Everybody knows what the telephone is because it is in almost every man's house. But while everybody knows what it is, there are very few (comparatively speaking) that know how it works. If you remember what has been said about sound and electromagnetism it will not be hard to understand.

When any one utters a spoken word the air is thrown into shivers or vibrations of a peculiar form, and every different sound has a different form. Therefore, every articulate word differs from every other word, not only as a shape in the air, but as a sensation in the brain, where the air-vibrations have been conducted through the organ of hearing; otherwise we could not distinguish between one word and another. Every different word produces a different sensation because there is a physical difference, as a shape or motion, in the air where it is uttered. If one word contains 1000 simultaneous air-motions and another 1500 you can see that there is a physical or mechanical difference in the air.

The construction of the simplest form of telephone is as follows: Take a piece of iron rod one-half or three-quarters of an inch long and one-quarter inch thick, and after putting a spool-head on each end to hold the wire in place wind it full of fine insulated copper wire; fasten the end of this spool to the end of a straight-bar permanent magnet. Then put the whole into a suitable frame, and mount a thin circular diaphragm (membrane or plate) of iron or steel, held by its edges, so that the free end of the spool will come near to but not touch the center of the diaphragm. This diaphragm must be held rigidly at the edges.

Now if the two ends of the insulated copper wires are brought out to suitable binding-screws the instrument is done.

The permanent steel magnet serves a double purpose. When the telephone was first used commercially, the instrument now used as a receiver was also used as a transmitter. As a transmitter it is a dynamo-electric machine. Every time the iron diaphragm is moved in the magnetic field of the pole of the permanent magnet, which in this case is the free end of the spool (the iron of the spool being magnetic by contact with the permanent magnet), there is a current set up in the wire wound on the spool; a short impulse, lasting only as long as the movement lasts. The intensity of the impulse will depend upon the amplitude and quickness of the movement of the diaphragm. If there is a long movement there will be a strong current and vice versa. If a sound is uttered, and even if the multitude of sounds that are required to form a word, be spoken to the diaphragm, the latter partakes in kind of the air-motions that strike it. It swings or vibrates in the air, and if it is a perfect diaphragm it moves exactly as the air does, both as to amplitude and complexity of movement. You will remember that in the chapter on sound-quality (Vol. II) it was said that there were hundreds and sometimes thousands of superposed motions in the tones of some voices that gave them the element we call quality.

All these complex motions are communicated by the air to the diaphragm, and the diaphragm sets up electric currents in the wire wound on the spool, corresponding exactly in number and form, so that the current is molded exactly as the air-waves are. Now, if we connect another telephone in the circuit, and talk to one of them, the diaphragm of the other will be vibrated by the electric current sent, and caused to move in sympathy with it and make exactly the same motions relatively, both as to number and amplitude.

It will be plain that if the receiving diaphragm is making the same motions as the transmitting diaphragm, it will put the air in the same kind of motion that the air is in at the transmitting end, and will produce the same sensation when sensed by the brain through the ear. If the air-motion is that of any spoken word it will be the same at both ends of the line, except that it will not be so intense at the receiving-end; it is the same relatively. And this is how the telephone talks.

I have said that the permanent magnet had two functions. In the case of the transmitter it is the medium through which mechanical is converted into electrical energy. It corresponds to the field-magnet of the dynamo, while the diaphragm corresponds to the revolving armature, and the voice is the steam-engine that drives it. In the second place, it puts a tension on the diaphragm and also puts the molecules of the iron core of the magnet in a state of tension or magnetic strain, and in that condition both the molecules and the diaphragm are much more sensitive to the electric impulses sent over the wire from the transmitter. This fact was experimented upon by the writer as far back as 1879 and published in the Journal of the American Electrical Society. At the present day this form of telephone is used only as a receiver.

Transmitters have been made in a variety of forms, but there are only two generic methods of transmission. One is the magneto method—the one we have described—and the other is effected by varying the resistance of a battery current. The former will work without a battery, as the voice acting on the wire around the magnet through the diaphragm creates the current; in the latter the current is created by the battery but molded by the voice. In the latter method the current passes through carbon contacts that are moved by the diaphragm. Carbon is the best substance, because it will bear a wider separation of contact without actually breaking the current. When carbon points are separated that have an electric current passing through them, there is an arc formed on the same principle as the electric arc-light.

Great improvements in details have been made in the telephone since its first use, but no new principles have been discovered as applied to transmission.

We have spoken in another place regarding the various claimants to the invention of the telephone, but here is one that has been overlooked. A young man from the country was in a telegraph-office at one time and was left alone while the operator went to dinner. Suddenly the sounder started up and rattled away at such a rate that the countryman thought something should be done. He leaned down close to the instrument and shouted as loudly as possible these words: "The operator has gone to dinner." From what we know now of the operation of the telephone I have no doubt but that he transmitted his voice to some extent over the wire. This young man's claims have never been put forward before, and we are doing him tardy justice. But his claim is quite as good as many others set forth by people who think they invent, whenever it occurs to them that something new might possibly be done, if only somebody would do it. And when that somebody does do it they lay claim to it.

In the early days of the telephone it was not supposed that a vocal message could be transmitted to a very great distance. However, as time went on and experiments were multiplied the distance to which one could converse with another through a wire kept on increasing.

In these days, as every one knows, it is a daily occurrence that business men converse with each other, telephonically, for a distance of 1000 miles or more; in fact, it is possible to transmit the voice through a single circuit about as great a distance as it is possible to practically telegraph. This leads us to speak of another telegraphic apparatus which we have not heretofore mentioned, and that is the telegraphic repeater. It is a common notion that messages are sent through a single circuit across the continent, but this is not the case, although the circuits are very much longer than they were some years ago. The repeater is an instrument that repeats a message automatically from one circuit to another. For instance, if Chicago is sending a message to New York through two circuits, the division being in Buffalo, the repeater will be located at Buffalo and under the control of both the operator at Chicago and the operator in New York. When Chicago is sending, one part of the repeater works in unison with the Chicago key and is the key to the New York circuit, which begins at Buffalo. When New York is sending the other part of the repeater operates, which becomes a key which repeats the message to the Chicago line. In this way the practical result is the same as though the circuit were complete from New York to Chicago. At the present day some of the copper wires and perhaps some of the larger iron wires are used direct from Chicago to New York without repetition, but all messages between New York and San Francisco are automatically repeated at least twice and under certain conditions of weather oftener. I can remember that in wet weather in the old days, with such wires as they had then (being No. 9 iron with bad joints, which gave the circuit a high resistance) that these repeaters would be inserted at Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo and Albany in order to work from Chicago to New York. Under such conditions the transmission would necessarily be slow, because an armature time will be lost at each repeater. Regarding each repeater as a key, when Chicago depresses his key the armature of the next repeater must act, and then the next successively, and all of this takes time, although only a small fraction of a second.

The repeater was a very delicate instrument and had to be handled by a skilled operator. Every wire must be in its place or the instrument would fail to operate. I remember on one occasion in Cleveland that along in the middle of the night the repeater failed to work. The operator knew nothing of the principle of its operation, so that when it failed he had to appeal to some of his superiors.

At this time there was no one in the office who knew how to adjust it, so they had to send up to the house of the superintendent and arouse him from his sleep and bring him down to the office. He looked under the table and found that one of the wires had loosened from its binding-post and was hanging down. He said immediately, "Here's the trouble; I should think you could have seen it yourself." The operator replied, "I did see that, but I didn't think one wire would make any difference." He learned the lesson that all electricians have had to learn—that even one wire makes all the difference in the world. But this operator was no worse in that respect than some of his superiors. One of the heads of the Cleveland office at one time in the early days wanted to give some directions to the office at Buffalo. He told the operator at the key to tell Buffalo so and so, when the operator replied: "I can't do it; Buffalo has his key open." The official immediately said with severity: "Tell him to close it." He forgot that it would be as difficult for him to tell him to close it, as it would have been to have sent the original message.

But let us go back to the telephone. While it is possible to send a message from New York to San Francisco by telegraph, it is not possible to telephone that distance, because as yet no one has been able to devise a repeater that will transfer spoken words from one line to another satisfactorily. But unless the printer and publisher bestir themselves some one may accomplish the feat before this little book reaches the reader. If this proves to be true, let the writer be the first to congratulate the successful inventor.