IRISH MONASTICISM
As the organization of the Irish monastic schools was so intimately connected with the Irish monastic system it is impossible to form a clear idea of the character, aims, curriculum, or the scope of scholarship of these schools without some reference to Irish monasticism and its relation to other types of monasticism.
Monasticism in general is a system of living that owes its origin to those tendencies of human nature which are summed up in the words mysticism and asceticism. Mysticism may be defined as the efforts to give effect to the craving for union with the Deity even in this life; and asceticism, as the effort to give effect to the hankering after an ever progressive purification of the soul, and an atoning for sin by the renunciation and self-denial of things lawful.[79] These two tendencies would appear to be inseparable from humanity, because though not always called into activity, they are always liable to be invoked, and in all ages and among all peoples they have frequently asserted themselves.[80] In one form or another monasticism had appealed to people of various countries long before it became associated with Christianity. In the early years of Christianity monasticism took a definite shape in Syria, Egypt and Armenia. From Egypt and Syria it was brought to Rome about the middle of the fourth century by Athanasius, the great champion of the Divinity of Christ; by Honorius, the founder of the island monastery of Lerins; and by Cassian whose “Institutes” were a kind of manual for all the earlier monasteries of the West.[81]
As to the origin of Irish Monasticism opinions are divided: some have ascribed it to an Eastern origin, while others insist that it can be directly traced to Gaul. The most commonly accepted view is that of Mr. Willis Bund[82] which ascribes to it a purely indigenous development. As such general statements are at best but partly true and utterly fail to give an adequate idea of the characteristics of Irish monasticism we propose to examine the subject in the light derived from such native sources of information as:
- The Irish Monastic Rules,[83]
- The Lives of the Early Irish Saints,[84]
- Ecclesiastical History, and
- Social and Political History.
From the first and second sources we shall learn much about the spirit of monastic life, its ideals, obligations, and daily routine. From the third and fourth sources, and incidentally from the other two, we learn much about the relation which existed between the monastery and the community in which it was located.
An examination of Irish Monastic Rules, so far as they have come down to us, reveals the fact that they are not identical with any Eastern or Western Code. In the general severity of their regulations they are found, on comparison, to resemble the former rather than the latter. It was doubtless this austerity that caused the Irish Rules to give way eventually before the milder Rule of St.Benedict.[85] It is possible, however, that the ideas and literature of Gallic and Egyptian monasticism may have influenced to some extent the development of Irish monasticism.[86]
Whether Irish monasticism was of native origin or not there can be little doubt that British monasticism exercised a very potent and direct influence on its development. In an Irish document which is generally accepted as historical, we are informed that there were Three Orders of Saints.[87] The First Order flourished c. 440–534A.D. Many of the saints in this Order lived in the time of St. Patrick. They were all bishops and founders of churches. Their number was 350 and included Britons, Romans, Franks and Scots. The Second Order (534–572A.D.) was made up of few bishops and many priests: they numbered 300. Unlike the First Order these refused the services of women separating them from their monasteries. They received a Mass from SS. David, Gillas, and Docus the Britons. The Third Order consisted of holy priests and a few bishops. The number of this Order was 100; they dwelt in desert places living mainly on herbs and water; they depended upon alms and possessed no private property.
The Second Order interests us especially as in all probability the monasteries owe their origin to its members. Whether St.Patrick actually founded monasteries is uncertain. We know that he spent some years at Lerins, the island monastery of the Mediterranean, but his life was too full of missionary labours to have time for the foundation and government of monasteries.[88] In strong contrast with the First Order who were mainly foreigners, the Second Order of Saints were all natives of Ireland. However, they came under the influence of British monasticism in two ways. We have seen above that three British or Welsh saints visited Ireland during this period, and indeed so did several others.[89] Of equal importance is the fact that several Irish saints visited Britain about this time. In South Wales there were two centres of attraction, Llancarvon under St.Cadoc and Menevia under St.David.[90] St.Finnian of Clonard, “the tutor of the Saints of Erin,” was a pupil of St. Cadoc at Llancarvon, as was St.Cainnech. Maedoc was a pupil of St.David’s, as were Modomnoc and Scuithin, while we hear of Finnian of Clonard, Declan, Bairre and Senan as visitors there.[91] The saints of the North of Ireland tended to gravitate towards a monastery in the territory of the Niduari Picts, sometimes called Strathclyde, in the South-west of Scotland. This monastery was called Whitern (Rosnat in Irish sources). Among the Irish saints who visited Whitern are SS. Enda, Tighernach, Eoghan of Ardstraw and Finnian of Movilla.[92]
INFLUENCE OF CLONARD MONASTERY:
About the middle of the sixth century a great monastic movement took rise from the monastery established at Clonard by Finnian c. 525A.D.[93] Under him were trained for missionary work many of the most illustrious fathers of the Irish church including the “Twelve Apostles of Erin,”[94] viz. Ciaran of Seir, Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, Columba (Colum Cille), Brendan of Clonfert, Brendan of Birr, Columba or Colman of Terryglass, Molaise of Devenish, Canice of Aghaboe, Ruadan of Lorrha, Mobi of Glasnevin, Sinnel of Cleenish, and Ninnidh or Nennius of Inishmacsaint.[95] According to another authority, the names of Finnian of Clonard, Finnian of Movilla, and Comgall of Bangor are substituted for those of Ciaran of Seir, Molaise of Devenish, and Sinnel of Cleenish.[96] The remaining nine names occur in both lists. These men going forth in all directions founded numerous monasteries and schools which afterwards became famous throughout Europe.[97] St.Columba (Colum Cille) styled in an old record “Monasteriorum Pater et Fundator” is said to have founded 300 monasteries. Even allowing for the poetic imagination of the early chronicler, it is significant that Reeves in his investigations was able to compile a list of at least 90 monasteries founded by, or dedicated to, this saint. Of this number 37 were located in Ireland, 32 amongst the Scots (of Alba) and 21 amongst the Picts, i.e. 53 in the country now called Scotland.[98] It was mainly through the efforts of these saints that Ireland was completely converted to the Christian faith.[99] It would appear that after St.Patrick’s death the druids recovered some of their former influence and exerted themselves to the utmost to retard and limit the spread of the new faith.[100] Thanks to the zeal and energy of the saints of this Second Order the influence of the druids was completely broken down, though the druids still lingered on obscurely and feebly many generations.[101]
When monasticism became general in the sixth century most, if not all, of those ecclesiastical seminaries which we have listed as being founded in the fifth century, became monastic schools. Some of them such as the School of Armagh attained a high degree of excellence ranking with Clonard, Bangor, and the other great schools which date from the sixth century. We give a list of the better-known monastic schools which were founded during the sixth and seventh centuries, the most famous being printed in CAPITALS. These schools were all established in Ireland by Irishmen, who, as far as we have been able to discover, received their own education for the most part in schools already in existence in Ireland. This list makes no pretence to completeness. According to the calculations of Sir James Ware the number of famous schools in Ireland amounted to 164.[102] Another writer[103] gives the names of 168 monasteries founded prior to 900A.D. Even this list is incomplete. We have checked this latter list for Co. Louth with one compiled by a recent reliable investigator[104] with the result that 19 or 20 should be credited to Co. Louth whereas there are only 2 out of the 168 so accredited. Similarly, we find only 4 monasteries ascribed to St.Columba while, as we have shown, Reeves found 37 monasteries in Ireland whose foundation is accredited to this energetic saint. As we have reason to believe that all these monasteries had schools, we can easily see how abundant were the facilities for acquiring such an education as these schools provided.
MONASTIC SCHOOLS FOUNDED IN IRELAND
BETWEEN 500 AND 700A.D.
| SCHOOL | DATE | LOCATION | FOUNDER |
| Aghaboe[1a] | —[1b] | Co. Kilkenny | St.Canice, 528–600 A.D.[1c]
|
| BANGOR[2a] | 559 A.D.[2b] | Co. Down | St.Comgall d. 601–2 A.D.[2c] |
| Birr[3a] | c. 560 A.D.[3b] | King’s Co. | St.Brendan of Birr[3c]
? 490–573 A.D. |
| Cleenich[4a] | 6th cent.[4b] | Co. Fermanagh | St.Sinnel[4c]
|
| Clogher[5a] | —[5b] | Co. Tyrone | St.Macartin, c. 506 A.D.[5c]
|
| CLONARD[6a] | c. 520 A.D.[6b] | Co. Meath | St.Finnian, 470–549 A.D.[6c]
|
| Clonenagh[7a] | c. 548 A.D.[7b] | Queen’s Co. | St.Fintan, 525–592 A.D.[7c]
|
| Clonfert[8a] | 553–7 A.D.[8b] | Co. Galway | St.Brendan the Navigator[8c]
484–577 A.D. |
| Cork[9a] | —[9b] | Co. Cork | St.Finnbar, 570–630 A.D.[9c]
|
| CLONMACNOISE[10a] | 544–8 A.D.[10b] | King’s Co. | St.Ciaran, d. 549 A.D.[10c]
|
| Cluainfois[11a] | c. 500 A.D.[11b] | Co. Galway | St.Iarlaith, c ? 510 A.D.[11c]
|
| Devenish[12a] | 530 A.D.[12b] | Co. Fermanagh | St.Molaise, d. 563–71 A.D.[12c]
|
| Derry[13a] | 545–6 A.D.[13b] | Co. Derry | St.Columba, 520–597 A.D.[13c]
|
| Dromore[14a] | c. 500 A.D.[14b] | Co. Down | St.Colman[14c]
|
| Durrow[15a] | 553 A.D.[15b] | King’s Co. | St.Columba, 520–597 A.D.[15c]
|
| Glasnevin[16a] | —[16b] | Co. Dublin | St.Mobi, d. 544 A.D.[16c]
|
| Glendalough[17a] | —[17b] | Co. Wicklow | St.Kevin, d 618–22 A.D.[17c]
|
| Inishmacsaint[18a] | —[18b] | Co. Fermanagh | St.Ninnidh, d. post 530 A.D.[18c]
|
| Kells[19a] | 550 A.D.[19b] | Co. Meath | St.Columba, 520–597 A.D.[19c]
|
| Kilkenny[20a] | —[20b] | Co. Kilkenny | St.Canice, 528–600 A.D.[20c]
|
| LISMORE[21a] | 635 A.D.[21b] | Co. Waterford | St.Carthach[21c]
|
| MONASTERBOICE[22a] | c. 500 A.D.[22b] | Co. Louth | St.Buite, c. 521 A.D.[22c]
|
| Mayo[23a] | 655 A.D.[23b] | Co. Mayo | St.Colman[23c]
|
| Movilla[24a] | 540–55 A.D.[24b] | Co. Down | St.Finnian[24c]
|
| MUNGRET[25a] | c. 551 A.D.[25b] | Co. Limerick | St.Nessan, d. 551 A.D.[25c]
|
| Ros-Ailithir[26a] | 6th cent.[26b] | Co. Cork | St.Fachtna[26c]
|
| Swords[27a] | —[27b] | Co. Dublin | St.Columba, 520–597 A.D.[27c]
|
| Scattery Is.[28a] | c. 537 A.D.[28b] | Co. Clare | St.Senan[28c]
|
| Terryglass[29a] | 634 A.D.[29b] | Co. Tipperary | St.Colman of Terriglass[29c]
|
| Tuam[30a] | —[30b] | Co. Galway | St.Iarlaith, c. 545 A.D.[30c]
|
1a. Warren, F. E., op. cit. pp. 14, 15. 1b. Unknown. 1c. Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 268. ibid. Joyce, P. W. Short History of Ireland, p. 180, gives (517–600).
2a. Plummer, Charles, op. cit. I, p. lxxix. 2b. Joyce, P. W., Concise History of Ireland, p. 82. 2c. Revue Celtique, XXX, p. 113.
3a, 3b, 3c. Plummer, C., op. cit. I, xlii.
4a, 4b, 4c. Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 541.
5a, 5b. Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 541. 5c. op. cit. p. 132.
6a, 6b, 6c. Joyce, P. W., Con. Hist. of Ir., p. 92.
7a, 7b, 7c. Healy, John, Ireland’s Ancient Schools and Scholars, p. 404, but Plummer, C., op. cit. I, lxx, gives 603 A.D. as the date of St.Fintan’s death.
8a, 8b, 8c. Plummer, C., op. cit. p. I, xxiv.
9a, 9b, 9c. Joyce, P. W., Con. Hist, of Ir., p. 92; Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 329.
10a. Plummer, C., op. cit. I, p. lxiv. 10b. Chronicles give no date, ibid. 10c. Dalton, Canon, Hist. of Ireland, I, 71.
11a, 11b, 11c. Healy, John, op. cit. p. 160.
12a, 12b, 12c. Plummer, C., op. cit. I, p. lxxiv.
13a, 13b, 13c. Hull, Eleanor, Early Christian Ireland, Chronological Table; Dalton, Canon, op. cit. I, p. 62.
14a, 14b, 14c. Reeves, Wm., Ecclesiastical Antiquities, p. 138.
15a, 15b, 15c. Reeves, Wm., Adamnan’s Vita Columbae, p. 276; Warren, F. E., op. cit. pp.14,15.
16a, 16b, 16c. Warren, F. E., op. cit. pp. 14, 15.
17a, 17b, 17c. Plummer, C., op. cit. I, p. xxxiii; Joyce, P. W., Concise History of Ireland, p.92.
18a, 18b, 18c. Warren, F. E., op. cit. pp. 14, 15; Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 541.
19a, 19b, 19c. Reeves, Wm., Adamnan, p. 276.
20a, 20b, 20c. Plummer, C., op. cit. I, p. lxxix; Joyce, P. W., op. cit. p. 92.
21a, 21b, 21c. Joyce, P. W., op. cit. p. 81; Dalton, op. cit. I, p. 74.
22a, 22b, 22c. Macalister, R. A. S., Muiredach, Abbot of Monasterboice. Introduction, Murray, L. P., op. cit.
23a, 23b, 23c. Chronicon Scottorum, p. 104; Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 543.
24a, 24b, 24c. Reeves, Wm., Ecclesiastical Antiquities, p. 138.
25a, 25b, 25c. Joyce, P. W., Concise Hist. of Ireland, p. 92.
26a, 26b, 26c. Joyce, P. W., ibid.; Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 541.
27a, 27b, 27c. Reeves, Wm., Adamnan, p. 279.
28a, 28b, 28c. Joyce, P. W., op. cit. p. 81.
29a, 29b, 29c. Warren, F. E., op. cit. pp. 14, 15; Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 542.
30a, 30c. Healy, John, op. cit. p. 160. 30b. Date of the foundation is uncertain. Conyngham, D. P., op. cit. p. 543 states that it was founded in the Fifth Century.
EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ORGANIZATION
OF THE IRISH CHURCH.
From what has been said about the spread of monasticism in Ireland in the sixth century it is evident that the whole organization of the Church in Ireland was being placed on a monastic basis. The importance of this type of organization from an educational standpoint will be evident when we recall the actual condition of society at this particular period. Closely related to the monastic character of the Irish Church was its missionary character. How far reaching the influence of the Irish Monastic Church was, can be judged from a brief survey of the distribution of Irish monasteries in Britain and on the Continent. A list of 122 monasteries founded by Irish monks in Scotland, in England and on the Continent was collected by Colgan in a lost work of which the index has been preserved and printed.[105] Another writer has shown that Ireland sent 115 missionaries into Germany, 45 into France, 44 into England, 36 into Belgium, 25 into Scotland and 13 into Italy.[106] According to the testimony of Jonas, biographer of Columbanus, about 620 missionaries went into Bavaria from Luxeuil, the headquarters of the missionary work of Columbanus. No doubt, some of these were natives of Gaul, but there must have been many Irish amongst them. Miss Stokes gives the names of 63 missionaries who in the seventh century spread the Columban Rule from Luxeuil.[107] In the light of these facts we see how just is the judgment of Green, the English historian, when he declared that as the Irish Church overflowed its own territorial limits and invaded the Continent of Europe, it was for a time doubtful whether the monastic ideal of Christendom would come from a Celtic or from an Italian source, whether it would be represented by the Rules of SS. Columba and Columbanus, or that of St.Benedict.[108]
IMPOSSIBILITY OF COMPILING A COMPLETE LIST
OF MONASTIC SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS:
The number of monastic schools and scholars given in the preceding section though at first sight somewhat startling is really an under-estimate. This assertion is based on the following considerations:—
1. The desire which prevailed in the early centuries of Christianity to imitate even the accidental features of the Apostolic system naturally suggested the adoption of the number twelve in the adjustment of missionary societies. Thus we find it recorded that in Clonard the “Twelve Apostles of Erin” were educated. St.Columba set out about 562A.D. with twelve companions to convert the Picts. St.Columbanus with twelve brethren left Ireland about 612 to undertake his great missionary work on the Continent. St.Killian was the chief of a company of twelve who founded a monastic institution in WÜrzburg. St.Eloquius, disciple of St.Fursa, with twelve companions whose names are preserved, propagated the Gospel in Belgium.[109] Thus except in the case of the founders of monasteries there is a very natural tendency to overlook the other workers, sometimes their names are not even recorded.
2. During the Danish incursions of the ninth and tenth centuries many of the Irish monasteries were destroyed and the monks went to Europe and set up monasteries wherever they settled. Sometimes they carried their books with them, but more frequently their libraries were burned or “drowned” by the pagan invaders who hated Christianity and learning, thus the Irish Annals and other documents are very defective as a means of supplying the necessary data for the compilation of a tolerably complete list.[110]
3. Even when the names of Irish missionaries are recorded in Continental MSS. there is often a difficulty in recognising an Irish name in its Continental dress. Many of the Irish monks who went abroad were “re-christened,” sometimes Biblical names like Joseph or Isaias were adopted, or the Irish name was latinized to make it more euphonious to Continental ears. Hence we find Moengal figuring as Marcellus, just as Maelmuire appears as Marianus and Mylerius, Maelmeadhog as Malachy, Giolla Iosa and even Cellach become Gelasius, Giolla an Coimded figures as Germanus, Tuathal as Tutilo, Domnall or Donal as Donatus, Aed as Aidan and Hugh, Siadhal as Sedulius, Cellach sometimes became Gall, while others chose to remain anonymous or describe themselves vaguely as Exul, or Hibernicus, or Scottus. In the Continental libraries there are many MSS. in Irish script and the scribes have concealed their identity in the vague manner just described.[111]
4. Naturally there were many others whose work was teaching rather than writing, consequently there is no record in such cases. Columba and Columbanus were lucky in having biographers but many others were less fortunate.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IRISH MONASTIC SCHOOLS:
We give a partial list of the better-known monastic institutions which were at one and the same time advance posts of civilization and centres of Christian learning. Many of these date from that great period of Irish missionary activity, the seventh century.
SCOTLAND:
Almost the whole of the country now called Scotland was converted to Christianity by Irish missionaries. With the foundation of the monastery of Iona in 563A.D. by St.Columba, “pater et fundator monasteriorum,” began a period of great monastic activity in Britain. Reeves found that 63 monasteries were founded by or dedicated to St.Columba; of these 32 were in the territory occupied by the Scots and 21 were among the Picts.[112] Other important monasteries were Deer founded by St.Drostan, a disciple of St.Columba, Lismore founded by St.Moluag in 592A.D., and Righ-Monadh or Kilrimont founded by St.Canice near the place where St.Andrew’s University is now located.[113] There were also numerous small monasteries on the islands round the Scottish coast.[114] The beneficent influence exercised by these foundations as civilizing and educational agencies is acknowledged by modern Scottish historians.[115]
ENGLAND:
Just as Iona was the great headquarters of monastic activity for Scotland, so Lindisfarne founded by the Irish St.Aidan in 635A.D. became the base of operations for the Irish missionaries in the North of England, especially in Northumbria. At this time Northumbria was an extensive kingdom extending as far south as the Humber and into modern Scotland as far north as the Firth of Forth. To the influence of Aidan and other Irish monks we trace the foundation of Lindisfarne, Coldingham, Mailros, Lastingham, in Northumbria, Ripon and Streanshalch (now Whitby) in Yorkshire, Burgh Castle in Suffolk, St.Bees in Lancashire, Malmesbury among the West Saxons, Bosham or Bosanham in Sussex, and “Glastonbury of the Gael” in Somerset.[116] In most histories the missionary work of St.Augustine is grossly exaggerated and the important missionary and educational work of the Irish monks is either completely ignored or accorded an amount of space utterly out of proportion to its importance.[117]
IRISH FOUNDATIONS ON THE CONTINENT:
In Netherlands: Namur, LiÈge, Gueldres, Fosse, Haumont, Soignes.[118]
In France: Remiremont, Lure, BesanÇon, Poitiers (f. 511), Bezieres, Romain-Moutier, Brezille, Cusance, St.Ursanne, Fleury (f. 629), St.Riquier (f. 625), Jouarre, Reuil, RÉbais (f. 634), Faremoutier, St.Maur-des-FossÉs, Lagny, Montier-la-Celle, Caudabec, Hautvilliers, Montier-en-Der, St. Salaberga, Meaux, St.Saens, Fontennelle, Jumieges, Stavelot (f. 656), Corbie (f. 662), Anegray, Luxeuil (f. 599), Fontaines, FerriÈres (f. 630), Peronne (f. 650) or Perrona Scottorum, Toul, Amboise, Beaulieu, Strasbourg, in addition to the countless and nameless Hospitalia Scottorum alluded to in the Capitularies of Charles the Bald in 846A.D.[119]
In Germany and Switzerland: Hohenaug, WÜrzburg, Memmingen, Erfurt, Freyburg, Schuttern, EttenheimÜnster, Mentz, Cologne, Nuremburg, AltomÜnster, Ratisbon or Regensburg, Constance, St.Gall (f. 614), Mont St.Victor, Bregens (f. 610), Reichenau, Seckingen.[120]
In Italy: Bobbio (f. 612), Taranto, Lucca, Faenza, Fiesole.[121]
RELATION OF THE IRISH MONASTIC CHURCH TO THE ROMAN CHURCH:
The preceding section will enable us to understand what an important influence from a religious, as well as from an educational, standpoint the Irish monastic system began to exercise throughout the West of Europe. The relation which existed between the Irish Church and the Roman Church has given rise to considerable polemic discussion. Indeed there are so many points in common between the Irish monastic church of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries and the British or Welsh church of the same period that both are often spoken of as the “Celtic Church” in contradistinction to the Roman Church. This distinction is based not on any essential difference of doctrine[122] but on certain differences of ritual, liturgy, and discipline. As we have shown the Irish monastic system extended far beyond the territorial limits occupied by the Celtic race. Hence when we refer to the Celtic Church we have in mind a widespread organization rather than a locality, and we emphasize differences of custom and not essentials of dogma. The differences that existed between the Roman Church and the Celtic Church with regard to the date of Easter and to the tonsure of the monks gave rise to an important controversy in the seventh century.[123]
THE CALCULATION OF EASTER:
Prior to the Council of Nice 325A.D. the date of Easter in the nascent Celtic Church harmonized with that of the Roman Church. Owing, however, to isolation the Celtic Church had never adopted the various alterations and improvements which on astronomical—not on theological—grounds had been accepted by the Continental Church.[124]
THE TONSURE CONTROVERSY:
The Roman tonsure was formed by shaving the top of the head in a circle leaving a crown of hair around it. The Eastern tonsure, sometimes called the Pauline tonsure, was total. The Celtic tonsure was formed by shaving all the hair in front of a line drawn from ear to ear.[125] In the controversy of the seventh century the Roman party traced their form to St.Peter and attributed that of their opponents to Simon Magus.[126] The Irish form, ab aure ad aurem, existed in St.Patrick’s time[127] and was probably druidical in origin.[128]
These two questions, though in themselves of minor importance, gave rise to a controversy of many years’ duration. Eventually the Roman practice was adopted by the whole Celtic Church, but not without a struggle, some localities clinging tenaciously to the traditional usage long after the general acceptance of the Continental practice. The Southern Irish were the first to conform. Having received an admonition from Pope Honorius they convened a Synod about 630A.D. and as a result of their deliberations decided to adopt the Roman usage. The North of Ireland held out much longer, being influenced by Iona and its dependent monasteries in Ireland.[129] The dates at which the different parts of the Celtic Church conformed with the Roman practice in regard to the celebration of Easter are given below.[130] Possibly the coronal form of tonsure was adopted at the same time.
YEAR.—DISTRICT AFFECTED BY THE CHANGE:[130]
| 630A.D. | South of Ireland. |
| 664 | Northumbria converted by Irish
missionaries from Iona. |
| 692 | North of Ireland. |
| 705 | East Devon and Somerset,
the Celts under Wessex. |
| 710 | The Picts of Scotland. |
| 716–718 | Iona. |
| 721 | Strathclyde, the South-west of Scotland. |
| 768 | North Wales. |
| 777 | South Wales. |
| 909 | Parts of Cornwall. |
EFFECT OF THE EASTER CONTROVERSY ON EDUCATION:
The Irish monks who visited the Continent, as well as the adherents of the Roman usage in Britain, advocated and even urged the necessity of conforming to the Continental practices, but their compatriots did not yield without a struggle. As we have shown, certain parts of Britain in which the Celtic Church held sway were even more reluctant to give up the traditional usages. So far as the general interests of education are concerned this controversy had a somewhat harmful effect. It diverted the attention of scholars from matters of greater moment and created a certain prejudice against those Irish teachers who were not prepared to give up the cherished customs of the founders of their monasteries. For example, after the Synod of Whitby in 664A.D. when Celtic usage was abolished, St.Colman and a number of Anglo-Saxon followers retired from Lindisfarne and founded a monastery on Inisbofinn, an island off the west coast of Ireland. It must not, however, be assumed that the Irish influence in England ceased with the departure of St.Colman and his followers. At the Synod of Whitby some of the most vigorous advocates of the Roman usage were Irishmen, while amongst the Anglo-Saxons there were many champions of the Celtic usage.[131] For at least thirty years after the Synod of Whitby the Irish influence was felt. A native ministry having been trained the Irish monks had accomplished their work.[132] In one respect the Easter controversy had a good effect on learning. It led to a careful study of the computation and astronomy and created the necessity of becoming familiar with all the classical and ecclesiastical literature which was calculated to throw any light on that vexed question. The consequence of this study was that the Irish monks became the greatest astronomers of the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. It is enough to read the Paschal Epistle of Cummian Fada (d. 661)[133] or the famous letter of Dungal who in 810A.D. was asked by Charles the Great to explain the double eclipse of the sun which was supposed to have occurred in that year,[134] to be convinced of the superiority of their scholarship.
ORGANIZATION OF THE IRISH MONASTERY ON A TRIBAL BASIS:
In marked contrast with the other Western churches which were organized on a national and episcopal basis the Irish Church was tribal and monastic. This was quite natural. The conversion of the chieftain was followed by the conversion of the clansmen and a tribal character was thus given to the nascent church.[135] At an early date the Irish Church took a monastic form which accorded so well with the native social system. The abbot became chief of an ecclesiastical clan most of whose members were descended from the same common ancestor as the abbot himself. No wonder the native name for the monastic community was muintir, usually translated familia.[136] Even the successor of the abbot—the coarb, literally heir—could often claim lineal descent from the same chieftain as the abbot whom he succeeded. Of course, as the abbot was unmarried, there could be no direct lineal succession from the first abbot, but there was a succession in the manner indicated. There was thus a close resemblance between the succession of the abbot and that of the chieftain. The successor of the chieftain was not necessarily his son, but a member of the clan by whom he was selected on account of his personal fitness for the position. In the case of the monastery of Iona it has been noted that Columba and thirteen of his successors were descended from a common ancestor, an Irish chief named Conall Gulban.[137] The monastic family consisted of fratres: those of tried devotion were called seniores; those who were strong for labour were operarii fratres; and those under instruction were juniores, alumni, or pueri familiares. Besides the congregation—collectio—of professed members there were usually present peregrini, sometimes called proselyti, poenitentes, or hospites whose sojourn was of varied duration.[138]
The number of officers was relatively small, the more important being the abbot, the prior, the episcopus, the scriba, and the Erinach or Airchinneach. The abbot was the superior of the monastic family and frequently had several houses under his supreme control. He generally lived at the mother house. The branch houses were governed by local superiors called priors who were subject to removal by the abbot. There was also a prior at the mother house who assisted the abbot and took his place in administration when his superior was absent. The prior in this latter capacity is sometimes styled custos monasterii, sometimes oeconomus, and in the Irish Annals, Fertighis.[139]
An interesting fact in connection with the Irish monastic organization is that the abbot was not necessarily a bishop.[140] In matters of discipline and jurisdiction the abbot was supreme whether he was a bishop or not. But if he were not a bishop there were certain duties which he could not perform. The bishop (episcopus) as such and in virtue of his office performed such functions as administration of Confirmation and Holy Orders just as at present. Of course the abbot was frequently a bishop and consequently was vested with correspondingly increased powers.[141]
The abbot sometimes combined the office of scribe with his other duties. The special work of the scribe will be dealt with later; here it is sufficient to note that the office of scribe was held in such honour that we often find it recorded of a certain saint that he was an excellent scribe, while as if of secondary importance, it is added that he was an abbot, or bishop.[142]
The lands belonging to the monastery or church were usually managed by an officer called an erinach, or herenach (in Irish, Airchinneach). The erinach, who was usually a layman, first deducted his own stipend and gave the residue for the purposes intended—the support of the church, or the relief of the poor. It was generally understood to be the duty of the erinach to keep the church clean and in proper repair, and the grounds in order. There were erinachs in connection with nearly all the monasteries and churches.[143] Lay erinachs were usually tonsured.[144]
The monasteries derived their means of support from a variety of sources, the chief being: Lands, Tithes, Fees and Dues, and Gifts.
By far the most important of all these means of support were the lands attached to the monastery. These lands, called Termon lands in Ireland, derived their name in all probability from the termini, pillar stones, or crosses set up to mark their boundaries within which there was right of sanctuary, and a freedom from the taxes and tributes of the secular chieftains.[145] These lands were tilled by the monks themselves and formed the staple support of the establishment.[146] It was a maxim in all the primitive monasteries that the monks support themselves by the labour of their own hands. The mendicant orders, who depended largely upon alms were a later institution, first introduced into Ireland about 1225A.D.[147] The monastic lands were sometimes increased by special grants from kings, or chiefs. These special grants when added to the foundation grant sometimes made up an extensive territory.[148] When the lands became too large for the community to work, a portion of them was rented to tenants. Part of the duty of the erinach was to collect the rents and other tributes from the tenants.[149] Ordinarily the monastery was a self-supporting institution. The community produced everything they needed for food, clothing, and shelter. They owed little to society in general but society owed much to them.[150] There was no privileged class in these early monasteries. All who were physically fit had to take part in the manual labour, nor were the scribes or even the abbot exempt.[151]
In parts of the Senchus MÓr,[152] one of the ancient books of law, it is prescribed as a duty of society to pay tithes, as well as to bestow alms and first fruits to the Church, but tithes were not generally nor regularly paid until after the Norman invasion in 1172A.D.[153] Another subsidiary, but occasionally substantial, means of support was the dues paid by the tribe to the abbot for the performance of various religious functions.[154] The Brehon Laws lay down specifically the reciprocal obligations of the clergy and laity in this manner.[155] In this connection[156] it should be pointed out that owing to its position in the native social system “the Church in Ireland never became as in other lands by turns the servant, the ally, or the master of the State. It was the companion of the people, and an important element in the national life.”
Gifts, or voluntary offerings, were a further source of income, but a fluctuating one, depending largely on the location of the monastery, its reputation, the social condition of its patrons, and a variety of other accidental circumstances. Almost all persons who visited a monastery left something of value, if their means permitted. In early times the offerings, like other payments, were in ounces of gold or silver, or in kind. When Brian Boru visited Armagh in 1004A.D. he laid on the great altar an offering of twenty ounces of gold, equivalent to $5000 or $7000 at the present day.[157]
THE BUILDINGS:
The monastery including the whole group of monastic buildings was generally, but not always, surrounded by a strong rampart, commonly circular or elliptical, after the manner of the homesteads of the laity. The enclosure with its bounding rampart was designated in Irish by various names. When the wall was of earth it was called a rath, or lios. If surrounded by a stone wall it was known as a caiseal or sometimes a cathair.[158] Sometimes the monks located themselves in a rath or lios surrendered by a friendly chief,[159] and sometimes the monks built the enclosure themselves.[160] So much was the rampart a feature of the Irish monastery that we find it in connection with the monasteries founded by Irish monks in foreign lands. A vallum monasterii is mentioned by Adamnan,[161] and Columbanus utilised the walls of the old Roman castrum to serve as the vallum for his monastery at Luxeuil.[162] The monastery proper was the space enclosed by the vallum and included the church or churches, the oratories, the refectory, the kitchen, the school, the armarium—a chamber for the preservation of books and literary apparatus, sometimes a special scriptorium, the hospice or guest house, the cells for the monks, and the officinae or workshops for the smith and the carpenter.[163] Outside of the vallum were the various other indispensable buildings connected with the monastery of which the storehouse and the mill are the most important. There was usually a byre for the cows situated in convenient pasture land. If the monastery was located inland there was a fish pond; or a convenient harbour, if near the sea. The various buildings occupied different situations according to local convenience.[164]
The structure of these early monasteries was of a simple and inexpensive character. Like the early Celtic churches, they were built at first of earth, wattles, or wood. It was not until the eighth century that stone buildings began to be substituted for wooden ones, as a protection against the ravages of the Danes.[165] The simplicity and temporary character of these early foundations would account for the quickness with which monastic cities sprang up as well as for the fact that comparatively few material remains of these monastic settlements are now to be seen. They are now remembered chiefly for the great spiritual and literary heritage which they were the means of transmitting.
They were of various sizes. Those planted on barren islands off the coast of Ireland and Scotland must have been small. In each of the great monasteries of Clonard, Bangor and Clonfert there were 3000, including probably both monks and students. St.Molaise had 1,500 at Mungret, St. Gobban had 1000 and so on down to the school of St.Mobi at Glasnevin with 50. This last number, fifty, seems to have been the usual number in the smaller monastic schools.[166]
DAILY LIFE IN AN IRISH MONASTERY:
The investigations of scholars in recent years brought to light several Rules[167] which were written by early Irish saints for the direction and guidance of their monks. These Rules were frequently referred to in ancient documents, but some historians doubted their existence until their discovery set all doubts aside and furnished another proof of the trustworthiness of Irish records. By comparing these Rules with the references in the Lives of the (Irish) Saints[168] to the domestic and religious discipline of the monks we are able to form a tolerably correct picture of the real character of monastic life in Ireland during the period under consideration. While these Rules are neither so elaborate nor so systematic as the famous Rule of St.Benedict, to which they eventually gave place, yet they enable us to realize the austere simplicity of Irish monasticism.
However they may differ in details these “Rules of the Irish Saints” are in agreement as to the character of the daily work. St.Columbanus thus tersely describes the work of an Irish monastery: “Ergo quotidie jejunandum est, sicut quotidie orandum est, quotidie laborandum, quotidie est legendum.”[169] Fasting and prayer, labour and study were the daily task of the monk in every Irish monastery.
FASTING:
During the whole year Wednesday and Friday were fast days in Iona and no food was taken before noon unless some “troublesome guest”[170] rendered a dispensation desirable; for charity went before sacrifice in the old Irish Canon. During Lent and Advent only one meal was allowed and that was taken in the evening.[171] Though the custom of Iona was severe, it was mildness itself as compared with that of Bangor. Only one meal was allowed the whole year round and that not eaten until evening.[172] The quality of food in Bangor was inferior to that of Iona where, as Reeves has shown, the dietary consisted of bread (sometimes made of barley), milk, fish, eggs, and probably seal’s flesh. On Sundays and festivals the monks were sometimes allowed some additional luxury.[173] In Bangor, as later in Luxeuil, Anegray, and Bobbio the food apparently consisted of cabbage, pulse, flour mixed with water, a little portion of biscuit and fish.[174] Beer was sometimes allowed as a drink even by Columbanus,[175] but on the other hand St.Maelruan of Tallaght was such a strict disciplinarian that not only did he prohibit the use of beverage, but even music was forbidden.[176]
PRAYER:
A considerable portion of both day and night was given to the work of praising God. Eight times[177] a day did the monks attired in their white robes wend their way to the church for the great work of their life—the Opus Dei, the “Celebration of the Divine Praises.” Mass was generally celebrated at an early hour each morning before the labour of the day began. The ordinary Canonical Hours were chanted in choir—Matins and Lauds generally at midnight. The Divine Office was made up of the Psalms and Lessons from the Old and New Testament. The entire Psaltery appears to have been recited during the daily office at least at certain times of the year.[178] Sometimes the choir was divided into groups which in turn chanted the Divine Praises day and night without intermission. In the monastery of Tallaght the Gospels were read in the refectory at meal times, the Gospels being taken in turn, one for each season of the year.[179]
LABOUR:
We have referred to the obligation that was placed upon all members of the monastic community to engage on some kind of manual labour.[180] Tasks requiring special skill were assigned to monks who had a natural aptitude for such work. Thus the duties of carpenter, smith, and brazier were assigned to specially qualified monks.[181] Yet even the scribes and artistic craftsmen were required to spend part of their time at ordinary manual work.[182] The word laborare is used in a wider sense than our term manual labour. The Rule of St.Columba defines the term “work” in these words: “Work is divided into three parts: viz., thine own work, and the work of the place as regards its real wants; secondly, thy share of the brethren’s work; lastly, helping the neighbours by instruction, or writing, or sewing garments, or whatever labour they may be in want of.”[183] Never to be idle for one moment was the monastic ideal. Accordingly Adamnan represents his hero as unable “to pass the space of one hour without applying himself either to prayer or reading, or writing, or else some manual work.”[184]
STUDY:
In subsequent chapters we shall deal with the monks in their capacity as teachers and scribes. Here we shall refer briefly to their fourth task—legendum, reading or study. The study of the Sacred Scriptures was practised daily by the more learned members of the community, while the younger members learned by rote a portion of the Psalter each day until they could repeat the whole of it from memory. The story of how St.Columba when a tiny boy took up the Psalm where his tutor broke down is well known, while the numerous glosses on the Psalms and other portions of the Bible are convincing proofs of the intensive study of the Scriptures by these early monks.[185] Homilies or Lives of the Saints formed part of the sacred reading and we may reasonably suppose that the reading of the Gospels in the refectory during meal hours was a practice which was not confined to the monastery of Tallaght, nor was such reading limited to this particular time of the day. Indeed early Irish religious literature clearly points to a familiarity with the Holy Book.
OTHER PRACTICES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IRISH MONASTIC LIFE: OBEDIENCE:
The ideal of prompt and unhesitating obedience to the commands of his superiors, so characteristic of the Irish monk, is one which cannot be understood apart from the Irish conception of Monasticism as “fighting for Christ.” In all things lawful the monk yielded prompt and unquestioning obedience and was ready to go to the ends of the earth if his superior should only speak the word. The conception that the monk should be a “miles Christi”[186] was particularly adapted to the native temperament. To the pagan ideals of “truth, courage, and strength” were added the Christian virtues of obedience to authority, self-sacrifice, and devotion to the welfare of mankind without distinction of race or country. With such ideals they bravely encountered all privations and dangers when they undertook their “peregrinatio pro Christo.” Humility was prized as a Christian virtue and was exemplified in many ways. The superiors though exacting prompt obedience and due respect from their monks were not tyrannical and led as strict and simple a life as the other members of the community.
There was no private property, all things were owned in common, and their wealth was limited to the means of supplying their few and simple wants. The members of the community exemplified their humility both in their demeanour towards their superiors and in dejection after sin.[187]
MORAL COURAGE:
Notwithstanding their humility these monks could, and did, show a high degree of moral courage when occasion demanded. This is shown by the action of St.Columba when he confronted the Irish King and the assembled chieftains at the Convention of Drumceat (575A.D.).[188] Against great popular opposition he pleaded the cause of the Bardic Order and appealed for the freedom of the Irish colony in Scotland. In both cases success crowned his efforts. Still more daring was the action of St.Columbanus in his dealings with the Merovingian King, Theuderic, to whom he wrote a letter full of the bitterest reproaches and threatening to excommunicate him, if he did not immediately amend his sinful life. Thus did Columbanus draw upon himself not only the anger of the king but that of the crafty and cruel Brunechildis. Nothing daunted, however, he defied alike both their threats and violence. He adhered steadfastly to principle even though that adherence caused him to be driven from the kingdom of the Franks.[189]
SILENCE:
There was silence in the refectory during meals so that the reader could be distinctly heard, and silence was compulsory at other times also. Indeed, in their intercourse with each other the conversation of the monks was reserved at all times, but as regards their relation to society at large the objects of their system were too practical and their engagements too much characterized by common sense to impose any restraint in conversation but such as conduced to dignity and decorum.[190]
HOSPITALITY:
The monastery was usually located so as to be easily accessible to visitors for whom a special Hospice or Guest-house was provided. We have seen that when a guest arrived there was a relaxation of the fast—so strongly had the national characteristic of hospitality pervaded the monastic life.[191] Women, however, were rigidly excluded from the monastery.[192]
LOVE OF NATURE:
Another notable characteristic was the love of the monks for nature, animate and inanimate. This is shown in many ways, such as in the selection of the sites of their monasteries, and in their treatment of animals. Moreover, they often gave expression to their feelings for nature in verse, with the result that they are acknowledged to be pioneers in the field of “Nature Poetry” as well as in many other spheres of intellectual activity.[193]
Having regard to all the facts we have brought together Dr. Healy’s eloquent tribute to Irish monasticism appears to be amply justified. It is worth quoting:
“Fasting and prayer, labour and study are the daily task of the monks in every monastery. How well and unselfishly that toil was performed the history of Europe tells. The monks made roads, cleared the forests, and fertilised the desert. Their monasteries in Ireland were the sites of our cities. … They preserved for us the literary treasures of antiquity; they multiplied copies of the best and newest books; they illumined them with loving care. They taught the children of rich and poor alike; … they were the greatest authors, painters, architects since the decline of the Roman Empire. They were the physicians of the poor; they served the sick in their hospitals and in their homes. And when the day’s work was done in the fields or in the study, they praised God, and prayed for men who were unable or unwilling to pray for themselves. Ignorant and prejudiced men have spoken of them as an idle and useless race. They were in reality the greatest toilers, and the greatest benefactors of humanity the world has ever known.”[194]
