate this Book for the common Use. These Ptolemy receiv’d at Alexandria with exceeding great civility, and erected several convenient Mansions for them, wherein every one was by himself to Translate the Holy Law, which they so perform’d, according to the Testimonies of Josephus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius Nicephorus, St. Austin, and other learned Writers, that they not only us’d the same Sense, but the very same Words also, yet that certainly not without the special Grace and Assistance of the Holy Spirit. Now this is the Translation which bears the Name of Septuagint to this very Day. "The Septuagint." Moreover, this King sent to the Chaldeans, Romans and other Nations for Books, all which he likewise commanded to be Translated into the Greek Tongue. One Phalerius Demetrius, a Learned Athenian Exile, was Keeper of this Library, which amounted, as Agellius, Ammianus Marcellinus and Diodorus Siculus alledge, to 700000 Volumes, and was afterwards from Time to Time very much augmented by the succeeding Kings, ’till at length this invaluable Treasure of Manuscripts (for then the Art of Printing was not so much as thought of) was burn’d in the Civil Wars between Pompey and CÆsar, in the 183 Olympiad, after it had continu’d about 124 Years. This CÆsar ever after accounted the greatest of his Misfortunes, that he, who was so great a Lover of Arts and Sciences, should be Cause of the destruction of so incomparable and unparalel’d a Library.

Another Library was afterwards erected by Cleopatra in the Serapion, a Building of great Excellency and wonderful Art: This was greatly adorn’d and enrich’d by the assistance of Marc Anthony, who acquir’d the Attalian and PergamÆan Libraries, and which continu’d during the Time of the Primitive Christianity; when, in the Days of Theodosius the Great, it was demolish’d, as a harbour of Infidelity. Among other remarkable Places in this City of Alexandria, was the Seraglio call’d Somia, belonging to the Palace, famous for its being the Burial-Place of the Ptolemys, and of Alexander the Great, "Alexander’s Sepulchre." whose Body lay here inclos’d in a Sepulchre of Gold; but Cybiosactes despoil’d it of that precious Cover, after which, it was cover’d with Glass, and so remain’d to the Time of the Saracens, as Sandys, p. 87. informs us. Now since the Burial of Alexander the Great was manag’d, in all respects, suitably to his Grandeur, whereby it not only exceeded all others in regard of Expence, State and Pomp, but also in point of curiosity of Workmanship, Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 18. cap. 3. thought fit to recommend to Posterity these remarkable and entertaining Matters concerning it, viz. That to AridÆus, Bastard Son of Philip, and Brother of Alexander, whom he succeeded, the care of his Funeral, and preparing a Chariot to convey his Body to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, was commited. First therefore he provided a Coffin of beaten Gold, wrought in form and proportion to his Body: This he fill’d with Aromatic Spices, as well to delight the Senses, as to preserve the Corps from Putrifaction, and then fitted it exactly with a Cover of Gold, which again was over-spread with a purple Pall, embroider’d with Gold, and near it were plac’d the Arms of the Deceas’d, thereby to represent the Acts of his Life. Then were these plac’d in a Chariot under a Triumphal-Arch of Gold, beset with precious Stones, and supported by Pillars and Chapiters of Gold also, made after the Ionic Order. On each side the Arch stood a Golden Image of Victory bearing a Trophy, and on the top was a Gold-Fringe of Net-Work, from which hung Bells so large, that they might be heard at a great distance. Under this Portico or Arch was plac’d a four square Throne of Gold, adorn’d with little Coronets of various beautiful Colours. On every side of this Arch, from a Net-Work of Gold, a Finger thick, hung four Tables or Pannels, whereupon were pourtray’d all sorts of Creatures. In the first Table was represented Alexander sitting in a Chariot, with a Royal Scepter in his Hand, his Armour-Bearer before him, and his Life-Guards, compleatly arm’d, round about him. In the second follow’d Elephants, adorn’d in their proper Habiliments, on which sat Indians before, and Macedonians behind, arm’d according to the Customs of their respective Countries. In the third might be seen Squadrons of Horse drawn up in Battalia; and in the fourth appear’d a Fleet order’d in a Line of Battel. At the entrance into this Arch were plac’d Golden Lions, looking sternly towards those that should offer to enter. On the out-side of the Arch, and middle of the Roof, was plac’d on a purple Carpet, a Crown of Gold, so large, that by the reflection of the Sun-Beams, it darted such an amazing splendor and brightness, that at a distance it appear’d like a flash of Lightning. The whole Work was set upon two Axel-Trees, the ends of which were likewise of Gold, representing Lions Heads with Darts in their Mouths. The whole Machine was mov’d by four Wheels, whose Spokes and Naves were also over-laid with Gold, and there were four Poles to draw it by, to each of which were yok’d 16 of the largest and finest Mules that could be got, in all 64. Every Mule was adorn’d with a Crown of Gold, Bells of Gold on either side their Heads, and rich Collars about their Necks, set off and beautify’d with precious Stones. After this manner did the Chariot set forth, the sight of which was more stately and pompous than can be imagin’d, so that its Fame brought together Multitudes of Spectators; for the People out of every City, whither it was coming, met it, and then ran back again before it, never satisfy’d with the delight they took in gazing on it; and, suitable to so stately a Show, attended a vast company of Workmen and Pioneers to clear the way for its Passage. Thus AridÆus (who spent two Years in Preparations for it) brought the King’s Body from Babylon to Egypt. Ptolemy, in Honour to this great King, met the Corps with his Army as far as Syria, where he receiv’d and accompany’d it with great Respect and Observance; for he had resolv’d not to conduct it to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, but to keep it in this City which Alexander had built, being the most famous almost of any in the World. For this end he built a Temple in Honour of Alexander, in greatness and stateliness of Structure, becoming the Glory and Majesty of so great a King; and in this Repository laid the Body, and honour’d his Exequies with Sacrifices and magnificent Shows, agreeable to the State of a Demi-God: Thus much for the glorious Sepulchre and Burial of the greatest Monarch perhaps that ever liv’d. Next we shall take notice of two Physiological Observations on the Earth and Water of Egypt, made by Father Vansleb in his Voyage thither, p. 109. 111. where, speaking of Alexandria, he tells us the Earth thereabouts is full of Nitre, which is easily prov’d by the following Experiment, viz. That if you take a piece of Earth and set it in the hot Sun, it will become white as Snow on that side that is towards the Sun. Also in the Grand Signior’s Salt-Pits, that are out of this City, near the Khalis or Chanel of Cleopatra, he took notice of two things very remarkable: First, That the Water of Nile, the sweetest and freshest in the World, makes a Salt, not only whiter than ordinary, but likewise very excellent. Secondly, That this Salt has the taste of Violets. The last thing, but not the least, that I have to say of Alexandria, "Isle of Pharos." is concerning the famous Isle of Pharos, which stands over-against the City, and was formerly a Mile distant from the Land, but joyn’d to the Continent by Cleopatra, on the following occasion, says Heylin, p. 849. The Rhodians, then Lords of the Sea, us’d to exact some Tribute or Acknowledgement from every Island within those Seas, and consequently from this: Their Embassadors, upon this Occasion, sending to Cleopatra to demand this Tribute, she deferr’d it for seven Days, under pretence of celebrating a Solemn Festival, but in the mean Time, by raising huge Dams and Banks in the Sea, both with incredible charge and speed, she united the Island to the Shoar, which finish’d, she sent away the Rhodians empty-handed, with this witty Jeer, That they were to take Toll of the Islands, and not of the Continent. A Work of great rarity and magnificence this, both for its extent, taking up the space of seven Furlongs, and thence call’d Heptastadium, and the incredible speed wherewith it was finish’d. Upon a Promontory hereof, on a Rock, environ’d by the Sea, Ptolemy Philadelphus caus’d a Watch-Tower to be built for the benefit of Sailors, (the Seas upon that Coast being very unsafe and full of Flats) to guide them over the Bar of Alexandria. This Pharos or Watch-Tower was of wonderful height, ascended by Steps, and having many Lanthorns at the top, wherein Lights burn’d nightly, as a Direction to such as sail’d by Sea; yet oftentimes the multitude of Lights appearing a far off as one, and being mistaken for a Star, procur’d contrary effects to the promis’d Safety. This had the repute of the Worlds seventh Wonder, call’d after the Name of the Island, and is at this Day a general Name for such Towers as serve to that purpose. The Materials of it were white Marble, and the chief Architect Sostratus of Gnidos, who grav’d upon it this Inscription: Sostratus of Gnidos, Son of Dixiphanes, to the Gods Protectors for the safeguard of Sailors. This Inscription he cover’d over with Plaister, and inscrib’d thereon the Name and Title of the King, Founder of this Tower, to the end that when the King’s Name should be wasted and wash’d away, his own, which was cut on Marble, might be celebrated to Eternity.

To the South side of the City of Alexandria, near the Lake Mareotis, wherein the Sepulchres of King Moeris and his Wife were Pyramidically built, adjoins the Labyrinth, "The Labyrinth." not much inferior to that Structure, as will appear from that Description given by Sandys, p. 88. where he tells us, ‘That in the midst of this Labyrinth were 37 Palaces, belonging to the 37 Jurisdictions of Egypt; to which resorted the several Presidents to celebrate the Festivals of their Gods (who had herein their particular Temples, moreover 15 Chapels, containing each a Nemesis) and also to advise of Matters of Importance relating to the Public Good. The Passages thereunto were thro’ Caves of a miraculous length, full of dark and winding Paths, and Rooms within one another, having many Doors to confound the Memory and distract the Intention, and leading into inextricable Error: Now mounting aloft, and then again re-descending, not seldom turning about Walls infolded within each other, in the form of intricate Mazes, not possible to thred or get out of without a Conductor. The Building was more under Ground than above, being all of massy Stone, and laid with that Art, that neither Cement nor Wood was us’d in any part of the Fabric. The end at length being attain’d, a pair of Stairs of 90 Steps, conducted into a stately Portico, supported by Pillars of Theban Marble, and this again gave entrance into a spacious Hall, the place of general Conventions. All this Hall was of polish’d Marble, and adorn’d with Statues both of Gods and Men. The Chambers were so dispos’d, that upon their opening, the Doors gave Reports no less terrible than Thunder. The first Entrance was of white Marble within, adorn’d throughout with Marble Columns, and divers Figures.’ Dedalus is said to have imitated this, in that Labyrinth he built in Crete, yet expressing hereof scarce the Hundredth part; for, as Heylin observes, it fell as short of the Glories of this, as Minos was inferior to Psammiticus (the Founder) in Power and Riches. ‘Whoso mounted the top, should see as it were a large Plan of Stone, and withal, those 37 Palaces environ’d with solid Pillars, and Walls consisting of Stone of a mighty size. At the end of this Labyrinth stood a square Pyramid of a marvelous breadth and answerable height, being the Sepulchre of King Ismandes that built it.’ "By whom, and to what end built." But who built this Labyrinth, and to what end, Authors differ very much, and Pliny, who writes a great deal of it, gives no certain Reason why it was made. ’Tis said it was first built by King Petesucus or Tithoes, altho’ Herodotus affirms ’twas the Work of all the Kings, and lastly of Psammiticus. The cause of building it is as variously reported: Demoteles thinks it to have been the Palace of Motherudis; Lycias, that it was the Sepulchre of Moeris (of which Opinion is also Diodorus) but most believe ’twas built as sacred to the Sun. Bellonius thinks it to have been a Sepulchre rather than any thing else, for such like magnificent Works, as was also the Mausoleum, were commonly rais’d for that end, and Herodotus clearly describes this wonderful Labyrinth to have been built for a Sepulchre, telling us, ‘The Kings of Egypt, where they perform’d their Sacred Rites, resolv’d to leave a common Monument of themselves, therefore in that Place, which is a little above the Lake of Moeris, and near the City of Crocodiles, they built a Labyrinth, which Herodotus himself saw, and which he says was much bigger than Fame had represented it; for if any one should reason with himself about the Walls and nature of this Work, according to the Narration of the Greeks, he would never conceive the Labour and Charge of this Labyrinth. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus is very well worth mentioning, yet are the Pyramids far greater, the least of which equals the largest Labour of the Grecians; and tho’ this Labyrinth likewise excels them, yet does the Lake Moeris, near which it is built, and the Description of which you have at p. 141. afford much greater admiration.’ The former of these, viz. the Labyrinth, is said to have been for the Sepulchre of those Kings that built it, and for the Sacred Crocodiles; and the latter to contain the Sepulchres of King Moeris and his Wife.

Not to describe particularly that prodigious Wall built by Sesostris, which defended the East side of Egypt, against the Irruptions of the Syrians and Arabians, being 1500 Furlongs in length, and extending from Pelusium by the Desart as far as Heliopolis; we come next to speak of those famous Walls belonging to the City of Babylon in Chaldea, built by Semiramis the Wife of Ninus, a Princess, who being naturally of an high aspiring Spirit, was ambitious of excelling all others in glorious Actions. So soon therefore as she had bury’d her Husband Ninus, "Ninus his Sepulchre." King of Assyria, in the Royal Palace, and rais’d over him a Mound of Earth of wonderful bigness, which as Ctesias reports, standing at some distance from the City that lay in the Plain, appear’d like a stately Cittadel, being 9 Furlongs high and 10 broad: She provided her self of 2000000 Artists and Workmen to build this City of Babylon in one Year, "Babylon in Chaldea." so ordering it that the River Euphrates should flow thro’ the midst of it, as Diod. Siculus, Lib. 2. cap. 1. informs us. She next encompass’d it with a Wall as many Furlongs in circuit as there are Days in the Year, viz. 365: This Wall was 300 Foot high and 75 broad, insomuch that Coaches might meet and turn upon it; She adorn’d it with 250 Turrets of suitable proportion: Then she made a Bridge 5 Furlongs in length, over the narrowest part of the River, and Floor’d it with great Joists and Planks of Cedar, Cypress and Palm-Tree, 30 Foot long: At each end of this Bridge, just on the Brink of the River, she built a Palace, whence she might have a Prospect of the whole City: Then in a low Ground she sunk a four square Pond, every Square being 300 Furlongs and the depth of the whole 35 Foot, lining it with Bricks, cemented together with a sort of Bitumen of a very glutinous Nature like Asphalt, which work’d out of the Earth so plentifully thereabouts, that it not only supply’d the People with Fuel, but serv’d them also instead of Mortar for their Buildings, and with which both the Palaces and Walls of this City were cemented. Afterwards, by turning the River aside, she made a Passage in the nature of a Vault from one Palace to another, and then let the Water again into its former Channel, which immediately overflow’d the whole Work, by which means she could go under the River when she had not a mind to pass over it. She likewise made two brazen Gates, one at each end of this Vault, as also Banqueting-Houses of Brass, into which passages were open’d by certain Engins. Here might be seen brazen Statues of Ninus, Semiramis and all the great Officers, as likewise Armies drawn up in Battalia. These Palaces were moreover surrounded with Walls, 30 Furlongs in circuit, with Turrets on them 140 Yards high, on whose Bricks were pourtray’d, before they were burn’d, all kinds of living Creatures, with great Art and curious Painting, particularly a general Hunting of all sorts of wild Beasts, each Beast being four Cubits high: Among these was Semiramis on Horseback, striking a Leopard thro’ with a Dart, and near her Ninus her Husband peircing a Lion with his Lance.

In the middle of the City she built a Temple to Jupiter Belus of exceeding great height, "Temple of Belus." by the advantage of which, the Chaldean Astrologers observ’d the setting and rising of the Stars. Upon the top of it she plac’d three Statues of Jupiter, Juno and Rhea, all of beaten Gold. That of Jupiter was about 40 Foot high, and Juno held in her hand a Scepter adorn’d with precious Stones. These three Statues weigh’d 2830 Babylonish Talents, and for these Deities, there were plac’d on an Altar of beaten Gold, 40 Cubits long and 15 broad, Censors, Cups and Drinking-Bowls of Gold likewise, weighing at least 3230 Talents. Besides the richness of this City, it was so vast and great that Aristotle said, it ought rather to have been call’d a Country, adding withal, that when the Town was taken, it was three Days before the farthest part had notice of it.

Here likewise was the Pensil Garden so much fam’d, being 400 Foot square, with an ascent to it like to the top of a Mountain, and having Buildings and Apartments out of one into another, like a Theatre. Under the Steps of the Ascent were Arches, gradually rising one above another, and supporting the whole Building, the highest Arch upon which the Platform of the Garden was laid being 50 Cubits high, and the Garden it self surrounded with Battlements and Walls 22 Foot in thickness. The whole Fabric was floor’d over with massy Stones, 16 Foot long and 4 broad, and these again cover’d with Reeds run over with Bitumen, upon which were laid double Tiles, set together with hard Plaster, and those cover’d with Sheet-Lead, that the wet which should drain thro’ the Earth might not rot the Foundation. Upon all these was laid Earth of a convenient depth, which was planted with all sorts of Trees, that for largeness and beauty might delight the Spectators. The Arches had in them many stately Rooms of all kinds, and for all purposes; one of these had a certain Engin, that drew plenty of Water out of the River for watering the Garden, after such manner as none above knew how it was done. This Garden was built in latter Ages by Cyrus, at the request of a Persian Courtesan, who, coveting Meadows on the tops of Mountains, desir’d the King, by an artificial Plantation, to imitate the Land in Persia.

Semiramis built other Cities on the Banks of Euphrates and Tigris, and likewise caus’d a great Stone to be cut out of the Mountains of Armenia, 125 Foot in length and 5 in breadth and thickness, which she convey’d to the River by the help of many yokes of Oxen and Asses, and there putting it on board a Ship, brought it to Babylon, where she set it up in the most remarkable Place, as a wonderful Spectacle to all Beholders. "Obelisk of Semiramis." This from its shape was term’d an Obelisk, signifying in Greek, a Spit, and accounted, says Diodorus, one of the seven Wonders of the World; from whence we have a very good Argument, that the Egyptian Obelisks were cut out of Rocks or Quarries, and not cast as some have suppos’d. Semiramis having finish’d these Works, went to the Mountain Bagistan in Media, which is 17 Furlongs from top to bottom, and there caus’d her own Image to be carv’d on the side of the Rock, and 100 of her Guards with Lances round about her. She also made a Garden on the middle of an exceeding high Rock, and built therein stately Houses of Pleasure, from whence she might have both a delightful Prospect into her Garden, and view her Army encamp’d below on the Plain: Likewise that she might leave behind her a lasting Monument of her Name, she in a short Time, yet at vast expence, made a shorter Passage towards Ecbatana, for by hewing down the Rocks, and filling up the Valleys, she laid that Way open and plain, which to this Day is call’d Semiramis’s Way. She plentifully supply’d Ecbatana with wholsome Waters, by means of a Canal she dug, 15 Foot over and 40 Foot deep, beginning from the foot of the Mountain Orontes, and as she went thro’ Persia and Asia, she plain’d all along the way before her, levelling both Rocks and Mountains. On the other hand, in Champagne Countries, she rais’d Eminences, whereon she either built Towns and Cities, or else Sepulchres for her Officers and great Commanders. Many other wonderful Things were done by this Queen, which seem to exceed common Belief; but as for those more admirable Works of the Egyptians, Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny and others are full of Relations of what they have been, and the present Remains of some of them at Rome are sufficient Arguments to evince there were such, so that we should but loose Time in endeavouring to prove that which we now hope every one is satisfied of. Our next business therefore, must be to enquire how these Arts came first to be found out, and by what means they were accomplish’d and brought to so great Perfection: What these Arts and Sciences were, suppos’d by Authors to have been found out by the Egyptians, I have already shown else-where, so shall here only add, that Hermes or Mercury is reported by Diodorus Siculus and other Writers, to have been the chief Inventor of them; but as no Art was ever invented and compleated at one Time, so neither was it ever invented and perfected by one Person so far, but another could add somewhat more commodious or advantagious to it.

Now, as to the first Invention of Things, I shall consider these three principal Causes: "Arts how first Invented." First, Necessity is said to have been the Mother of Invention, by reason it puts Mens Minds upon thinking how to supply their Wants, with such Things, and after such manner as they have most occasion for. Secondly, Unexpected Experiments, as when you aim and try to find out one Thing, and accidentally light on another: Thus ’tis said Gun-Powder and divers other considerable Things have been found out by Chance, and innumerable others by experimental Chymistry. Thirdly, Natural Philosophy, or Observation of the Instincts of all living Creatures, has suggested many noble Thoughts and Fancies to Men, both for Imitation and Invention. Now tho’ we cannot assert that Men at first learn’d Architecture from the Beaver, which builds himself a House for shelter and security in the Winter Time, yet are we certain they took the several Ornaments of Building either from Birds, Beasts and Fishes, or from the Leaves, Flowers and Fruits of Plants. Thus the Grecians generally us’d the Leaves of ^[5]Acanthus, and the Jews those of Palm-Trees and Pomegranates in their Buildings. Nor is it less probable their Weaving might be found out from the Spider or Silk-Worm, than that the Fish call’d Nautilus, or the little Mariner, was Navigiorum Archetipus, the first Type or Pattern of a Ship, who when he is to Swim, contracts his Body and Finns into the form of a Galley under Sail. From the sight whereof, some (as Pliny conceives) took the first hint of framing a Ship, as from the sight of a Kite flying in the Air, who turns and steers his Body with his Tail (as Fishes also do in the Water) some have devis’d the Stern and Rudder of a Ship. Iidem videntur Artem gubernandi docuisse CaudÆ flexibus, in CÆlo monstrante Natura quod opus esset in profundo, Pliny Lib. 10. cap. 10. They seem to have taught Men the Art of Steering a Ship by the flexures of their Tails, Nature shewing in the Air what was needful to be done in the Deep. ’Tis also observ’d by that great Naturalist Mr. Ray, that the Trunk of a Bird’s Body does somewhat resemble the Hull of a Ship, the Head the Prow, which is for the most part small, that it may the more easily cut the Air, and the Tail serves to steer, govern and direct its flight. We read there was a Beast in Egypt call’d Cynocephalus, of a very strange kind, kept in the Temple of Serapis, which, during the Time of the two Equinoxes, made Water 12 Times in a Day, and as often in the Night, regularly and at even Spaces of Time; from the Observation of which, they divided the Natural Day into 24 Hours, that Beast being as it were their Clock and Dial, both to divide their Day, and reckon their Hours by. This probably gave Ctesibius of Alexandria an hint to invent the ClepsydrÆ or Water Glasses, which distinguish’d the Hours by the fall or dropping of Water, as ClepsammidiÆ or Sand-Glasses did by the running of Sand; and to shew they ow’d the Invention of these Water-Glasses to the Cynocephalus, they us’d to carve one on the top of them, as may be seen in Kircher in Mechanica Ægyptiaca. Now Egypt was both in respect of its Scituation as well as natural production of curious Things, a mighty help to the Invention and improvement of Arts and Sciences; for as Casalius de veter. Ægypt. Ritibus, p. 35. tells us, Arithmetic was first found out by their great Commerce, and Geometry from the River Nile’s Annual over-flowing the Fields, and removing their Bound-Marks, which occasion’d great Disputes among them, so that by the frequent measuring of the Ground it was deriv’d into this Art. And as for Astrology, the quality of the Climate and scituation of the Country was such, as gave them an advantage above others, more clearly to discern the rising and setting of the Stars, for by reason of the perpetual Serenity of the Air, they found out the Course of the Sun, Moon and Stars, with their Constellations, Aspects and Influences, and moreover by their often Worshipping those Planets, beheld and contemplated them more seriously, and from thence became the most skillful Astrologers in the World, as Firmianus Divin. instit. Lib. 2. cap. 14. says: Hereby also being made more perspicacious, and observing of natural Things, they invented Physick, for, as Prosper Alpinus, "Physic, how first found out." Lib. de Medicina Ægyptiorum reports, They took the hints of curing divers Diseases from brute Beasts and Animals. Thus Phlebotomy or Bleeding was found out from the Hippopotomos or River-Horse, which lives in the Nile, for when this Beast is grown over fat with continual Gluttony and Gormandizing, he searches out for a sharp pointed Reed on the Banks of the River, and having found one fit for his purpose, sticks it into his Thigh, and wounds a certain Vein there; when having sufficiently emty’d his Plethoric Body by Bleeding, he closes, and as it were plasters up the Orifice with Mud. Also that a certain Bird call’d Ibis, about the Banks of Nile, first taught the Egyptians the way of administring Clysters; for this Bird has been often observ’d, by means of his crooked Bill intromitted into the Anus, to inject salt Water, as with a Syringe, into its own Bowels, and thereby to exonerate its Paunch when too much obstructed. Dogs are commonly known when Sick to Vomit themselves by eating Grass. Swine, so soon as they perceive themselves ill, refuse their Meat, and so recover by Abstinence. ’Tis reported the wild Goat taught the use of the Dictamnus, for drawing out of Darts and healing Wounds, and the Swallow the use of Celandine for recovering the Sight; whence we may as well infer, that from the diversity of Bodies, such as Flies, Spiders, Gnats, Bees, Pismires, Grashoppers, Locusts, Frogs, &c. inclos’d in Amber, the Egyptians might first learn the Art of Embalming; "How Embalming." but since these things appear rather Fabulous, and the pleasant Flights of acute Wits and inquisitive Naturalists, than solid Truths to be rely’d on, we must have recourse to the fourth Cause, viz. That their Opinion of the Metemsychosis or Transmigration of the Soul, and other such like religious Principles, first oblig’d them to study this Art, and perhaps the known Virtues of Opobalsamum, so good against Mortifications and Putrifactions, might suggest to them the use of it in preserving the Bodies of Princes, as the Balsamic, Sulphurous and Bituminous Nature of their Asphalt, taught them to use that for the poorer sort of People; besides, whatever way it was first found out, it was as easie for them to do it as for us to believe it, says Gabriel Clauderus in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 41. because they excell’d all other Nations in Learning and Invention, so that by applying themselves with the utmost diligence to the study of this Art, they could not fail of attaining the perfection of it, especially since this Region was, above all others, the best accommodated with an extraordinary fruitfulness and plenty of Aromatic and Medicinal Things, necessary as well for all Physical Uses as for the decent performing of their Embalmings. Now Sandys, p. 38. tells us abundance of Practitioners in Physic are frequently invited to Cairo by the great store of Simples there growing. Add to this the extraordinary Diligence of the Egyptian Kings and Priests, both in rewarding Arts and being solicitously intent on finding out the Nature of Things themselves, not by indulging Superstition, but by a strict search and scrutiny, not trusting to plausible Appearances, but only to Experiments and Demonstration. To prove this we shall show such infallible Methods for the Invention and Improvement of all Arts and Sciences, that they could not easily miscarry in their Designs; for besides the famous Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that in the Temple of Serapis, there was at Cairo, as Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Ægyptiorum relates, a University or place of Study call’d Gemelhazar, which paid yearly out of the public Stock of the Academy 300000 pieces of Gold for Books, Food, Stipends, &c.

The Invention of Arts and Sciences may be partly imputed to the goodness of their Laws, "Goodness of their Laws." and their strictness in observing them; the Egyptians alledging this as an undeniable Argument, that the best Laws were made and instituted among them, in that the Native Kings had Reign’d in Egypt for the space of above 4700 Years, and that their Country during all that Time had been the most prosperous and flourishing in the World, which could never have been so if the Inhabitants had not been civiliz’d and brought up under good Laws, and a liberal Education in all kinds of Arts and Sciences. To effect this therefore they divided their People into three Orders: First, Priests. Secondly, Artificers and Husbandmen. And, Thirdly, Military Persons or Souldiers. Now each Person strictly keeping to his own Province, Art flourish’d in a right Line, and Sciences were not attack’d by rustic and ignorant Pretenders, but only practis’d by Priests, who were the chief of their Nobility, and liv’d separate from all others least their Learning should be any ways divulg’d. Nor was it lawful for any but Priests Sons to enter the Colleges where these Sciences were taught, whereby the more polite Knowledge was secur’d to the Priests, and mechanic Arts and Trades practis’d only by the inferior People. Now the better to effect and propagate this, they had three Laws that mightily encourag’d the Study and Invention of Arts, on which their chief Felicity depended, as Diodorus Siculus witnesses. First, In that they honour’d and esteem’d all such as were the first Inventors and Promoters of useful Things. Secondly, In that he who pretended to more Arts than one, incurr’d a most grievous Punishment. And, Thirdly, In that every one was oblig’d to appear annually before the Governour of the Province to show how he got his Living, which if he could not prove, or was found to subsist by unjust means, he was infallibly punish’d with Death. Thus all Men were employ’d, "Arts most flourishing in the Reign of Amasis." and every Art carry’d to the highest perfection in the Reign of Amasis, who enacted the third Law. Now, as a further Argument of the Egyptian Industry, hear what Fl. Vopiscus relates of the Alexandrians: Civitas, says he, [Alexandria] opulenta, dives, fÆcunda, in qua Nemo vivit otiosus, alii Vitrum conflant, ab aliis Charta conficitur, alii Linyphiones sunt: Omnes certe cujuscunque Artis & videntur & habentur; Podagrosi quod agant habent, habent cÆci quod faciant, ne Chiragrici quidem apud eos otiosi vivunt. "Alexandria, how Industrious and Flourishing." Alexandria is a plentiful and opulent City, in which none live idle: Some blow Glass, others make Paper, a third sort weave Linnen, and in a word, all have some Trade or Work. Those that have the Gout in their Feet or are Blind have something to do, and even such as have the Gout in their Hands are not idle. This shows how every Art was cultivated: Likewise their Industry and number of Hands as plainly prove the facility of performing those seemingly incredible and stupendious Works, which has taken us up so much Time to relate; for ’tis said, throughout the whole Country of Egypt, "Egypt, its number of Cities and Inhabitants." in the Reign of Amasis, there were reckon’d no fewer than 20000 Cities, and that it was esteem’d the most populous Country of the World. Diodorus Siculus tells us it had in it above 18000 Cities, as might be seen register’d in their Sacred Records; and in the Time of Ptolemeus Lagus there remain’d above 3000. Once, they say, in a general Census taken of all the Inhabitants, they amounted to Seven Millions, and even at the Time of Diodorus, there were no less than Three Millions of People, "How it came to be so numerous." which wonderful Encrease some think might be effected by the constant drinking of the Nile Water, which had the Virtue of making the Egyptian Women Prolific, so as commonly to bring forth three or four Children at a Birth. This may a little abate the wonder, how the Children of Israel could multiply to that degree in so short a space, that in 430 Years, from 70 Persons, which came with Jacob into Egypt, he became a mighty Nation; for it is said, at their departure, there journey’d, from Rameses to Succoth, about 600000 Men, besides Women and Children. Now how populous the Land from whence they came was, may be collected not only from their commanding such mighty Powers as were under them, but also, as has been before observ’d, from the several Accounts of that Kingdom, given us by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus; for it is reported that Sesac or Sesonchis arm’d 400000 Foot, 60000 Horse and 1200 Chariots against Rehoboam, and that King Cheops or Chemnis employ’d 360000 Men in erecting one of the Pyramids. ’Tis also farther said, they built other stupendious Works, such as the Labyrinth, Obelisks, Colossus’s, &c. "By what Means such wonderful Works were perform’d," as not knowing otherwise how to expend their Treasure or employ their People, thro’ which means their Kings, by their great Riches and infinite numbers of Men, left behind them such eternal Monuments of their State and Grandure, which altho’ they bear the name of Wonders to this very Day, as seeming very difficult to have been perform’d, yet were such Works render’d easie enough, if we consider so vast a multitude of Hands as were employ’d about them, and this being rightly consider’d, we may well enough believe what Herodotus says of Egypt, That it had more wonderful Works than all the Nations of the World besides.

Thus having shown how the Egyptians were the first Inventors and Propagators of Arts and Sciences, we will next show to what end they built those admirable Structures with so great Labour and Expence, thinking not as Aristotle, Lib. 3. Polit. who makes them to have been the Works of Tyranny, or as Pliny, Lib. 26. cap. 12. conjectures, that they built them partly out of Ostentation, and partly out of State-Policy, to divert their People from Mutinies and Rebellion by keeping them employ’d, but that they erected them as Repositories for their Dead, which they did from a Belief they had of the Immortality of the Soul, and an Opinion they held of the Metempsychosis or Transmigration of it from one Body to another: ’Tis true, those Arguments alledg’d by Pliny might be Secondary Motives, yet says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 45. the true Reason depends upon higher and more weighty Considerations, "Theology of the Egyptians, or Metempsychosis." springing from the Theology of the Egyptians, who as Servius shews in his Comment on these words of Virgil, Lib. 3. Æneid. where that Poet describes the Funeral of Polydorus,

believ’d, That as long as the Body endur’d so long should the Soul continue with it, which also was the Opinion of the Stoicks: Hence the Egyptians, skilful in Wisdom, keep their Dead embalm’d so much the longer, to the end the Soul may for a long while continue with the Body, lest it should quickly pass into another. The Romans acted quite contrary, burning their Dead, that the Soul might suddenly return into the generality of Things, that is, into its own Nature; wherefore, says Greaves, that the Body might not either by Putrifaction be reduc’d to Dust, out of which it was first form’d, or by Fire be converted to Ashes (as the manner of the Greeks and Romans was) the Egyptians invented curious Compositions, besides intombing their Dead in stately Repositories, thereby to preserve them from Rottenness, and render them Eternal. Nec cremare, aut fodere fas putant, verum arte Medicatos intra penetralia collocant, says Pomponius Mela, Lib. 1. cap. 9. Also Herodotus in Thalia gives the Reason why they neither burn’d nor bury’d their Dead, for discoursing in his third Book of the Cruelty of Cambyses, and his commanding the Body of Amasis, an Egyptian King, should be taken out of his Sepulchre, be whipp’d and us’d with all contumely; he reports, after all this he order’d it to be burn’d, Commanding that which was not Holy, for the Persians imagin’d the Fire to be a God, "Fire thought by the Persians a God." and neither the Egyptians nor they were accustom’d to burn their Dead: The Persians, for the Reason before alleg’d, because they conceiv’d it unfit for a God to devour the Carcass of a Man; and the Egyptians, because they were persuaded the Fire was a living Creature, "By the Egyptians a living Creature." devouring all Things it receiv’d, and after it was satisfy’d with Food, dy’d with that it had devour’d. Nor was it their Custom to give their dead Bodies to Beasts (as the Hyrcanians were wont to do) but to Embalm or Salt them, not only for this Reason, but also that they might not be consum’d with Worms. The term ta???e?e??, i. e. Salting or Embalming the Dead, us’d by Herodotus, is also us’d by Baruch and Plato. Lucian likewise in his Discourse de Luctu, treating of the several kinds of Burial practis’d by divers Nations, says, The Grecians burn their Dead, the Persians bury them, the Indians anoint them with the Fat of Swine, the Scythians eat them, and the Egyptians (ta???e?e?) Embalm them: Which manner likewise is alluded to by M. Aurelius Antoninus, under the word t??????: His Words are these, That which the other Day was excrementitious Matter, shall within few Days either be t??????, an Embalm’d Body, or down right Ashes; in the one expressing the Custom of the Egyptians, and in the other that of the Romans. By Salting or Embalming the Soul, according to the Belief of the Egyptians, was oblig’d to abide with the Body, and the Body on its part became as durable as Marble, insomuch that Plato, who liv’d in Egypt with Eudoxus no less than 13 Years, as Strabo witnesses, brings it for an Argument, in his PhÆdon, to prove the Immortality of the Soul, thro’ the long duration of these Bodies, which surely would have been yet more conclusive with him, could he but have imagin’d they should have continu’d so solid and entire even to this Day, as we find many of them are: For this Reason St. Austin "Egyptians believ’d the Resurrection." truly affirms the Egyptians had a Belief of the Resurrection, in that they carefully preserv’d their Dead; for they had a Custom among them of drying up the Bodies, and rendring them as durable as Brass: These, in their Language they call’d Gabbares, whence the gloss of Isidore, Gabbares mortuorum in Vulcanius his Edition, or as Spondanus de CÆmet. sacris, Lib. 1. pars 1. cap. 5. reads, Gabbares mortuorum condita Corpora.

The manner how the Egyptians prepar’d and Embalm’d these Bodies is very copiously, and by what I observ’d at my being there, says Greaves in his Pyramidographia, p. 48. faithfully describ’d by Herodotus and Diodorus; in which Matter, tho’ I cannot totally dissent from Mr. Greaves, for their Account may be true, yet is it not so copious as they make it, but imperfectly related, or at least so far that some Passages are hardly to be understood or made out, which may easily be allow’d without Reflection on those famous Men, since they treated of the Matter only as Historians and not as Physicians: My business therefore shall be, after relating their own Words, to reconcile their Differences, explain the Difficulties, and compare the Opinions of Annotators and Physicians on this Art, and lastly, to suggest some new Thoughts, as plausible, and perhaps as true as any, especially since it is all but guesswork, and the true Art may have entirely perish’d with the antient Egyptians, either by Inundation, Fire, Irruptions of Enemies, or other hostile Devastations. I will begin first with Herodotus, whose Words serve as well to shew the several Ceremonies of Sepulture as their Embalmings, and whom we find in his Second Book call’d Euterpe, thus speaking of the Egyptians:

Their Mourning, says he, and manner of Burial are after this kind: When any Man of Quality dies, all the Women of that Family besmear their Heads and Faces with Dirt; then leaving the Body at home, they go lamenting up and down the City with all their Relations, their Apparel being girt about them, and their Breasts left naked. On the other hand the Men, having likewise their Cloaths girt about them, beat themselves. These things being done, they carry the dead Body to be Embalm’d; for which, there are certain Persons appointed who profess this Art. These, when the Body is brought to them, shew to those that bring it certain Models of Wood, painted like the Dead Person that is to be Embalm’d. One of these they say is accurately made (which I think not lawful to name;) then they shew a second inferior to it and of an easier Price, and next a third cheaper than the former, and of a very small value, which being seen, they ask them what Pattern they will have the dead Body prepar’d by: When they have agreed on the Price they depart, and those with whom the dead Corps is left proceed to Embalm it after the following manner: First of all they, with a crooked Iron, draw the Brain out of the Head thro’ the Nostrils, and then fill up the Cavity with Medicinal Ingredients. Next, with a sharp Æthiopic Stone, they cut up that part of the Abdomen call’d the Ilia, and that way draw out all the Bowels, which having cleans’d and wash’d with Palm-Wine, they again rinse and wash with Wine perfum’d with pounded Odours; then filling up the Belly with pure Myrrh and Cassia grosly powder’d, and all other Odours except Frankincense, they sow it up again. Having so done, they salt it up close with Nitre 70 Days, for longer they may not salt it. After this number of Days are over, they wash the Corps again, and then roul it up with fine Linnen all besmear’d with a sort of Gum commonly us’d by the Egyptians instead of Glue. Then is the Body restor’d to its Relations, who prepare a wooden Coffin for it, in the shape and likeness of a Man, and then put the Embalm’d Body into it, and thus inclos’d place it in a Repository in the House, setting it upright against the Wall. After this manner they with great expence preserve their Dead, whereas those who to avoid too great a Charge desire a mediocrity, thus Embalm them: They neither cut the Belly nor pluck out the Entrails, but fill it with Clysters of Oil of Cedar injected up the Anus, and then salt it the aforesaid number of Days. On the last of these they press out the Cedar Clyster, by the same way they had injected it, which has such Virtue and Efficacy that it brings out along with it the Bowels wasted, and the Nitre consumes the Flesh, leaving only the Skin and Bones: Having thus done, they restore the dead Body to the Relations, doing nothing more. The third way of Embalming is for those of yet meaner Circumstances: They with Lotions wash the Belly, then dry it with Salt for 70 Days, and afterwards deliver it to be carry’d away. Nevertheless, beautiful Women and Ladies of Quality were not deliver’d to be Embalm’d till three or four Days after they had been dead. Ea de causa facientes, ne cum FÆminis isti Salinarii concumbant. Deprehensum enim quendam aiunt coeuntem cum recenti Cadavere Muliebri, delatumq; ab ejusdem Artificii Socio. But if any Egyptian or Stranger was either kill’d by a Crocodile, or drown’d in the River, the City where he was cast up was to Embalm and bury him honourably in the Sacred Monuments, whom no one, no, not a Relation or Friend, but the Priests of Nile only might touch, because they bury’d one who was something more than a dead Man.

Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. relates the Funeral Ceremonies of the Egyptians more distinctly and clearly, and with some very remarkable Circumstances. When any one among the Egyptians dies, says he, all his Relations and Friends, putting Dirt upon their Heads, go lamenting about the City, till such time as the Body shall be bury’d. In the mean time they abstain from Baths and Wine, and all kinds of delicate Meats, neither do they during that time wear any costly Apparel. The manner of their Burials is threefold; one very costly, a second sort less chargable, and a third very mean. In the first, they say, there is spent a Talent of Silver, in the second 20 MinÆ, but in the last there is very little Expence. Those who have the care of ordering the Body, are such as have been taught that Art by their Ancestors. These shewing to the Kindred of the Deceas’d a Bill of Expences of each kind of Burial, ask them after what manner they will have the Body prepar’d; when they have agreed upon the matter, they deliver the Body to such as are usually appointed for this Office. First he who has the name of Scribe, laying it upon the Ground, marks about the Flank on the left side, how much is to be cut away. Then he who is call’d the Cutter or Dissector, with an Æthiopic Stone, cuts away as much of the Flesh as the Law commands, and presently runs away as fast as he can: Those who are present persuing him, cast Stones at him, and curse him, hereby turning all the Execrations, which they imagin due to his Office, upon him. For whosoever offers violence, wounds or does any kind of injury to a Body of the same nature with himself they think him worthy of Hatred; but those who are call’d the Embalmers, they esteem worthy of Honour and Respect: For they are familiar with their Priests, and go into the Temples as Holy Men, without any prohibition. So soon as they come to Embalm the dissected Body, one of them thrusts his Hand thro’ the Wound into the Abdomen, and draws forth all the Bowels but the Heart and Kidnies, which another washes and cleanses with Wine made of Palms and aromatic Odours. Lastly, having wash’d the Body, they anoint it with Oil of Cedar and other Things for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other such like Matters; which have not only a power to preserve it for a long Time, but also give it a sweet Smell; after which they deliver it to the Kindred, in such manner that every Member remains whole and entire, and no part of it chang’d, but the beauty and shape of the Face seems just as it was before, and may be known, even the Hairs of the Eye-Lids and Eye-Brows remaining as they were at first. By this means many of the Egyptians, keeping the dead Bodies of their Ancestors in magnificent Houses, so perfectly see the true Visage and Countenance of those that dy’d many Ages before they themselves were born, that in viewing the Proportions of every one of them, and the Lineaments of their Faces, they take as much delight as if they were still living among them. Moreover, the Friends and nearest Relations of the Deceas’d, for the greater Pomp of the Solemnity, acquaint the Judges and the rest of their Friends with the Time prefix’d for the Funeral or Day of Sepulture, declaring that such a one (calling the Dead by his Name) is such a Day to pass the Lake, at which Time above 40 Judges appear, and sit together in a Semicircle, in a place prepar’d on the hither side of the Lake, where a Ship, provided before-hand by such as have the care of the Business, is hal’d up to the Shoar, and steer’d by a Pilot, whom the Egyptians in their Language call Charon. Hence, they say, Orpheus upon seeing this Ceremony while he was in Egypt, invented the Fable of Hell, partly imitating therein the People of Egypt, and partly adding somewhat of his own. The Ship being thus brought to the Lake-side, before the Coffin is put on board, every one is at liberty by the Law to accuse the Dead of what he thinks him guilty. Now if any one proves he was an ill Liver, the Judges give Sentence the Body shall be depriv’d of Sepulture; but in case the Informer be convicted of false Accusation, then is he severely punish’d. If no Accuser appear, or the Information prove false, then all the Kindred of the Deceas’d leave off Mourning, and begin to set forth his Praises, yet say nothing of his Birth (as the Custom is among the Greeks) because the Egyptians all think themselves equally Noble: But then they recount how the Deceas’d was educated from his Youth, and brought up to Man’s Estate, exalting his Piety towards the Gods and Justice towards Men, his Chastity and other Virtues, wherein he excell’d; and lastly, pray and call upon the Infernal Deities to receive him into the Society of the Just. The common People take this from the others, and consequently approve all is said in his Praise by a loud shout, setting likewise forth his Virtues in the highest strains of Commendation, as one that is to live for ever with the Infernal Gods. Then those that have Tombs of their own, interr the Corps in places appointed for that purpose, and they that have none, rear up the Body in its Coffin against some strong Wall of their House. But such as are deny’d Sepulture on account of some Crime or Debt, are laid up at home without Coffins: Yet when it shall afterwards happen that any of their Posterity grows Rich, he commonly pays off the deceas’d Persons Debts, and gets his Crimes absolv’d, and so buries him honourably, for the Egyptians are wont to boast of their Parents and Ancestors that were magnificently bury’d. ’Tis a Custom likewise among them to pawn the dead Bodies of their Parents to their Creditors, but then those that do not redeem them fall under the greatest Disgrace imaginable, and are deny’d Burial themselves at their Deaths.

Thus far Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus have given the largest and clearest Accounts of any of the Ancients of the Funeral Ceremonies and Embalmings of the Egyptians, but there are still remaining some dubious and difficult Points necessary to be known, for the better understanding this Art: We shall make some Quere’s and Reflexions thereon, and endeavour to reconcile them by the Opinions of the more refin’d Artists, the modern Physicians.

First then of the Mourning of the Egyptians, by them very strictly observ’d for a long time, and perform’d after the following manner: When any of their Kings dy’d they lamented his Death with a general Mourning, making sad Lamentations, putting Dirt upon their Heads, rending their Cloaths and beating their Breasts; they shut up their Temples and Markets, and prohibited all Festivals and Rejoycings; they abstain’d from all delicate Meats and costly Apparel, from Baths, Perfumes and Ointments, and neither made their Beds nor accompany’d with their Wives, but express’d all the signs of an extraordinary Affliction, that they could have done for their own Child. This their Mourning continu’d till the Body was bury’d, which was no less than 72 Days, during which, both Men and Women, and those about 2 or 300 in number, went about the City twice a Day without any thing on but a Linnen-Cloath girt about their Bodies, from beneath their Breasts downwards, renewing their Grief, and intermixing the Virtues and Praises of the deceas’d Prince with their Sighs and Outcries. Much the same Ceremonies were observ’d in their private Funerals, some of which we shall insert from the Writings of the famous Don Antonio de Guevara, Historiographer to the Emperor Charles V. who in his 10th Letter, English’d by Mr. Savage, thus writes: ‘Of all Nations, none we read of made so much adoe about their Dead as the Egyptians, who, when ever a Friend dy’d, always shew’d him far more Respect than while he liv’d; insomuch that if a Father lost a Son, a Son a Father, or one Friend was depriv’d of another, they us’d to shave off half their Hair as a Hieroglyphic to demonstrate they had parted with half of themselves. Also the Egyptian Women, when their Husbands, Children or Relations dy’d, were wont to tear their Flesh, and scratch their Faces with their Nails. Likewise the lesser Priests, at the Funerals of the greater, were accustom’d to mark their Flesh with red hot Irons, either on their Hands, Arms or Breasts, to the end that when ever they beheld those Scars they might immediately be dispos’d to lament their loss. In like manner they had a Custom, that when ever a King or Prince dy’d, all his Officers were instantly oblig’d to slash themselves with Knives in some visible part of their Bodies; insomuch, that he who was observ’d to have most Wounds, was always look’d upon to be the greatest Mourner. All which Ceremonies being in themselves superstitious, and no doubt invented by the Devil, forasmuch as the Egyptians were all naturally Necromancers, Magicians, Wizzards and Astrologers, and for that they were not only a damage to the Living, but also no Advantage to the Dead; GOD forbad the Children of Israel (who living so long in Egypt, had contracted many ill Customs from those People) both marking and cutting their Flesh, as appears from Leviticus 19. 27, 28. where he Commands the Israelites neither to round the Corners of their Heads, nor mar the Points of their Beards: To make any Cuttings in their Flesh, or print any Marks upon it on account of their Dead.’

Thus Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus having first describ’d the manner of Mourning among the Egyptians, they next proceed to give an Account of their Embalmings, telling us, That whilst the Ceremonies of Mourning were performing, they carry’d the Dead to be Embalm’d, as I suppose, to a certain place appointed for that purpose, where Persons resided who profess’d that Art, being well experienc’d therein, and taught it by their Ancestors. These show’d the Relations or Persons that brought the Body, and had commission for ordering the Funeral, certain Models or Patterns of Wood, painted in the likeness of Embalm’d Bodies, "Three different kinds of Embalming." being of three several kinds and Prizes, suitable to every one’s Condition and Quality; some very Rich and Costly, others of a moderate Price, and a third sort cheaper and of very little Value. Having agreed upon the Sort and Price, they immediately go about Embalming the Body, and as Herodotus tells us, first of all draw out the Brain, with a crooked Iron, thro’ the Nostrils, infusing in its place, by the same way, several Medicaments, which as it is contrary to our Custom of Dissection, that begins with the Abdomen, seeing its Contents soonest putrifie and become offensive even in our cold Country, and much more would do in so hot a Climate as that of Egypt, if neglected; so the extraction of the Brain, after the manner propos’d by him, is a very difficult and tedious piece of Work, if possible to be perform’d at all; but his wrong beginning of this Work of Embalming is not so material a Mistake, as his amusing us with a Story of drawing forth the Brain thro’ the Nostrils with a crooked Iron, (by which I suppose he means some particular sort of Instrument) and not farther explaining himself how or after what manner it was done; and indeed I believe he could not, the thing being in it self impracticable and ridiculous, which any one skill’d in Anatomy will readily agree to. But grant it could be done, the afore-said extraction of the Brain thro’ the Nostrils, must nevertheless so dilacerate the cartilagineous parts of the Nose, that the carnous and cutaneous parts would sink, and thereby render the Face deform’d. More agreeable therefore to Reason is what Gryphius in Tract. de Mum. Wratislav. p. 45. asserts, That it might be more commodiously extracted thro’ a large Foramen, made in the hinder part of the Head, near the upper VertebrÆ of the Neck; but that this was not the right way neither, I am thoroughly convinc’d from the Skull of an Embalm’d Body I have by me, which has no such Apertion. "The Brain how extracted." To reconcile therefore this seeming difficulty, I will shew a Method how ’tis possible to be perform’d by a convenient Instrument which I have devis’d, and intend to describe in another Place, contenting my self here to tell you, That by injecting Oil of Cedar, or the like corrosive Medicine thro’ the Nostrils, or thro’ the Ears, by a Passage privately made into the Skull, the Brain may be consum’d and brought away, and the Skull, by injections of spirituous and aromatic Wines, be thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d; and lastly fill’d with melted Bitumen or sweet Balsams, that acquire a solid Consistence when cold. And altho’ Greaves seems well satisfy’d with Herodotus’s Account, yet is his Observation, p. 49. of his Pyramidographia, more agreeable to this Opinion of mine, where he tells us, That having caus’d the Head of one of the richer sort of Embalm’d Bodies to be open’d, he found in the hollow of the Skull the quantity of two pounds of Medicament, which had the consistence, blackness and smell of a kind of Bitumen or Pitch, and by the heat of the Sun was become soft.

Diodorus Siculus begins more methodically with the Scribe or Designer, "The Scribe or Designer." an Officer so call’d, who draws upon a piece of Paper, or marks on the Body it self, the part that was to be open’d, viz. The Flank on the left side. "Dissector." Then the Dissector made the Incision (without cutting off any of the Flesh, or running away so soon as he had done) and thrusting his Hand into the Belly, drew out all the Guts, which, as Plutarch writes, were cast into the River Nile, Tanquam inquinamenta Corporis, as defiling the Body: But Diodorus tells us, The Body was embowell’d by one of the Embalmers, which altho’ it appears to me a more filthy and detestable Work than making the Incision, "Embalmers much honour’d." yet he says the Embalmers were highly honour’d and respected, being familiar with the Priests, and entring into the Temples as Holy Men, whereas he excludes the Dissectors from out of that number, as performing an odious Operation hateful to all Men. In this distinction however I am apt to think he’s either intirely out, or has mistaken it for just the contrary; for, as we have already shown, p. 181. Anatomy was not only generally approv’d, but likewise often perform’d by Holy and Great Men, such as the Egyptian Priests and Kings, who would either have practis’d or taught better, in case it had been so heinous a Crime as this Author makes it; whence, without doubt, those that did this pious and necessary Office towards preserving the Dead, must needs have been equally honour’d with the Embalmers, and what seems yet clearly to confirm this, is that sometimes the Art of Embalming has been call’d Honesta Anatomia.

Now the Instrument with which this Incision was made was an Ethiopic Stone call’d Basaltes, "Basaltes an Ethiopic Stone." and nam’d from its hardness and colour like to Iron, that word in the Ethiopic Language signifying Iron, and this Stone being much harder than that Metal, it might very probably be whet to a keen edge or point, and so be ceremonially us’d instead of an Incision-Knife, like as the antient Jews were wont to use Knives made of Flints in their Circumcision, Joshua 5. 2.

As to the Exenteration or Embowelling the Body, we are not to imagine they drew out only the Brain and Guts, but likewise the Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Spleen, and other Viscera, except the Heart and Kidnies, which being carnous and fleshy might very likely be left, as being easier to be preserv’d than the moist parts. The former they might probably leave to be Embalm’d, as being the principal Bowel of the whole Body, and source of vital Heat (wherefore it has been frequently preserv’d apart by several People) but for what Reason, or out of what Superstition they left the latter I cannot readily conjecture.

Then having empty’d the Head, Breast and Belly of their Contents, they first wash’d and cleans’d them with PhÆnician or Palm-Wine, compounded of aromatic Spices and sweet Odours, "The Body stuff’d with medicinal Ingredients." and afterwards stuff’d them with a mixture of sweet scented Drugs, Spices and Balsams, such as Myrrh, Aloes, Saffron, Cassia or Cinamon, Opobalsamum and the like, Frankincense only being excepted, because that was by them consecrated to their Gods. These Ingredients had not only a power to preserve the Body for a long Time, but also gave it a sweet and agreeable Smell. This done, they sew’d up the Incision or Passage thro’ which they drew forth the Bowels; but Antonius Santorellus in his Post-Praxis Medica, p. 136. not without Reason observes, That tho’ Aromatics are of a drying quality, yet as they are likewise heating, they may occasion a Fermentation in the Body; therefore I am apt to think Myrrh and Aloes were the basis of the Composition, and that Aromatics were us’d only in small quantities, and that rather to conciliate a grateful Odour to the Body than preserve it from Putrifaction. Yet I am not ignorant at the same time of what some alledge of Aromatics, that by their innate balsamic Virtue, by their bitterness and oleaginous Sulphur, or penetrability of their volatil Salts, they resist Putrifaction. Neither am I ignorant of what Bellonius affirms, Lib. 2. De Medicato Funere, p. 27. that neither Myrrh, Aloes nor Saffron have so much Virtue as to consume the Humidity of a dead Body, nor being hard Bodies can penetrate so far as to enter the Bones and replete their Cavities. Furthermore asserting, That if Aloes were us’d in Embalming they would give the Body a bitter taste, whereas no Mummies have been ever found to have such a taste; and this is also taken notice of, says the aforesaid Author, by Valerius Cordus, one who wrote more truly of the Mummies than all the Physicians of his Time had done: But I suppose both these Learned Men spoke rather from their experience of common Bodies, Embalm’d with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, than from the Bodies of Princes and rich Men, which being Embalm’d after the best manner, with odoriferous and aromatic Gums and Spices, had in that Composition a mixture of fine Aloes, and this any one will the readier grant, who considers the manner of the "Myrrh, Aloes and Cinnamon." antient Jews or Hebrews Embalming with Myrrh, Aloes and Cinamon, which they learn’d of the Egyptians by living so long among them, chiefly differing in this, That the Hebrews Anointed or Embalm’d their Dead without Exenteration, thereby intending only to render the Body sweet and free from Putrifaction for a short Time, or ’till its Burial, whereas the Egyptians Embowell’d and Embalm’d theirs for Eternity. But here still arises another Controversie, viz. What is to be understood by the Word Aloes in Balsamation? Whether Agalochum or Lignum Aloes, a Wood of a very pleasant smell, or Aloes, an express’d Juice from the Leaves of a Plant, a Gum of a strong Odour? Most Annotators on the word Aloes, mention’d in the Holy Scripture, as in Prov. 7. 17. Cant. 4. 14. John 19. 39. interpret it the Wood Aloes, being an excellent sweet scented and aromatic Perfume; and since it is also of a bitterish Taste, and indu’d with some balsamic Qualities, ’tis not absur’d to think it was us’d together with other Ingredients in Embalming, yet according to a physical Judgment in this Art, we nevertheless believe that Aloes, the Gum or inspissate Juice of a Plant, so manifest for its extraordinary and incomparable bitterness and efficacy to resist Putrifaction, was one of the chief Ingredients in their Composition, for otherwise the Scripture would have given a more peculiar signification of the Word, to distinguish the Wood from the Gum: So that he who determines that both might have been apply’d, one to correct the ill Savour of the other, may commit no great Mistake, or at least if he thinks, that the Wood was chiefly us’d in their perfuming Ointments, and the Gum in their Embalmings.

The Body being stuff’d full of aromatic and sweet Odours, they sew’d it up again, and then salted it with Nitre for the space of 70 Days, as Herodotus relates; yet Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this Salting, but in its stead substitutes the manner of Anointing: Both which Terms of Salting and Anointing Authors confound one with another, and under the same denomination express two different Operations or Works, and yet seem to make them perform’d by the same Persons: For those who are said to be the Embalmers, "The Salters or Pollinctors." are call’d by some TaricheutÆ or Salitores, a verbo ta???e?e??, Salire or Sale durare, and by others Pollinctors, ab unguendis Cadaveribus quasi polluti, vel a verbo pollingere, quod est, polliendo ungere, vel Pellem ungere, &c. whose Office and Business was to exenterate or embowel the Body, to wash and cleanse it, and to salt and anoint it. These again, some say, were much honour’d and respected, and others on the contrary, That they were so abominated that they would not suffer them to live in the City; which latter I am most apt to believe, as performing a very vile and servile Work, therefore might well be look’d upon as polluted Persons. Who then were the true Embalmers, properly so call’d, and had in most esteem, I shall anon show; but must first proceed to speak of their Salination, and the Virtues and Qualities of Nitre and other Salts.

‘Bellonius, Lib. 3. cap. 8. De Medicato Funere, tells us, the Egyptians and other Eastern Nations, attributed very great Virtues to Nitre for preserving the Carcasses of the Dead, and that notwithstanding other Salts and Aromatics, endu’d with astringent and exsiccating Qualities, might have the same Virtue, yet since none were more efficacious, Embalmers or Salters were wont chiefly to use Nitre. Those both the Greek Historians and Physicians have sufficiently describ’d, but since they so disagree about this, I think it not improper to treat more particularly of it. First, Herodotus tells us, The Egyptians salted the dead Body 70 Days, and afterwards adds the use and reason of it, because, says he, Salt consumes the Flesh, and leaves nothing behind it but Skin and Bones; whence it appears Nitre was in very great esteem among them for preserving the Dead. But now, says Bellonius, there is so great scarcity of Nitre in Europe, that no Physician can say he has ever seen the true, for certainly a Man may be as well cheated in that Salt as in any Drugs now commonly us’d. Some there are who promiscuously use many Things instead of it, and others that as erroneously assert there are two sorts of it, one factitious and another natural, and I very much wonder that several excellent Physicians should not have taken notice, that the Saltpetre we now-a-days use is not the true Nitre: Nor have any of the Ancients distinguish’d Nitre into artificial and natural, one made by Art, and the other a concrete Body dug out of the Earth; for all Nitre is certainly made by Art, after the manner of other Salts, and not conceal’d in the Earth, but found above it. Nor is there any native Nitre dug out of the Earth, altho’ it may be made from Water; for Rain-Water being the purest, lightest and sweetest of all Waters, makes the best Nitre; so likewise does the Nile-Water, which from the force of its Mud, soon condenses the Nitre. Now to know where Nitre may be found, read Theophrastus, Lib. 3. cap. 22. who gives this as a very plain Argument, That where Palm-Trees grow in plenty, as they do in Africa, Syria, and the like Countries, there the Soil will always be Nitrous; for tho’ these Trees require the circum-ambient Air to be hot, that their Fruits may ripen, yet they nevertheless covet a salt Soil to refrigerate their Roots; whence we may gather that a Virtue in Earth to make Nitre is more wanting than in Water: But in Africa Nitre was cheaper than Salt, for tho’ Salt was both artificially made and dug out of the Rock, yet by reason of a Tax and Duty upon it, it was not so easie to be got as Nitre, which naturally concreted in the Vallies, and might be had without any Expence; wherefore the Arabians, who liv’d not far from the Sea, and the Egyptians, who had Nitre so cheap among them, us’d it before Salt, which they were forc’d to seek for and get in more remote Places; nay, they us’d to eat Nitre with their Radishes and Pot-Herbs, after the same manner as we now do Salt. And thus, so soon as the Inhabitants had first made Trial of Nitre, using it in their Bread, Pottage, Gruels, with their Flesh and other Food, and finding it wholesom, sought for no other Salt, but us’d Nitre in its stead, and taught the neighbouring Countries to do the like. But the Macedonians made their Bread with a sort of Nitre call’d, "ChalastrÆum Nitrum." ChalastrÆum Nitrum, a Chalastra Civitate, Plin. 13. 10. a pure sort of Saltpetre, which, for the most part, they rather chose to make use of than Salt. Nitre took its rise in many parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, but Authors know that of one Country from another, by the goodness and badness of it, tho’ Nitre in general be commended by all, "Nitrum Berenicum." and Galen praises the Nitre of Berenice of Pentapolis in Egypt.

‘Those Springs call’d by Pliny, Fontes amari, on the Shoar of the Red-Sea, would have had but little bitterness, had not the Soil been Nitrous. All the Fountains likewise of Arabia are bitterish, by reason of the nitrous Earth thro’ which they pass, and that Lake near the City of Chalastra in Macedon affords much Nitre. "Nitri spuma." Authors call it Nitri spuma, Aphronitrum, and by several other Names. Galen orders this stony Matter first to be burn’d, and then levigated to a Powder; whereby it plainly appears our Saltpetre is not Nitre. There is nothing more frequently mention’d by Absyrtus, in his Book of Farriery, than Nitre; and it was also us’d by Ganea, and the Skilful have observ’d many Things to grow tender by Nitre, especially the Roots of Herbs, which are also made whiter by it, and Coleworts and Pot-Herbs greener.’ Some call the Flower of the Lapis Assius, Nitre, a kind of Stone of which Coffins were formerly made, which wasted dead Bodies: ‘But I would advise the Reader, says Bellonius, not to believe that Nitre, which we speak of, to have any affinity with the Salt commonly so call’d. "Armenian Nitre." Avicenna prefers the Armenian Nitre before the Egyptian, and Dioscorides very much praises the Nitre of Buna. "Nitre of Buna." The common People daily use the Nitre of Turkey, "Nitre of Turkey." tho’ we are nevertheless ignorant whence it comes, and there is nothing more common among the Merchants of Nitria, Memphis, Constantinople and Damascus than what they vulgarly call Natron. It grows very plentifully in the Eastern Countries, and is much us’d in Dying Silk and Wool. Serapio also confounds Borax, which the Goldsmiths use, with Nitre; but Nitre is truly made by the benefit of the Soil and the force of the hot Sun, wherefore ’tis call’d by some of the Greeks Halmirhaga, "Halmirhaga." deriving its Name partly from its bitterish Taste, and partly from its being got out of the Earth at Nitria, a City of Egypt, so call’d from Nitre. At Naucratis and Memphis there are places where Nitre grows, and where the Water is pour’d into it like Sea-Water into Salt-Pits. Between Memphis and Jerusalem we saw a Desart concreted with Nitre, from whence so great a quantity might be taken, that many Ships might have been easily laden therewith; which Desart, so concreted with Nitre, was longer than half a Mile, and when I past by it in the Night-Time, I thought it had been cover’d with Salt; and when the Moon shon, it rebounded up to the Pupils of my Eyes, and dazl’d them with its splendor. In it Camels, Horses and Mules had left the impression of their Footsteps, and when I lighted off my Horse and had cut some of it up, I found it to be of the same kind which I had before seen at Memphis. Nitre therefore is not dug out of a Mountain, or found in the Cavity of a Subterranean Den, or any where cover’d with Earth, but gather’d up a concrete Body from the surface of a Desart or solitary Place, and is to be ascrib’d more to the Earth than Water, by reason the Earth has there a kind of nitrous Substance. When Rain, Fountain or the Nile-Water has stood long in a Valley, it at length becomes nitrous, by exhaling up to its self a salt Matter or Substance from the bottom, which afterwards concretes, with the heat of the Sun, and becomes much harder than Salt. The whole mass of Nitre is not concreted in one and the same Day, but gradually and by degrees increases and becomes dry. The first Concretion has no great thickness, but when wet again with other Water, it adds by little and little another Covering. This growing harder and harder, so long concretes that it at last becomes a Foot and half thick, by which it comes to pass that the Face of the Nitre keeps a certain likeness to crusted Cadmia; for the whole Mass consists of right courses in equal Circles, and is not divided by intricate Windings, which Remark argues, that Nitre arises from a level Superficies or concretes in a certain solitary Place. Moreover the porous Nitre is dissolv’d in Water, but so that you cannot see the least Settlement in it, altho’ a great deal of an earthy Substance be found among it; and as a further Argument of the Truth of this, its very Ashes show it contains in it a great mixture of earthy Particles; for burning once a Pound of crude Nitre, I found four Ounces of Ashes remain’d, whereas our Saltpetre, if it but touch Fire, immediately flames, and is in an instant resolv’d into Air; whence we collect, that it consists of very subtil Parts, for ’tis very pungent on the Tongue, has great Tenuity, and plentifully provokes Spitle. "Three kinds of Nitre." There are three sorts of Nitre, but that which is of a Rose-colour, or whitish and porous like Sponge, such as is brought from the Islands of Buna, Dioscorides prefers to the rest, being hard and solid for the most part like that of Egypt, and which indurates into heaps like Stone, which therefore are call’d by the Greeks ??????, from the resemblance they have to Hills. The second sort of Nitre is not so well distinguish’d by Dioscorides as by Galen, who is thought to have us’d the name of Spuma Nitri two ways, first by dividing the words, ?f??? ??t???, and secondly, by compounding them into ?f????t???, which distinction Pliny also seems to have observ’d where he calls the Spuma Nitri by the Latin word Operimentum, interpreted by Avicenna’s Annotator, Capistrum Nitri, not because the Nitre ferments or foams up in an old Valley, or that it is in it self a light Froth, but by reason the Spume of Nitre lyes on the top of the Nitre, and flowers of it self in Nitre-Works or Vallies in the Day-Time; for Nitre flowers with the Dew which falls in the Night, and then increases its Superficies and is perfected in the Day-Time, which Covering therefore is rightly call’d by Avicenna’s Interpreter Capistrum, but better by Pliny, Operimentum. Of this Dioscorides thus writes: "Spuma Nitri." ‘That Spuma Nitri is best which is lightest, friable, biting and of a purplish Colour, such as is brought from Philadelphia in Lydia. The second sort is that of Egypt, which likewise is to be had in Magnetia in Caria.’ How this Efflorenscence which Pliny sometimes calls Operimentum, sometimes Spuma Nitri, and at other times Aphronitrum, is generated, we have shewn before, so shall next show what Aphronitrum is, for I distinguish between Aphronitrum and Spuma Nitri, that is, the Operimentum or Covering. But Pliny confounds Aphronitrum and Nitrum together, so that I really believe both Pliny and Serapio have taken what they have written of this Matter from the same Fountains; for Serapio speaking of Nitre says, There are two sorts of it, one call’d Nitre, which is Saltpetre, of a reddish Colour, saltish and bitterish Taste, soon discovering its burning Quality, "Borax." and another sort call’d Borax, us’d by the Inhabitants of Yaya in working up their Bread, to make it look clear after ’tis bak’d. But that sort call’d artificial Borax is an incisive and abstersive Saltpetre, made from a nitrous Matter, being a mixture of Lead and Kali mingl’d together and put over the Fire, and this seems to be nothing else but that which the Goldsmiths use. Rhasis also is in a manner of the same Opinion with Serapio, for he says, of the two sorts of Borax, that which is made artificially, and is white and froathy, is much better than that of an earthy colour and dusty. It is from this that Tincar is made and seal’d. "Tincar." Pliny has not omitted to mention this sealing as Galen and Dioscorides have likewise done, therefore I will insert his Words the better to show that his sealing of Tincar is the same with that of the Arabians. The next Age of Physicians, says he, deliver’d that Aphronitrum was gather’d in Asia, distilling into soft Caves or Dens, which they call’d ColycÆ, and afterwards dry’d in the Sun. The best sort is that of Lydia, which is very light and friable, and almost of a purplish Colour, and brought thence in little Cakes or Trochisks, which words seem intirely to answer those of the Arabian; for, What can this Author mean by Trochisks, but the same thing which Serapio calls little seal’d Pieces? But Rhasis adds, That the Egyptian Nitre was brought in Vessels pitch’d over, least it should melt; and Pliny shows, that the next Age of Physicians deliver’d it was gather’d in Asia. Perhaps in the Time of Dioscorides, and also before his Time, they did not use to Seal the Spuma Nitri and Aphronitrum. "Lydian Nitre." Pliny gives the Preference to the Lydian, and, moreover, when he describes the Marks of chusing it, he gives the same to the Aphronitrum as Dioscorides does to his ?f????t???. But that I may speak freely what I know of those three, they all proceed from the same Mass, altho’ from the different Places and Earth, they acquire a different colour, for some are of a Rose-colour, and others white. The Operimentum or Covering falls in Lydia and Egypt. The greatest use of Nitre in Laconia is for scouring Bodies. But since the Mass of Nitre, when long kept in Houses, consumes and wastes away by degrees, insomuch that that which was before hard, becomes gradually soft and crumbling, more-especially if it be kept in a moist place, nevertheless it does not discontinue being a Mass or Lump, but only becomes softer than Nitre. Physicians, when they remark or take notice as it were of a certain kind of Metamorphosis, of that which was before hard, so easily to become softer, think its Name ought to be chang’d, and its Virtues ascrib’d apart. But that which I have said concerning the alteration of Nitre, I have found true by experience, in some I brought with me out of the Eastern-Countries; for having given a great part of it to my Friends, some of them complain’d it was turn’d to Powder, and others, who had kept it in a moister place, that it was grown softer, and had chang’d its Colour. Pliny, Lib. 31. cap. 10. says, The Nature of Nitre is not to be esteem’d very different from Salt, and this he the more diligently asserts, inasmuch as those Physicians who have written of it, were ignorant of its true Nature, altho’ none has written more carefully of it than Theophrastus. He says, moreover, some Nitre is made in Media, the Vallies growing white and hoary with dryness. After the Rain or Fountain-Water is exhal’d from it, it is condens’d by the Soil, and converted into Nitre. Hence appears, as I said before, that those are very much deceiv’d, who report Nitre to be a certain Subterranean Matter like to Metal. Pliny afterwards adds, That the sort of Nitre call’d Agrium, in Thrace near Philippi, is less mix’d with Earth than any other sort; but I dare affirm Nitre is now no longer made in Thrace, for when I travell’d thither, and to and fro in the Philippian Country, that I might see this Nitre, I could find none either about the Ruins of the before-mention’d City or the adjacent Region. "ChalastrÆum Nitrum." The ChalastrÆum Nitre took its Name from the City Chalastra. This I believe to be that sort which Alexander call’d Bucephalum, from the Name of his Horse. Nitrous Waters, says Pliny, are found in many places, but without any Power of condensing, which agrees with what I have already said, that all nitrous Waters will not make Nitre; so likewise all nitrous Earth, altho’ Water be pour’d over it, will not make Nitre, for ’tis necessary it should have a Virtue of thickning by the Sun, therefore this Virtue is believ’d not to be wanting in the Water, but in the Earth, for ’tis certain Nitre may be made out of the lightest, purest and sweetest Water. Nitre is very heavy in it self, for it sinks in Water like a Stone. The best Nitre, says Pliny, is very plentiful in Macedonia, "Nitrum Chalastricum." and is call’d Chalastricum, being white and pure like to Salt. The Lake is nitrous, and out of its middle a sweet Fountain flows; there Nitre swims, about the rising of the Dog-Star, for nine Days together, and in as many ceases, then swims again, and afterwards ceases again, by which ’tis apparent the heat of the Sun condenses the Nitre, provided the Nature of the Soil be answerable, as Pliny witnesses in these words: The Nature of the Soil is what breeds Nitre, as is apparent, in that where it is wanting, neither Salts nor Showers avail any thing. This is also very wonderful, that tho’ the Spring be always seen to flow, yet neither does it increase the Lake nor run over; but if it Rains in those Days in which it is bred, the Nitre will become more Salt, and worse if the North-Winds happen to blow, for they violently stir up the Mud: In this place indeed ’tis produc’d, but more plentifully in Egypt, "Egyptian Nitre." tho’ a worser sort, for ’tis of a dark colour and stony. It is made almost in the same manner with Salt, only they let the Sea run into their Salt-Pits, but the River Nile into their Nitre-Works. The Nile-Water being drawn off they dry it, and again infuse it in Nitre-Water 40 Days successively, but if it Rains they add less of the River-Water. So soon as it begins to condense, it is taken away least it should be dissolv’d in their Nitre-Works, but if laid up in heaps it will keep. Thus much Pliny speaks of Nitre, which abundantly shows it is no where dug in any Mountain or Soil, but as I have shown before, immediately so soon as it has begun to condense, and it Rains, they take it away, and lay it up in heaps, that it may last, for otherwise it would be melted by the Rain in their Nitre-Works. What Pliny says afterwards seems obscure, viz. That the thinnest part of Nitre is best, and consequently the Efflorenscence is better, nevertheless the foul sort is useful for some Things, as for dying Purples, Scarlets, &c. by which words ’tis evident he means two sorts of Nitre, one very fine call’d Spuma Nitri, "Spuma Nitri." which he prefers for the best, and another course, us’d for dying Colours. The Nitre-Works in Egypt are very famous, and were wont to be only about Naucratis and Memphis: The worst are about Memphis, for there it lapifies in heaps, and from that cause many Hillocks are stony, of which they make Vessels. They also very frequently boil it with Sulphur upon Coals till it is melted; and use it in those things they would have keep a long while. There are Nitre-Works where it comes out reddish from the colour of the Earth. Thus far of Nitre; next Pliny mightily commends the Efflorenscence of Nitre, yet says, The Ancients deny’d it could be made, but only when the Dew fell and the Nitre-Places were pregnant, but not when they brought forth, therefore could not be done by hastning or stirring up altho’ it fell. Others think it was bred by Fermentation, &c.’ Thus far of Nitre according to Bellonius, Pliny and others.

Now this is generally agreed on, that after the Body was stuff’d with sweet Odours, Gums and Spices, it was macerated in a sort of Pickle, the Composition of which, tho’ unknown to us, is asserted by most of the Ancients to be made of Nitre. Nor is it proper for us, say Penicher, Traite des Embaumemens, p. 83. to explain one Obscurity by another that is greater; since this Nitre, so famous and mightily boasted of by the Ancients, is at this Day a Mistery, for the more one endeavours to show its Origin, by examining the different Descriptions given it, the more reason one has to doubt of its Existence. In the first place, they agree not in one point among themselves, "Different Opinions of Nitre." either as to its Colour, Figure or Quality; for some say ’tis white, others that ’tis red, and others again that ’tis of a Leaden or Ash-colour: Some there are who will have it of a porous Substance like a Sponge, others that ’tis solid and compact, and others that ’tis shining and transparent like to Glass. Nor do they less dissagree about its Virtue than its Form and Colour, for some say ’tis of a cold Nature, and others that it has a Caustic Quality, as Herodotus, who says, that it consumes the Flesh in such manner that it leaves nothing but Skin and Bones. Wherefore, after so many Contradictions and different Descriptions of the nature of this Mineral, what can we believe for certain? Have we not just reason to doubt that this Nitre is but pretended? How should it come to be invisible if it were a Mineral? And again why should we not have it, if it be produc’d after the manner of our common Salt? The Sun, Moon and other Planets, as also the Earth have not ceas’d since their Creation to obey yearly such Orders as the Divine Providence has prescrib’d them, and their Productions have daily been the same from one Age to another. The Earth is the same Matrix for the formation of Vegetables and Minerals, and the Sun has not refus’d its Influences for their Generation. What therefore can be the reason, or by what accident should we at present be depriv’d of so precious a Salt? We cannot see why it should be so lost as never to be repair’d; but it is also reported that the true Cinnamon, Bdellium, Costus Amomum, Balsamum verum, Malobathrum, Sal Armoniac, Myrrha, and several Minerals, Gums and Plants are lost, yet certainly it is not so, but only the Knowledge and Use of them lost to many People; or perhaps they may not be found in those places where they were wont to grow, yet may be had in others, which often happens; so that they do not entirely Perish, but only change their Soil, by which means it may come to pass they may not commonly be known, and sometimes it happens they appear with a different Face, by reason of the diversity of the Place and temperature of the Heavens; wherefore, as St. Chrisostom rightly concludes, none of those Substances or kinds of Things, which GOD has created from the beginning of the World, have ever been wanting or will ever perish. Et Benedixit illa DEUS, & dixit, Crescite & multiplicamini: Verbum enim illud in prÆsentem usq; diem illa conservat, & tantum Tempus prÆteriit, neq; unum horum Genus imminutum est; nam Benedictio DEI, & Verbum quod dixerat, ut subsisterent & durarent, illis contulit. And GOD Blessed them and said, Be fruitful and multiply: Which Word has preserv’d them even to this present Day, so that the Time only is pass’d away, but not the least kind of them has perish’d; for the Blessing of GOD, and the Words which he spake, made them that they should endure for ever.

The Nitre therefore of the Ancients so renown’d, may be the same with our Saltpetre, as Schroder and the learned Etmuller think, and Clarke more particularly in his Natural History of Nitre, p. 12. asserts, That the Nitre of the Ancients is the same with Ours: In which, says he, altho’ we dissent from some learned Philosophers, as Matthiolus, Bellonius, &c. yet are there others as learned with whom we agree, such as Cardanus, Casimirus Siemienowicz Eques Lithuanus, and more particularly also may be mention’d the Ingenious Mr. Henshaw, who has learnedly prov’d this Assertion to the Royal Society. But not to inforce this Opinion only by Authority but Reason, we affirm this to be the same from its Nature; for the Thing is yet in Being, and this bearing its Name may not unjustly challenge its Nature: And that this was known to the Ancients (as we affirm their Nitre is to us) the Testimony of Pliny plainly evinces, as the before-mention’d learned Author Casimirus observes, viz. Aperte enim Salem hunc, qui in Cavernis sua sponte in Rupium Superficies erumpebat, Florem & Spumam Nitri, Salemq; petrosum vel PetrÆ nominat. But the Ancients seem not to observe this ?f????t??? or Efflorenscence of Nitre on Walls, and in Houses on Floors, as we do, they having had it in open Fields, tho’ we have not, neither was it so much in use with them as with us, and this gave occasion for the new Name of Sal-petrÆ to be given to the old Nitre. Now, tho’ by Pliny’s and other antient Authors descriptions of Nitre, when compar’d with ours, they may seem to differ, yet may it not be a real difference, but only in degrees of purity, the like whereof we may see in Sugar and Salt, which by artificial Refining are made one and the same; and as it bears the same Name, so has it the same Qualities and Virtues, and was antiently us’d both by Galenists and Chymists. "Nitre us’d in Cookery." Now it was this no doubt the Ancients us’d in their Aliments instead of common Salt; and ’tis by some affirm’d that Roots grow whiter if boil’d therewith, and Herbs greener: Moreover, ’tis well known to us Moderns that Nitre or its Salt, separated in the Refining, gives a red colour to Neats-Tongues, Coller’d Beef, Bacon, &c. adding to it also a more savoury Taste, which does thereby both invite and please the Appetite.

Thus far of Nitre according to the several Opinions of the before-mention’d Authors; but what the Composition was, wherewith the Ancients pickl’d the Body, whether with Nitre or Salt, is not as yet determin’d. Herodotus and divers others affirm it was salted with Nitre, yet some think the Virtue of Salt more commendable, finding it of so great use in preserving Flesh and Fish; others again do not think Bodies become unperishable by Salting, but are only preserv’d for some Months or Years, and if fresh Pickle be not added, or any part of the Body happen to be expos’d to the Air, it soon corrupts and stinks, for the Moisture of the Air dissolves the imbib’d Salt, and this issuing forth the Body soon perishes. This is farther remarkable from a Story of Baronius in his Annals, "A Body found Preserv’d in a Salt-Pit." of a Body found in a Subterranean Cave, full of salt Water, in the Mountains of Saltzburg, which was whole and incorrupt, the Skin white, the Eyes open and lively, and the whole remaining, with all its parts, firm and hard as a Stone, yet in three Days Time, being as it were impatient of the Air, it turn’d into Water and perish’d. From this Story we may learn that salted Bodies, altho’ they resist Corruption for a short Time, yet at length perish; "Salt us’d with Balsamics preserves Bodies." nevertheless Salt, or such things as are Analagous to it, if us’d with other Balsamics, afford some help in the Embalming of Bodies, whereby they are not dispos’d to the same Fluxion, as both Reason and Experience teach, and perhaps Nitre being a more solid Body and not so apt to dissolve in the Air, might also on that account be preferr’d by the Egyptians. However, whether Salt or Nitre be to be understood by this Work of Salination needs not much to be disputed, since both, by their known balsamic Virtue and innate Siccity, may assist in this Operation, even as in the preparing English Hams, &c. we are wont to use them mix’d together, the one perhaps being more peircing and the other more durable, the former to give a grateful Taste, and the latter a pleasant Colour. But, as we cannot readily grant, that the Salting us’d by the Egyptians, was effectual enough to preserve Bodies without Balsamic Medicines, so neither can we, that any means besides could hinder its Extraction or Dissolution, and therefore I am the more inclinable to think, First, That they did not drysalt the Body, but macerated it in a liquid Pickle, which equally surrounded it every-where, and peirc’d deeper thro’ the Pores of the Skin; and when they had let it infuse for a convenient Time, they anointed it with Oil of Cedar for 30 Days together, as Diodorus Siculus relates, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon and other Drugs, which Salting and Anointing took up in all 70 Days, according to the Account of Herodotus. The latter Ointment was us’d as well to give the Body a sweet Smell as to Preserve it; but, tho’ the former was held of great efficacy for that purpose, yet is it a thing as difficult to recover in these our Times, says Penicher, as it is to find out the Composition of the Pickle we have been speaking of, nevertheless we must make some attempt therein. First then, we will take notice of the different Appellations, by which the Ancients have us’d to express this Matter, calling it by the several names of a Gum or Rosin, a Liquor or Juice, an Oil or Ointment, and lastly a Pitch; "Cedria what." but which of all these they meant by the Word Cedria will be better understood from a Description of that Tree, together with the several sorts of Juices extracted from it, and their Uses and Virtues. ’Tis true, as some Authors have said, a Matter so call’d may be drawn from other Trees, such as Larch, Pine, Birch, Cypress and Juniper; but that which we mean is from the great Cedar, whose Leaves never fall, and which bears Fruit all the Year round. Its Wood, of all others, is esteem’d the least corruptible, and consequently, says Pierius, is the Hieroglyphic of Eternity. The Ark of the Covenant, the Temple of Solomon, and that of Diana at Ephesus, were all built with it, and for the same reason the Egyptians often made their Coffins of it: The Ancients also us’d to anoint the Leaves and Covers of their Books with its Oil, thereby to defend them from Moths, Worms and the injuries of Time, whence it came to be spoken Proverbially of such a one as had deserv’d to be recorded to Posterity, Cedro digna locutus, in that his Writings were thereby preserv’d from perishing. Now this Tree affords three or four different sorts of Liquors or Juices: First, A thick, but clear Gum, of a good tho’ strong Odour, being a Tear that drops from young Cedars after their Barks are pill’d off, and this is what they properly call’d Cedria. "Gum of Cedar." Secondly, A sort of Liquor drawn from the said Wood, "Liquor of Cedar." call’d by the Syrians Cedrum, and which are the first droppings of these Branches of Cedar when one burns them, for that which comes last is the Pitch of Cedar, "Pitch of Cedar." being prepar’d after the same manner with other Pitch, as you may find describ’d in Bellonius de Medic. Funer. p. 40. Lastly, There is an Oil of Cedar, "Oil of Cedar." express’d from the warm’d Fruit of this Tree, and call’d by Pliny and Delachampius, CedrelÆon, as it were Cedri-oleum. These several Liquors have been so confounded by Authors, as to have been taken indifferently for one another, which perhaps was because they have almost all the same Virtues; yet I suppose the Egyptians might adapt the Use of them according to their several Consistencies, and therefore employ’d the Gum with other Drugs in stuffing the Body, the first distill’d Liquor in their Injections, and the Oil, as more valuable, for their Anointings; or else might use the Tar or Pitch after the same manner as Asphalt and Pissasphalt, for the inferior sort of People. "Virtues of Cedar." Now in respect to the Virtues of Cedar, besides that it heats and drys powerfully, it has likewise this particular and remarkable Quality, that after the nature of Septic and Escharotic Medicines, it corrodes and consumes the Flesh in a very short Time, if apply’d to a living Body; but, on the contrary, is a sovereign Preservative for the same Body the very moment ’tis depriv’d of Life; for consisting of hot, dry and subtil Parts, it consumes all superfluous Humidity, the cause of Putrifaction, and thereby preserves the dead Body, whereas in living Creatures, being rarify’d and put in action by the natural Heat, it disunites their Parts and consumes them. Those antient Physicians Dioscorides, Galen, Paulus, Aetius and Aegineta have all asserted, That the Nature of Cedar was such as to preserve dead Bodies, but would consume the Living, whereupon, they not without reason have term’d it, The Life of the Dead, and The Death of the Living. Likewise Diodorus Siculus tells us, the Egyptians anointed the Bodies they were to Embalm with Oil or Ointment of Cedar, for the space of 30 Days; whereas, Herodotus gives us a quite different Account, how that, without cutting open the Belly and pulling out the Entrails, "Clysters of Cedar and their Operation." they injected up the Anus Clysters of Oil or Juice of Cedar, and then salted the Body 70 Days, at the end of which they squeez’d out the Clysters, which had such Virtue and Efficacy, that they brought away with them all the Guts and Bowels wasted. But in answer to this, Clauder in Methodo Balsamandi, p. 58. says, he cannot but believe that this Author had forgot to mention somewhat necessary to be done besides, and Nardius laughs at it as a ridiculous Story, to imagine how these Clysters should spare the fleshy Parts, but rot the Bowels. But grant an intire Efficacy to this Balsamic Liquor, thus Clysterwise immitted into the Intestins, yet since it is well known to Physicians, that Medicines, this way exhibited to the Dead, immediately flow out again, the nervous and fibrous Parts, which before were us’d to retain them, operate no longer by reason of their Stupor and defect of Spirits. I cannot see, says Clauder, how a Clyster can be contain’d in a dead body so as to perform its Work, or if it should be intruded up by force, it cannot so quickly penetrate to the superior Parts; for it must waste the Mesentery, Liver, Spleen, Stomach and Guts before it can ascend into the Cavity of the Breast, by which time its Contents will be putrify’d, and that more-especially since nothing besides was done to prevent Corruption, but an external Salting. Wherefore, as was said before, he must needs have mistaken the Process, and perhaps if Bodies were Embalm’d this way with Cedar (which Nardius utterly denies) without Incision and Exenteration, it might be perform’d by filling the Head, Breast and Belly with Pitch of Cedar (the way of doing which I shall hereafter show) and then infusing and macerating the Body in its liquid Juice or Oil: And that the Egyptians us’d to Embalm Bodies with Cedar, appears farther from their preserving Crocodiles, Hawks and other Animals, "Animals Embalm’d with Cedar." which they worshipp’d, with Nitre and the Liquor of Cedar, and afterwards anointing them with odoriferous Unguents, they bury’d them in Sacred Places: Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 5. cap. 2. says, the Gauls were wont to deposite the Heads of their slain Enemies, that were of any Quality, in Chests, having first Embalm’d them with Oil of Cedar, &c.

The third sort of Embalming, us’d for the poorer sort of People, was perform’d, as Herodotus tells us, by washing the Belly, and then drying it with Salt for 70 Days, after which ’twas deliver’d to be carry’d away. Now, as Clauder says, if this was done without Exenteration, it appears the least probable of all, as daily experience shows; therefore we must look on that Historian as too credulous in the Relation of some Things, and perhaps as one that had forgot other Operations to be done, or medicinal Species to be added: But if the Belly was open’d and thoroughly wash’d and cleans’d, the Bowels flung into the River or else bury’d, and the Vessels empty’d of their Blood and Juices, and then the Body salted and dry’d in the Sun, it might probably be render’d very hard and durable, and not liable to dissolve or melt by any Damps or Moisture, Egypt being a warm Country, and enjoying a perpetual Serenity of Air, even as Flesh and Fish when salted and dry’d in the Wind, Sun or Smoak, &c. may be preserv’d for some Years, if kept in a dry and warm place. Diodorus Siculus speaks nothing of this third sort of Embalming, and Gabriel Clauder, Johannes Nardius, Bellonius, and other Physicians assert, there were only two sorts, "Only two sorts of Embalming." one for the Rich and Noble, perform’d after a more accurate and costly manner, and another more vile for the poorer Sort; for Nardius is of Opinion, that which was suppos’d to be perform’d with Cedar, was only a cheat of the Libitinarii to pick the Pockets of the richer People; the first sort being perform’d with odoriferous Gums and Spices, and the latter with a strong scented Bitumen call’d Asphalt, or for want of that with Pissasphalt, which things are not mention’d in the Accounts of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus relating to Embalming; yet from the occular Demonstration of several eminent Physicians, and their Experiments and Dissections of such Bodies as are commonly brought over for Mummies, it is plainly prov’d they were prepar’d with this Bituminous Matter, therefore we will next describe what that is. Now seeing Authors so much confound Asphalt with Pissasphalt, and thereby become mistaken even in the word Mummy, I think it very necessary to show their differences, they being two sorts of Bitumen that were commonly us’d by the Egyptians in their Embalmings.

First then of Asphalt, a natural Bitumen of a viscous and glutinous Substance, which swims on the surface of the Lake Asphaltites in Palestine (above 100 Miles from Damiata in Egypt, whereas Le Bruyn is grosly mistaken when he makes it but two Italian Miles, as before quoted, p. 143.) and being driven by the Winds on the Shoar, there condenses by the heat of the Sun, and becomes tough and hard like Pitch. There is also Bitumen found in several other places, as Dioscorides relates, viz. in Phoenicia, Babylon, Sydon, &c. But this which comes from the Lake Asphaltites in Judea, thence call’d Bitumen Judaicum, is the best of all, being clean and shining, of a black or purplish Colour, of a strong Smell, and that may easily be burn’d and crumbl’d between the Fingers. With this Asphalt were Embalm’d those of a middle sort, "How us’d in Embalming." but by reason it was of too dry a Substance, Naptha and liquid Bitumen, or Oleum Petroleum were usually added to it by melting over the Fire, and then the Body being boil’d therein, the Embalming was finish’d according to the accustom’d manner: To this purpose Authors give these Reasons for the use of Asphalt, that by its astringent and exsiccating Nature, it restrains that moisture which would lead to Corruption, and no less by its balsamic Quality and Viscosity hinders the fluid Atoms of the Air from penetrating the internal parts of the Body, thereby opening a way for its Dissolution. In like manner the poorer Sort were Embalm’d with Pissasphalt, made fluid by some of the above-mention’d Oils; and seeing likewise there were said to be two kinds of this, one Natural and another Artificial, we will next enquire into them:

The Natural Pissasphalt, according to Dioscorides, Valerius Cordus his Commentator, and others, is a kind of Bitumen flowing from certain Mountains call’d Ceraunii Montes in Apollonia, near the City Epidaurus, now Ragusa, whence being carry’d by the impetuosity of the River, it is cast on the Shoar and there condens’d into Clods, smelling like to a mixture of Pitch and Bitumen, from whence it came to be term’d by the Greeks Pissasphaltos, a p?ssa, vel p?tta pix, & ?sfa?t??, Bitumen, quasi dicas Pici Bitumen, and had the same Virtues with Pitch and Bitumen or Asphalt mix’d together. ’Tis brought in great Plenty from Valona to Venice for pitching Ships, which it admirably performs if mix’d with the Pitch of Pine-Trees. ’Tis also brought from Dalmatia, being there dug near Lesina, not far from Narenta, and is likewise found in Hungary, where the Inhabitants call it Fossil Wax; moreover ’tis to be had in Transilvania, and the Germans name it Erdtwachs and Bergwachs, that is Wax generated in the Earth or Mountains. The Spaniards likewise call it, Cera de minera, mineral Wax, perhaps from its Consistency; but the Arabians term it Mumia, whence, it may be, Embalm’d Bodies came to be call’d Mummies, "Call’d Mummy." from their being preserv’d with this Pissasphalt, and this we are the more apt to believe, since the true Asphalt or Bitumen Judaicum was very scarce, nor is it now to be had in the Shops, as some believe, but Pissasphalt is sold in its stead. Brasavolus thinks those dry’d Bodies of the Arabians and other Nations, brought to us from Syria and Egypt for Mummies, were only fill’d with Pissasphalt, inasmuch as being the poorer sort of People in those Countries, they could not be suppos’d to afford the expence of a better Embalment, for the Rich and Noble, whose Bodies were Embalm’d more costly with Myrrh, Aloes, Cinamon, Balsam, Saffron, and the like, were so carefully inclos’d in their private Sepulchres, that it was not only a very difficult matter to get at them, but also more rare to bring any of them over; whereas the Bodies of the Poor and Ignoble, stuff’d only with Pissasphalt, of so mean a price and after so slight a manner, were to be come at with little trouble and less suspicion. Thus the Syrians and Egyptians were wont to condite their Bodies, and the Arabians also, from what Matthiolus could learn from their Writings, esteem’d Mummy to be Pissasphalt rather than Asphalt, for, as Avicenna writes, Mummy performs the very same thing as Asphalt does, when mix’d with Pitch; from whence we may easily conjecture, that the Bodies were only prepar’d with Pissasphalt. "Bodies only prepar’d with Pissasphalt." With this also Serapio agrees, who, discoursing of Mummy, according to the Authority of Dioscorides, delivers the very same words as he does of Pissasphalt, affirming, there is Mummy or Pissasphalt in the Land of Apollonia, which, descending from the Mountains by the course of the River, is cast upon its Banks, and there coagulated like Wax, having the Smell of Pitch mix’d with Asphalt, with some FÆtor, and its Virtue is like to Pitch and Asphalt mix’d together, whence ’tis also thought our Mummy is rather Pissasphalt than Asphalt; for altho’ Strabo says, The Bitumen Judaicum was us’d for preserving Bodies, nevertheless he does not deny but they mix’d Pitch with Bitumen, which makes an artificial Pissasphalt; "Artificial Pissasphalt." but Serapio and Avicenna knew these Mixtures very well, since not only the Syrians, but, their Countrymen the Mauritanians also made use of it. Also that which is sold to us for Mummy, is only the Body of an Egyptian, Arabian, or the like, Embalm’d with Pissasphalt, neither is it always properly so, says Struppius, for they sometimes us’d to lay the Bones of a Human Body in their proper places, and pour’d over them melted Pissasphalt, "Sophisticate Mummy." which working into the natural form and shape of the Body, they sent over for Mummy, and such is that which is brought to us even at this Day, having no particle of Myrrh, Aloes, Balsam, &c. mix’d with it, as manifestly appears from its Smell, Taste and Colour.

Thus having shew’d how the Egyptians preserv’d their Dead after several ways, as by Salination with Aromatics, Salination with Cedar, Asphalt or Pissasphalt, and by Salination with Salt alone, according to the Accounts of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and the Observations of other Persons upon them, I will next add some other Remarks concerning the Nature of their Embalmings, and the respective Works of the several Persons employ’d therein; likewise, the manner of Rouling, Painting and Dressing their Dead, with the Ceremonies of Judging them, ferrying them over the Lake, keeping them in their Houses, setting them at their Tables, pawning them, &c.

First then, we will suppose the Egyptians had a certain Temple or Office wherein all Things were kept in order for Embalming a Body, "An Office of Embalming." to which there belong’d, and where there resided all sorts of Persons who perform’d any particular part of that Art, as Washing, Salting, Anointing, &c. or else prepar’d any kind of Necessaries for the Funeral Pomp. Now these were distinguish’d by the several Names of a Priest or Physician, an Embalmer or Surgeon, a Pollinctor or Apothecary, a Dissector or Anatomist, a Salinator or Salter and a Designer or Painter, also ?e?????s??, a Dresser of the Dead, and ??taf?ast??, one that furnish’d all Necessaries for the Funeral, and bury’d the Body, being call’d in Latin Libitinarius: That there was such an Office, appears not only from these several Persons, mention’d by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who were employ’d therein, and either profess’d the Art of Embalming, or perform’d some other part belonging to the Funeral Pomp, but is also prov’d from their saying, That the dead Body was carry’d out to be Embalm’d, which plainly implies some certain place allotted for that purpose. First therefore, we will suppose there belong’d to this Office a Clerk, "The Clerk." who shew’d, the Friends of the Deceas’d, Patterns of all sorts of things belonging either to the Libitinarii or Furnishers of the Funeral, or to the Curatores Corporis, the Embalmers, who having agreed with them after what manner, and at what Price they would have it done, enter’d it into a Book, and took care to see it perform’d accordingly. The President or Head of this College, we take to be one who was both a Priest and Physician, "The Physician." and therefore was highly Honour’d, and had in the greatest Esteem and Respect. As a Priest he was qualify’d to instruct the several Officers in all Funeral Rites and Ceremonies, and confirm the People in the Metempsychosis, upon which those Matters were grounded: As a Physician, being skill’d in the Art of Embalming, and the Nature of all Vegetables and Minerals, he prescrib’d balsamic Medicines and odoriferous Unguents for the Apothecary to compound and apply pursuant to his Directions, and instructed the Surgeon how to perform the manual Operation. That there was a Physician made use of in Embalming, appears very plainly from the Second Verse of the 50th Chapter of Genesis, where Moses, speaking of the Death of Jacob, says his Son Joseph commanded his Servants, the Physicians, to Embalm his Father, and the Physicians Embalm’d Israel; where by his Servants, the Physicians, seems to be meant either those properly belonging to his Person, it being antiently a Custom for Princes and Noble Men to have such in their Families to wait upon and take care of them, or by the Repetition The Physicians Embalm’d Israel, might be meant those of the Office, since Joseph, being Viceroy of Egypt, might well command them, they being all his Servants and in subjection to him. "Embalming of Jacob." This leads me to digress a little in order to give a further Account of the Embalming Jacob, whereby will appear how far those Heathen Writers before-mention’d agree with the Scripture. First then there was a great necessity for Embalming Jacob, by reason his Body was to be carry’d a great way to his Sepulchre, and both Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus tell us, there were those in Egypt that profess’d the Art of preserving Bodies from Corruption, which ’tis plain was part of the Physicians Emploiment, for the word Ropheim (which we Translate Physicians) constantly signifies in Scripture such as cur’d or heal’d sick Bodies; but the LXX. here aptly enough Translate it ??taf?ast??, (those that prepar’d and fitted Bodies for their Interment by Embalming as we, says the Bishop of Ely, likewise Translate it) because that was their proper Business; whence ’tis Pliny, Lib. 11. chap. 37. says, Mos est Ægyptiis Cadavera asservare Medicata, ’Tis the Custom among the Egyptians to preserve dead Bodies by the Physicians Art. In this Art they excell’d all the World besides, Bodies of their Embalming remaining entire even to this Day, and no question but Joseph, who spar’d neither Cost nor Pains, had his Father Embalm’d after the noblest manner. "Perform’d in Forty Days." And Forty Days were fulfill’d for him (for so are fulfill’d the Days of those that are Embalm’d) and the Egyptians Mourn’d for him Threescore and Ten Days, ver. 3. That is, Forty Days were spent in Embalming him, which could not be finish’d in a shorter Time, for Diodorus Siculus tells us of several Officers that were employ’d about it one after another, and that they anointed the dead Body with Balsam of Cedar for above 30 Days, and afterwards with Myrrh, Cinamon, and the like, which might make up the residue of 40 Days: But Herodotus differs from him in this, by adding 30 Days more for Salting the Body with Nitre, which makes in all 70 Days, the full Time of their Mourning, "The Time of their Mourning." they being accustom’d to spend all that Time, which they were Embalming the Body and preparing for the Funeral, in Mourning, the manner of which we have before describ’d, p. 241, 243, 245, 247. so shall here only farther take notice what some object, that this Mourning was immoderate, having more of Ambition than Piety in it; to which Jacobus Capellus answers, That granting it be true, that Joseph did not bring in this Custom, and had peculiar Reason to follow what he found in use, that they might be more condemn’d who vex’d the innocent Posterity, on whose Parent they had bestow’d Royal Honours; there is besides something due to Kings and great Men to distinguish them from common People. Now when the Days of Mourning were past, that is 70 Days, Joseph went up to Bury his Father, and with him went up all the Servants of Pharaoh, the Elders of his House, and all the Elders of the Land of Egypt, "Funeral Procession." ver. 7. The principal Persons in Authority and Dignity throughout the whole Country, as well such as were Governors of Provinces and Cities, Counsellors, &c. as such as were principal Officers at Court. And all the House of Joseph, and his Brethren, and his Fathers House, ver. 8. And there went up with him both Chariots and Horsemen, v. 9. as a Guard to him, which ’tis likely always attended him, as Viceroy of the Kingdom, but now might be necessary for his safety as he pass’d thro’ the Desarts. And it was a very great Company. That he might appear in great State at such a Solemnity. When they came beyond Jordan they mourn’d with a great and very sore Lamentation seven Days, the Time of public Mourning among the Jews in succeeding Ages, as appears from several Instances, particularly, 1 Sam. 31. 13. Eccl. 22. 13. Judith 16. 20. Moreover this shows the Lamentation was so exceeding great, that the Place where it was made was afterwards call’d Abel-Mizraim, "Abel-Mizraim." that is, The Mourning of the Egyptians. But how they bury’d Jacob when they came into Canaan, as also concerning the nature of the Cave wherein they laid him, see the Bishop of Ely’s Notes on the 50th Chapter of Genesis, from whom I have chiefly extracted this; and other Commentators, for I think it high time to return to the Embalming of the Egyptians, according to the propos’d institution of an Office, in which having already shown the respective Emploiments of the Clerk and Priest or Physician, we shall next proceed to speak of the Surgeon or Embalmer, and of all other inferior Officers under him, such as the Dissector, Emboweller, Pollinctor, Salter, and other dependant Servants, as Dressers of the Dead, Painters, Carvers, and the like.

The Surgeon, who was the chief Embalmer, generally directed and took care to see the several Operations perform’d in due order, and sometimes did them himself; for tho’ the Curatores Corporis, that were his Assistants and Servants, commonly Dissected, Embowell’d, Wash’d, Anointed and Embalm’d the Bodies of the meaner sort of People, yet when any Prince or Nobleman was to be Embalm’d, after the richest and most curious manner, he perform’d the chief part of the Work himself, and this he was the more capable of as being both an exquisite Anatomist, and well vers’d in the Nature of all Balsamic Medicines, whether Galenical or Chymical, and tho’ he might be something inferior to the Physician, yet in conjunction with him, was he both the better able to consider the Nature of the deceas’d Person’s Distemper, or Cause of his Death, and accordingly to proceed in his Embalming; and lastly, he was very dextrous and knowing in the Art of Bandage, whereby it appears his chief Business was to Embalm and Roul up the Body, which, in respect to its being thus preserv’d by Balsamic and Medicinal Ingredients, artificially and topically apply’d, was said to be Corpus Medicatum, "Corpus Medicatum." a Body preserv’d from Putrifaction by Embalming. Now I cannot imagine, as some Authors affirm, they did this always in one road or manner, but that the Physician vary’d his Prescriptions, by adding one thing and subtracting another, increasing the quantity of one Ingredient or diminishing that of another, according to the Constitution of the Person, and Nature of his Disease, agreeable to which was the Embalming perform’d; for ’tis certain some Medicines are more prevalent against Putrifactions than others, and that there ought to be a difference, as well, in the Composition of the Medicine, as in the Embalming one that dy’d only thro’ a natural Decay, one that dy’d of some malignant Distemper, or one that dy’d of a Hectic Feaver, which consumes and dries up the radical Moisture of the Body, and one that dy’d of a Dropsie, which colliquates the Body and makes it fluid with its Waters. In a word, there ought to be a difference even in an old Body and a Young; therefore, as the Doctor’s Prescriptions were vary’d, according to these Considerations, so was there a greater occasion for a skilful Apothecary, to take care of and see to the compounding the Aromatic Powders, Oils, Balsams, Ointments, Cerecloths, Tinctures, Spirits, and the like analogous Things, and their Application, according to the Directions of the Doctor; and as the Surgeon had under him a Dissector, &c. "Dissector." who embowell’d and wash’d the Body, and did the like inferior Businesses, so had the Apothecary Servants under him to make up the Medicines, administer Clysters and Injections, and to Anoint the Body, thence call’d Pollinctors. "Pollinctor." Thus was the chief Concern of the Embalming a Body manag’d by the Advice and Assistance of the Physician, Surgeon and Apothecary, as indeed it ought also to be perform’d at this Day, and not to have ignorant Undertakers direct and act all things at their pleasure. But when Bodies were to be Embalm’d without Gums, Spices, Cedria, Asphalt, Pissasphalt or the like, such as the poorest People, who could not be at the expence of them, they were chiefly committed to the Care of the TaricheutÆ or Salitores, "TaricheutÆ Salitores." who only prepar’d and dry’d them with Salt, and then such Bodies were call’d Corpora Condita, pickl’d or salted Bodies. "Corpora Condita." Thus having shown the principal Persons of this Office, and who directed and perform’d the Embalming, we will next give an account of those that provided all things necessary for the Funeral. These were such as the Greeks call’d ??taf?ast??, "??taf?ast??," he that got the Body ready and prepar’d all Necessaries for the Interment; "??taf??p????." ??taf??p????, he that sold all Matters appertaining to Funerals, and ?e?????s?? the Dresser, "?e?????s??," or one that put on the Ornaments of the Dead: But all these were term’d by the Romans in general Libitinarii, "Libitinarii." the Undertakers and Furnishers of Funerals, who had the Care of preparing, letting out or selling the Ornaments and Dresses for the Dead, and of providing Mourners, mourning Habits, and whatever else was necessary for the Funeral Pomp; nay who eas’d the afflicted Friends of their Trouble. They were thus nam’d from Libitina, a Goddess whom the Ancients believ’d to preside over Funerals, and some took to be Proserpina, but others Venus, thereby to show, that as she was at the beginning of Life by Generation, so was she likewise at the end or conclusion thereof, inasmuch as in her Temple were kept and sold all things necessary for Funeral-Solemnities. Other Officers were the Herald, Painter, Carver, &c.

The Herald’s Business was to proclaim and give notice of the approaching Funeral, to summon and invite the Company, and lastly to marshall them in the Funeral-Procession, according to their respective Dignities and Quality. "Painter." The Painter was to gild or paint the Body and Coffin, with Hieroglyphic Characters, &c. "Carver." And the Carver to make the Models of Wood that were to be shown to the deceas’d Person’s Friends, to denote that they Embalm’d Bodies three several Ways, and at as many different Rates; they likewise wrought the Coffins into the shape and form of the Deceas’d. But we shall speak more of these in their order, after having first given some Particulars relating to the several Methods of the Egyptian Embalming, not hitherto so fully describ’d. "Embalming with Cedar." First then, we believe the manner of Embalming with Cedar might probably be invented to satisfie such whose Consciences would admit of no Dissection at all, and the most likely Method of performing it was by injecting into the Brain, thro’ the Nostrils, into the Thorax, thro’ the Aspera Arteria, and into the Stomach and Intestines, thro’ the Oesophagus and Anus, Oil of Cedar, by the help of a Siringe and Dilator. This being a subtil, hot, and rectify’d Oil of a Caustic Nature, wasted and consum’d the Bowels like to quick Lime, and then the Body being hung up or plac’d in a declining posture, they press’d and squeez’d out the said Oil, which brought away with it the Bowels wasted. Then the Corps being wash’d and cleans’d, they again injected into all the Cavities and Venters, as much as they could of a Balsam distill’d from the Pitch of young Cedars, which being depriv’d of its corrosive and subtil Oil, had nothing of a Caustic Quality remaining in it, but consisted only of drying, exsiccating and Balsamic Parts. Then they laid the Body in Pickle for 70 Days; after which, having wip’d it, they anointed it with a sweet and drying Ointment, which perhaps from the Basis of its Composition might be term’d Unguentum Cedrinum, "Unguentum Cedrinum." and then dry’d it in the Sun or otherwise, by which means all remaining Moisture, and the thinner and more subtil parts of the Balsam being evaporated, the Body became hard, firm and solid, like to a Colophony of Turpentine or Pitch.

The second Way of Embalming among the Egyptians was perform’d with natural or factitious Pissasphalt, just in the same manner as I shall show with Asphalt, but only the natural Pissasphalt was us’d for the midling sort of People, and the factitious for the poorer and common People and Slaves; nor was there any Curiosity in these more than the usual Exenteration, Salination and Coction in the Bitumens, for they neither us’d Roulers nor bestow’d Coffins on them.

The third sort, which was for the more substantial People, "Embalming with Asphalt." was more costly and exact, and perform’d with Asphalt after this manner: The Corps being open’d, embowell’d, wash’d, cleans’d and salted after the usual Method, was put into a large Cauldron fill’d with Asphalt, or Bitumen Judaicum, made fluid with Naptha, and then boil’d ’till it had melted the Fat, and consum’d all the Humors and Juices which are the Principals of Corruption, by which means the soft parts of the Flesh were made firm, and the whole Body penetrated, and as it were pitch’d to the Marrow of the Bones, with this Bituminous Liquor. Then being taken out of the Cauldron, and swath’d up whilst it was yet hot, it at length became petrify’d and hard like to Marble.

The fourth and last way is both Noble and Expensive, and was perform’d to the utmost Perfection, Art and Skill. The Brain being extracted, and the Thorax and Abdomen releas’d of their Viscera, all the Cavities were thoroughly cleans’d with aromatiz’d Wine, and then repleted with a Composition of Myrrh, Aloes, Cinamon, Opobalsamum, Saffron, and the like; after which, they sew’d up the Incisions, and salted the Body with Nitre for 70 Days, and then wiping and drying it from the Pickle or Salt, they anointed it with an Ointment made of aromatic, balsamic and odoriferous Ingredients, whence some Authors have call’d a Body so prepar’d, Funus odoratum. "Funus odoratum." This done, they swath’d it up with Roulers made of fine Linnen, and dipp’d in some Balsam, Ointment or Cerecloth, which being dry, serv’d like Glue to stop the Pores, and hinder the Dissipation of the volatil parts of the Aromatics, as well as the Penetration of the Air. Guichard, cap. 10. p. 479. des Funerailles des Ægyptiens, thinks this Gum to have been Acacia, of which see Dioscorides, Lib. 1. cap. 134. & apud Mathiol. p. 115. But Bellonius and other Authors think the Gum which Herodotus says the Egyptians us’d instead of Glue was Cedria, besmear’d on the Roulers in manner of a Cerecloth: "Roulers how prepar’d, &c." Others say the Body was first anointed with a Gum, and then wrapped up in fine Linnen, and Casalius de veter. Ægyptior. Ritibus, p. 30. says, Gummi Oleo inungebant, which is more agreeable to the Observations I have made, That the Roulers seem’d either dipp’d in Oleo seu Unguento Cedrino, or after the Body was anointed with it, roul’d up and finish’d, then that the Bandages were prepar’d after the manner of a Cerecloth, with Gum or Rosin of Cedar, because this would have made them hard and brittle, whereas those which I have seen, were pliable and free from any Gum or Embalming Matter adhering to them, and no ways different from other Linnen, but only of a Cinnamon or Snuff-Colour; so that probably they might dip or anoint them with the Oil or Ointment of Cedar, rather to make them lasting and durable than to stick to the Body; for Greaves tells us in his Pyramidographia, p. 50. that he had seen some of these Roulers so strong and perfect, as if they had been made but Yesterday. With these they bound and swath’d the dead Body, beginning at the Head and ending with the Feet. Over these again they wound others, so often one upon another, that there could not be less than a 1000 ells upon one Body. They interwove these Roulers so artificially and in such manner, says Kircher, as would puzzle the Ingenuity and tire the Industry of our Modern Surgeons to find out, yet, with submission to him, it may not be so difficult to perform by any one tollerably skill’d in the Art of Bandage as he imagines, for, as I take it, they began with the Feet and Hands, and ended with the Head, contrary to what Greaves asserts, tho’ I cannot say this of my own Knowledge, having never had any opportunity of unrouling such Bodies, but only offer the Consideration thereof, according to the appearance of the following Figures, of which the first shows the interior artificial Circumvolutions of the Roulers, the Body being first wrapp’d in fine Linnen, wherein Egypt excell’d, as the Holy Scriptures testifie, Prov. 7. 16. &c. The second Figure represents the manner of the next Rouling, and the fourth shews the external Ornaments, painted with Hierogliphics, &c. "Designer or Painter." For when the Body was thus roul’d, the Designer or Painter cover’d the superficies of the Roulers with a kind of Paste or Gum, on which he gilded and painted Cyphers, Figures, Letters, Characters and other Hieroglyphics. The third Figure shows a Case to keep the Body in, made of Linnen, and painted in like manner with Hieroglyphics in distinct Colours, having been found in the MusÆum of Johannes Nardius. Now concerning the nature and signification of these Hieroglyphics, "Hieroglyphic Characters." Authors variously write; but none have taken so much Pains, or div’d so far into the meaning of them, as the Learned Kircher, who pretends to explain all the Hieroglyphic Characters painted on the Roulers and Coffins of the Mummies, in his Oedipi Ægyptiaci Theatrum Hieroglyphicum, where also, p. 412 and 414. you may find the particular Explanations of the third and fourth Figures. But since there remains no Alphabet or Dictionary of these Characters (for the entire Knowledge of Hieroglyphics perish’d at the Time the Egyptian Ceremonies ceas’d, and were abolish’d by the Irruption Cambyses made into Egypt) we believe all those assiduous Penetrations into these Mysteries by Kircher and R. P. Menestrier, are but imperfect Conjectures and meer Imaginations. However, having spoken of the Egyptian Language in no part of this Book before, it may not be amiss to insert here some few Particulars concerning it. "Two sorts of Languages and Characters." First then, there were two sorts of Languages and Characters among the Egyptians; one common and us’d by all, constituted for their Trade and Commerce with Mankind, and which was that Tongue or Idiom call’d the Coptic or Pharonic, and the other us’d only by Priests, Prophets, Hierogrammatists or Holy Writers, and the like Persons in Sacerdotal Orders. The first was written from the Right Hand to the Left in Characters not unlike the old Greek; but the latter consisted not of Letters, Syllables or Words, but thro’ the Image and Pictures of Things, they endeavour’d to deliver their hidden Conceits in the Letters and Language of Nature. Thus by a representation of the several Parts and Actions of Man, the shape of Artificers Tools and Instruments, the form of all sorts of Animals, Beasts, Birds and Fish, the resemblance of the Sun, Moon, Planets and the like, they exactly read and understood every thing couch’d within those Hieroglyphics. For Example, the Crocodile was the Emblem of Malice; the Eye the Preserver of Justice and the Guard of the Body; the Right Hand, with its Fingers open, signify’d Plenty, and the Left, with its Fingers clos’d, Preservation and Custody of Mens Goods and Estates. To express their Eneph or Creator of the World, the Egyptians describ’d an old Man in a blew Mantle, with an Egg in his Mouth, which was the Emblem of the World, and express’d their Notion of Divinity by an Eye on a Scepter, by an Eagle’s Head, &c. Of which see more in Sir Thomas Brown’s Vulgar Errors, cap. 20. where he rightly observes, that of all Nations that suffer’d by the Confusion of Babel, the Egyptians found the best Evasion; for tho’ Words were confounded, they invented a Language of Things, and spake to each other by common Notions in Nature, whereby they discours’d in silence, and were intuitively understood from the Theory of their Impressions; for they assum’d the shapes of Animals common to all Eyes, and by their Conjunctions and Compositions were able to communicate their Conception to any that co-apprehended the Syntaxis of their Natures. This many conceive to have been the Primitive way of Writing, and of greater Antiquity than Letters; and this Language indeed might Adam well have spoken, who understanding the Nature of Things, had the advantage of Natural Expressions, &c. But to add two or three Examples more out of Orus: For Eternity the Egyptians painted the Sun and Moon, as Things which they believ’d to have had no beginning, nor were likely to have any ending; for a Year they painted a Snake with his Tail in his Mouth, to show how, one Year succeeding another, the World was still kept in an endless Circle; for a Month they painted a Palm-Tree, by reason at every new Moon that Tree sends forth a new Branch; for GOD they painted a Falcon, as well in that he soars so exceeding high, as that he governs the lesser Birds, for Integrity of Life they painted Fire and Water, both because these Elements are in themselves most pure, and by reason all other Things are purify’d by them; for any thing that was abominable to the Gods they painted a Fish, because in their Sacrifices the Priests never us’d them, and the like of which you will find innumerable Instances in Pierius’s Book of the Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Now what so great a number of these Sacred Characters inscrib’d on their Obelisks and Mummies signify’d, Authors seem to differ about, some looking on them as Charms and Necromancy, "Hieroglyphics, their Signification." and others thinking they did thereby endeavour not so much to express as hide their Meanings, to amuse and awe the Vulgar; but I am more inclinable to think they always contain’d some History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Actions of the Deceas’d, or else some Religious Ceremonies, and the like; for Diodorus Siculus, Lib. 1. cap. 4. writes of Sesoosis, that he erected two Obelisks of polish’d Marble 120 Cubits high, on which were inscrib’d a Description of the large extent of his Empire, the great Value of his Revenue, and the number of the Nations by him conquer’d; and what sort of Writing this was, is explain’d a little before, where, speaking of the like Works, he says, he erected Pillars whereon were inscrib’d in Egyptian Letters call’d Hieroglyphics these Words: Sesoosis King of Kings and Lord of Lords subdu’d this Country by his Arms. Also Lib. 5. cap. 3. he writes of a Golden Pillar whereon were Letters inscrib’d, call’d by the Egyptians Sacred Writing, expressing the famous Actions of Uranus, Jupiter, Diana and Apollo, written, as they say, by Mercury himself, whom most Authors agree with him to have been the first Inventor of these Hieroglyphic Characters.

But to return to the manner of dressing and adorning the Embalm’d Bodies, such as is represented in Figure the 4th, where you may see the Image and Form of a Woman set off with various Ornaments, the signification of whose Hieroglyphic Characters you have explain’d by Kircher, in the Book and Page before-mention’d; we shall next proceed to give an account of an extraordinary fine Mummy which Pietro della Valle saw and describes in this manner, viz. That upon it was the Figure of a young Man, dress’d in a long Gown, gilded and sprinkl’d over with Hieroglyphic Emblems from Head to Foot, set off with precious Stones, with the Hair of his Head black and curl’d, and his Beard of the same colour, but short; a Chain of Gold hung about his Neck, having a Medal with the Image of the Bird Ibis on it, with many other Marks and Characters, which give us to understand this young Man was possess’d of great Dignities. In his Right Hand he held a Golden Bason full of red Liquor, and in his Left a Fruit somewhat resembling an Apple: He had a Gold-Ring on his Thumb, and another on his little Finger, likewise Sandals which cover’d the Soles of his Feet only, and were ty’d above the Instep with Straps or Latchets. On a Fillet or Rouler hanging at his Girdle, one might plainly read the word Eutichi, which signifies Good Time. By his side was a Woman yet more richly and mysteriously adorn’d, with an Ox, the Image of Apis or Isis, at her Feet. In a word, both these Figures were painted like to the Saints of the Ancients. When the dead Bodies of the Egyptians were Embalm’d, roul’d, painted and adorn’d after the manner we have describ’d, as you may partly see at Figures the first, second and fourth, they put them into Cases or Coffins made of Linnen pasted to a great thickness, or else of Wood carv’d in the similitude and likeness of the Person deceas’d, as you may see at Figures the third and fifth; the first of which shows the back part of a Linnen-Case for a Mummy, painted with several Colours, as is to be seen in the Collection of Johannes Nardius; and the other how a roul’d Body lies plac’d in a wooden Coffin, as may be seen in the MusÆum of the Great Duke of Tuscany.

These Coffins were sometimes made of Cedar, but most commonly of Sycamore, a large Tree, very plentifully growing in Egypt and JudÆa, which bears Leaves like to the Mulberry-Tree, but larger, and Fruit like to a Fig, not sprouting from the Branches, but from the Stock or Body of the Tree. ’Tis call’d by us the Egyptian Fig, by them Giumez. Its Leaves afford a pleasant shade, its Fruit refreshment to such as Travel in the Plains of those hot Countries, and its Wood serves not only for Coffins but Buildings. ’Tis also a Tree so lasting and well rooted, that the Sycamore which Zacheus ascended, is still shown in JudÆa to Travellers, as is also the hollow Sycamore at Matarea in Egypt, where the Blessed Virgin is said to have remain’d for some Time, which tho’ it savour of the Legend, says Sir Thomas Brown in his Observations on Scripture-Plants, p. 12. yet it plainly shows what Opinion the Egyptians had of the lasting Condition of this Tree to countenance their Tradition, of which likewise they might not be without some Experience, since the Learned Greaves observes, p. 57. that the old Egyptians made Coffins of this Wood, of which there are many frequently found among the Mummies, very fair, entire and free from Corruption even at this Day, nay after the Revolution perhaps of 3000 Years. Of these Coffins Greaves tells us, p. 50. he had seen many fashion’d after the likeness of a Man, or rather resembling one of those Embalm’d Bodies, which, as we have describ’d before, are bound about with Fillets or Roulers, and wrapp’d in a Shroud of Linnen; for as in those there is the shape of a Head, with a kind of painted Vizard or Mask fastned to them, but without any appearance of their Arms or Legs, in like manner is it with these Coffins, the Lids of which have the shape of the Head of a Man, with a Face painted on it resembling a Woman, the residue being one continued Trunk. At the end of this Trunk is a Pedestal somewhat broad, on which it stood upright in the Reconditory, as Herodotus relates. Some of these Coffins are handsomly painted without with several Hieroglyphics; opening two of them he found within, over the Body, "Scroles painted with Characters, &c." divers Scroles fastned to the Linnen-Shroud: These were painted with Sacred Characters, in Colours very lively and fresh, among which were, in a larger size, the Pictures both of Men and Women, some headed like Hawks, others like Dogs, &c. These Scroles ran either down the Belly and Sides, or else were plac’d on the Knees and Legs. On the Feet was a Linnen-Cover (and so were all the Scroles before-mention’d of Linnen, it being not lawful for them to use Woollen) painted with Hieroglyphics, and fashion’d like a high Slipper. On the Breast was a kind of Breast-Plate, made with folds of Linnen cut Scallop-wise, richly painted and gilt. In the midst of the bend at the top, was the Face of a Woman with her Arms extended, on each side, at the two outmost ends, was the Head of a Hawk fairly gilt, by which they represented the Divine Nature. Thus far Greaves. Moreover Thevenot, Bellonius, Nardius and others observe, "Several things found included in the Mummies," that the Egyptians were wont to put within the Cavities of the Breasts and Bellies of their Embalm’d Bodies, such Things as they generally lov’d most in their Life-Time, viz. Books, Writings, Arms, Medals, Money and pieces of Antiquity, little Vessels, or any sort of antient Houshold-Goods; also little Idols and Images of the Gods which they Worshipp’d whilst alive, &c. Kircher tells us in his Oedipus Ægyptiacus Theatr. Hierogl. p. 420. that Nardius sent him two Roulers mark’d with Hieroglyphics, and roul’d up in the manner of a Scrole, taken out of the Breast or Belly of a Mummy; adding also that the Egyptians did not only look on such Hieroglyphics as Symbols of the greatest Secrecy, but also that they had a power to obtain Protection of those Gods to whom they were fastned, and that these Roulers signify’d nothing else but the Funeral Pomp, which was perform’d as magnificently as possible, especially if it were of a King, Priest or the like, the Explanation whereof see in the Page above-mention’d. Gulielmus Rondeletus, a Physician of Montpelier, kept as a great Rarity 20 Leaves of antient Paper, "as Papers," taken out of the Breast of a Mummy, which was fill’d with old Arabic Letters, yet none could read it, tho’ the Jews of Avignon conjectur’d it contain’d the Life of the Deceas’d; but nothing is so commonly found in these Mummies, as Idols of various sizes, tho’ generally about half a Foot or a Span long, form’d either of Potters Earth, glaz’d or varnish’d and bak’d, or else of Stone, Metal, Wood or the like. Some of all these kinds Mr. Greaves brought over, and particularly mentions one cut out of a Magnes or Loadstone, in the form and bigness of a ScarabÆus: See p. 48. of his Pyramidographia. Camerarius, Horar. subcisivar. Cent. 1. cap. 14. speaks more remarkably of those made of Brass, "Brass-Images," affirming they were chiefly us’d in that manner, by reason they had great Virtue to preserve dead Bodies from Putrifaction, especially, since Pierius in his Book of Hieroglyphics witnesses, that Brass-Nails were stuck into the Body for the same purpose; but this is not to be credited by any one physically skill’d in the Virtues of Minerals, &c. We have more reason to believe these Idols were so plac’d out of Superstition, especially seeing many are the Figures of Isis, Osiris, and other Gods; nor did they only place them in the inside of dead Bodies, but also hung them there on the out-side, sewing them to the Roulers and Ornaments, and likewise plac’d them in their Sepulchres: These from their Office or Use were distinguish’d by several Names, "Averruncal and" such as Averruncal or ApotropÆan Gods, so call’d because they were thought to avert Evil; "Prophylactic Statues." others were term’d Prophylactic Statues or Portable Amulets, which they carry’d as Charms about their Necks, Arms and Girdles; and a third sort, in general Esteem among them, "Serapes." were the Serapes, the same with what the Hebrews call’d Teraphim, the Latins, Penates and Lares, being Tutelar Gods, appointed to defend and keep certain Places, and some of these they carry’d along with them where-ever they went. Of this number were Osiris, Isis, Nepthe, Horus, Harpocrates, Arveris, Apopis and innumerable others of the like kind, which altho’ they were all in the Nature of Genii, and the same in Substance, differing only in their Effects, yet, says Kircher, as they were deputed to the Custody of private Things, so they obtain’d the Name of Tutelar Gods, and were accordingly Worshipp’d for private Deities. Thus some were Country-Gods, others Defenders of Cities, and a third sort Keepers of private Houses. There have been great numbers of these brought out of Egypt, of various sizes and compos’d of different Matter, such as Earth, Stone, Wood, Metal or the like, "Their Forms and Actions." differing both in Form and Actions, some appearing like Mummies and roul’d up in the same manner, others with deform’d and threatning Countenances thereby to strike an awe and terrifie, to which purpose they held various Instruments in their Hands, such as Hooks and Harping-Irons, Sheilds, Whips, and the like; but all these kinds of Statues were adorn’d with Hieroglyphic Characters both before and behind, nay, some all over, whence they came to be call’d Polycharacteristic Statues, of which you may see above 50 several Figures, with their Descriptions, in Kircher’s Book before-mention’d, Syntagma 16, 17, 18 and 19. I shall here therefore only insert two Plates out of Johannes Nardius’s Annotations on Lucretius, whereof all the Statues and Figures were in his own Custody and MusÆum, and of which the first Plate represents the foreside and backside of eight Wooden Images, without either Arms or Legs, adorn’d in a manner with the same Dresses, Ornaments and Characters as the Mummies, about a Cubit and half long, which the Egyptians were wont to place on their Tombs and Coffins, as may be seen at p. 203. The 9th Figure shews a Linnen Ornament for the Breast, distinctly painted with divers Colours, wherein was express’d the true way of opening Bodies in order to their Embalming; from which also appears, that they open’d the Thorax, tho’ neither Herodotus nor Diodorus Siculus make any mention thereof. The 10th Figure shews an Alabaster-Urn or Pot mark’d with Hieroglyphics, and fill’d with Asphalt, with which they us’d to Embalm their Bodies, and the 11th is the Cover of the Pot with a Dog’s Head on it.

The second Plate represents such Figures as the Egyptians hung on their Embalm’d Bodies, which were made of glaz’d and colour’d Earth, or else of Brass: The first nine are deform’d, with horrid Countenances, either of Men or Animals, some joyning their Hands, others bearing on their Knees, or else hanging them down. The 1st and 9th, which look most terrible with a Lion’s Countenance, represent the MophtÆi Genii; the 2d has the Face of the Dog Anubis; the 3d and 7th have the monstrous Beards of the Priests of Isis; the 4th and 6th are the NepthÆi; the 5th represents Horus, a Boy with a monstrous Head; the 8th has the Face of a Boy likewise, with a loop-hole on the Back, to sew it to the Mummies, as have also the 1st, 2d, 4th, 6th, 20th, 21st and 25th Figures, tho’ not altogether so conspicuous. The 12th and 14th, as also the 19th and 25th are the same, with the 1st and 9th, signifying the Genii MophtÆi; the 11th and 15th are the same with the 4th and 6th; the 16th, 21st and 23d carry great Stones on their Heads and Shoulders, as it were threatning to fling them at such as offer’d to disturb them, or else to bury them under them; the 10th is a ScarabÆus; the 13th a Phallus occulatus, which they carry’d about with them as one of the greatest Amulets they could use against Sterility; the 17th and 18th are two Crocodiles, likewise carry’d along with them to appease Typhon; the 20th and 24th with Hawks Heads represent Osiris; the 22d is most monstrous of all, carrying a Bushel on its Head, all the Figure being compos’d of Head and Belly. It denotes Serapis, of whom they say there was a Statue in Alexandria of that Magnitude, that it touch’d both sides of the Serapian Temple; the 26th is Harpocrates holding his Finger on his Mouth, to shew the Silence religiously observ’d by the Egyptians in their Mysteries; the 27th is the Ox Apis, before describ’d p. 200, and the 28th the Statue of Isis, giving Suck to her Son Horus.

These were the true Phylacteric and Averruncal Statues of the Egyptians, some made portable with Handles, and others with a square piece of Wood proceeding from their Pedestal, whereby they were the better fix’d on Tombs. Some again were put within the Bellies of the Mummies, and others hung about the outsides of them, and that as well to preserve the Bodies from Putrifaction as the Sepulchres from Rapine, "Their Use and Virtues." which they were suppos’d to effect by their Divine Power, or Magical Virtue, or else by their terrible and deform’d Countenances were thought to strike a Dread into every approaching Adversary.

Thus the Body being Embalm’d and adorn’d with Hieroglyphic Characters, magical Amulets, Statues and the like, and every thing else got ready for the Funeral, it was on the last Day or Time appointed for the Burial, put on board a Ship call’d Barris, and by the Ferry-Man, Charon, "Charon." wafted o’er the Lake Acherusia; which lies on the South side of Memphis, where being landed on a Plain, the chief Burial-Place of the Egyptians, and which is fabl’d by the Greeks to be the Elysian Fields, they plac’d the Corps on a Bier, before the Mouth of the Sepulchre, when the Judges, Priests and common People surrounding it, "Manner of Judging the Dead." one who was purposely appointed to rehearse impartially the Funeral-Oration, openly declar’d the Virtues, Vices and Actions, nay whole Life and Conversation of the Deceas’d, and after all the Evidences were examin’d (every one having a free power to accuse the dead Person) according to the majority of Votes and judgment of the Judges, the Corps was dispos’d of. If he had liv’d Virtuously he was honour’d with the greatest Praises and Commendations, and consequently magnificently Interr’d; but if Viciously, he was mightily exclaim’d against and depriv’d of Sepulture. This made even the Kings themselves to live uprightly, fearing so much as to anger the common People whilst alive, lest they should thereby incur their eternal Hatred after their Death. This Custom of the Egyptians examining and trying their Dead, Bossuet in his History of the World, p. 457, takes notice of as a very extraordinary kind of Judgment which none escap’d, affirming, ‘It was a Consolation at the Time of Death to leave their Names in esteem among Men, and of all Human Blessings, this was the only one which Death cannot ravish from us; but it was not suffer’d in Egypt to commend all the Dead indifferently, that was an Honour to be had only from a public Judgment. The public Accuser was heard, if he prov’d the Conduct of the Deceas’d bad, then was his Memory condemn’d and he depriv’d of Sepulture. The People admir’d the power of their Laws, which reach’d them even after Death, and every one being touch’d by the Example, was afraid to dishonour his Memory and Family: But if the Defunct was not convicted of any Crime, then had he an honourable Interment. They made his Panegyric, but medled not in the least with his Birth: All Egypt was Noble, and besides, they receiv’d no farther Commendations than what they had got by their Merits. Moreover, the Egyptians were very curious in Preserving dead Bodies: Thus their Gratitude to their Kindred became Immortal. Children, by seeing the Bodies of their Ancestors, call’d to mind their Virtues, which the Public had made such Acknowledgements to, and they were incited to love those Laws which had so recommended them to them. This Custom of Judging Kings after their Deaths, says he p. 457. seem’d so holy to the People of GOD, that they have always practis’d it. We read in the Scriptures wicked Kings have been depriv’d of the Burial of their Ancestors; and we learn from Josephus, that that Custom lasted even to the Time of the Asmoneans: This gave Kings to understand, that tho’ their Majesty put them above Human Judgments whilst alive, yet were they not above them when Death had equall’d them with other Men. Likewise our Author further adds, p. 454. That to prevent borrowing, which was the Parent of Idleness, Frauds and Branglings, the Decree of King Asychis did not suffer any to borrow, "Pawning the Dead." but on condition he pawn’d the Body of his Ancestor to him of whom he borrow’d; and it was reputed both an Impiety and Infamy together not to redeem it so soon as ever he could, so precious a Pledge was it reckon’d, and he that dy’d before he had acquitted himself of that Duty, was deny’d Burial.’

Now how the Bodies, which are said to have been bury’d, were laid up, is somewhat difficult to determine, since Authors speak so variously of their Burial; for some say they were bury’d either in their private or proper Sepulchres, or else in a public Reconditory, and others say they kept the Dead in their Dwelling-Houses. Now which of these was most us’d by such as could indifferently afford the Expence of either, I will not pretend to determine, however, the great variety of Sepulchres, found even at this Day, plainly proves they bury’d in the Fields and Plains, whereas the other is but traditionally asserted, yet not altogether improbable to be done by so Superstitious a People, of whom it is reported that some, especially the richer Sort, put their Embalm’d Bodies in Cases carv’d after their own likeness, "The Dead kept in Houses," and these they set up in their Halls or Parlours in great Order (perhaps in Niches) being very richly adorn’d, where they took great delight to see a long Race of their Ancestors, in a manner, with as great satisfaction as if they were alive, and they were Conversing with them. Nay, Herodotus, Pomponius Mela and Lucian assert, "and plac’d at Table." they plac’d them at Table like Guests, and made merry with them by Eating and Drinking; yet, when they were necessitous, they scrupl’d not to give them as a Pledge for Money they borrow’d, yet then took particular Care, both punctually to pay the one and redeem the other: But as for such as bury’d their Dead out of their Houses and Villages, in the Fields and Plains, they built Sepulchres for them as noble as possible, some after one Fashion, and some after another, every one according to their own Fancy, or the Charges they could best spare; for they chose rather to have their Monuments magnificently built than their Dwelling-Houses, laughing at the Greeks and other Nations, who caus’d theirs to be rais’d with great expence like to Palaces, notwithstanding they were to live but a very little while in them, and at the same time neglected their Tombs, where they were to lye for a much longer Time. But the Egyptians acted just contrary; they despis’d the present Life, and took little care in building their Habitations, looking upon them only as so many Inns or Baiting-Places, where they were to Inhabit but for a Season, whereas the Glory of a future Life, that was to be procur’d by Virtue, they greatly esteem’d, and consequently spent their whole Care, Study and Riches about the magnificence of their Sepulchres, "Sepulchres call’d Eternal Houses." which they call’d Sempiternal or Eternal Houses, looking upon the Time they were to dwell here on Earth as nothing, in respect of the stay they were to make in the Grave. And hence it is no Nation in the World has been so curious as the Egyptians in their Funeral Ceremonies, Preserving the Dead, and magnificence of Sepulchres, which, besides abundance of private Structures, those Obelisks at Rome and the Pyramids of Egypt, do not only testifie, but will for ever be numbred among the Wonders of the World.

These, Sir, are my humble Thoughts and Opinion concerning the Funerals of the Egyptians, which I entirely submit to your better Judgment, hoping you will pardon this Interruption of your precious Time from more weighty Concerns, and candidly accept the mean, but grateful Performance of,