The Moon

The total area of the moon’s surface is about equal to that of North and South America. The actual surface visible at any one time is about equal to North America.

The famous lunar observer, SchrÖter, thought that the moon had an atmosphere, but estimated its height at only a little over a mile. Its density he supposed to be less than that of the vacuum in an air-pump. Recent investigations, however, seem to show that owing to its small mass and attractive force the moon could not retain an atmosphere like that of the earth.

Prof. N. S. Shaler, of Harvard (U.S.A.), finds from a study of the moon (from a geological point of view) with the 15-inch refractor of the Harvard Observatory, that our satellite has no atmosphere nor any form of organic life, and he believes that its surface “was brought to its present condition before the earth had even a solid crust.”[80]

There is a curious illusion with reference to the moon’s apparent diameter referred to by Proctor.[81] If, when the moon is absent in the winter months, we ask a person whether the moon’s diameter is greater or less than the distance between the stars d and e, and e and ? Orionis, the three well-known stars in the “belt of Orion,” the answer will probably be that the moon’s apparent diameter is about equal to each of these distances. But in reality the apparent distance between d and e Orionis (or between e and ?, which is about the same) is more than double the moon’s apparent diameter. This seems at first sight a startling statement; but its truth is, of course, beyond all doubt and is not open to argument. Proctor points out that if a person estimates the moon as a foot in diameter, as its apparent diameter is about half a degree, this would imply that the observer estimates the circumference of the star sphere as about 720 feet (360° × 2), and hence the radius (or the moon’s distance from the earth) about 115 feet. But in reality all such estimates have no scientific (that is, accurate) meaning. Some of the ancients, such as Aristotle, Cicero, and Heraclitus, seem to have estimated the moon’s apparent diameter at about a foot.[82] This shows that even great minds may make serious mistakes.

It has been stated by some writer that the moon as seen with the highest powers of the great Yerkes telescope (40 inches aperture) appears “just as it would be seen with the naked eye if it were suspended 60 miles over our heads.” But this statement is quite erroneous. The moon as seen with the naked eye or with a telescope shows us nearly a whole hemisphere of its surface. But if the eye were placed only 60 miles from the moon’s surface, we should see only a small portion of its surface. In fact, it is a curious paradox that the nearer the eye is to a sphere the less we see of its surface! The truth of this will be evident from the fact that on a level plain an eye placed at a height, say 5 feet, sees a very small portion indeed of the earth’s surface, and the higher we ascend the more of the surface we see. I find that at a distance of 60 miles from the moon’s surface we should only see a small portion of its visible hemisphere (about ¹/90th). The lunar features would also appear under a different aspect. The view would be more of a landscape than that seen in any telescope. This view of the matter is not new. It has been previously pointed out, especially by M. Flammarion and Mr. Whitmell, but its truth is not, I think, generally recognized. Prof. Newcomb doubts whether with any telescope the moon has ever been seen so well as it would be if brought within 500 miles of the earth.

A relief map of the moon 19 feet in diameter was added, in 1898, to the Field Columbian Museum (U.S.A.). It was prepared with great care from the lunar charts of Beer and MÄdler, and Dr. Schmidt of the Athens Observatory, and it shows the lunar features very accurately. Its construction took five years.

On a photograph of a part of the moon’s surface near the crater Eratosthenes, Prof. William H. Pickering finds markings which very much resemble the so-called “canals” of Mars. The photograph was taken in Jamaica, and a copy of it is given in Prof. Pickering’s book on the Moon, and in Popular Astronomy, February, 1904.

Experiments made in America by Messrs. Stebbins and F. C. Brown, by means of selenium cells, show that the light of the full moon is about nine times that of the half moon;[83] and that “the moon is brighter between the first quarter and full than in the corresponding phase after full moon.” They also find that the light of the full moon is equal to “0·23 candle power,”[83] that is, according to the method of measurement used in America, its light is equal to 0·23 of a standard candle placed at a distance of one metre (39·37 inches) from the eye.[84]

Mr. H. H. Kimball finds that no less than 52 per cent. of the observed changes in intensity of the “earth-shine” visible on the moon when at or near the crescent phase is due to the eccentricity of the lunar orbit, and “this is probably much greater than could be expected from any increase or diminution in the average cloudiness over the hemisphere of the earth reflecting light to the moon.”[85]

The “moon maiden” is a term applied to a fancied resemblance of a portion of the Sinus Iridum to a female head. It forms the “promontory” known as Cape Heraclides, and may be looked for when the moon’s “age” is about 11 days. Mr. C. J. Caswell, who observed it on September 29, 1895, describes it as resembling “a beautiful silver statuette of a graceful female figure with flowing hair.”

M. Landerer finds that the angle of polarization of the moon’s surface—about 33°—agrees well with the polarizing angle for many specimens of igneous rocks (30° 51' to 33° 46'). The polarizing angle for ice is more than 37°, and this fact is opposed to the theories of lunar glaciation advanced by some observers.[86]

Kepler states in his Somnium that he saw the moon in the crescent phase on the morning and evening of the same day (that is, before and after conjunction with the sun). Kepler could see 14 stars in the Pleiades with the naked eye, so his eyesight must have been exceptionally keen.

Investigations on ancient eclipses of the moon show that the eclipse mentioned by Josephus as having occurred before the death of Herod is probably that which took place on September 15, B.C. 5. This occurred about 9.45 p.m.; and probably about six months before the death of Herod (St. Matthew ii. 15).

The total lunar eclipse which occurred on October 4, 1884, was remarkable for the almost total disappearance of the moon during totality. One observer says that “in the open air, if one had not known exactly where to look for it, one might have searched for some time without discovering it. I speak of course of the naked eye appearance.”[87] On the other hand the same observer, speaking of the total eclipse of the moon on August 23, 1877, which was a bright one, says—

In Roger de Hovedin’s Chronicle (A.D. 756) an account is given of the occultation of “a bright star,” by the moon during a total eclipse. This is confirmed by Simeon of Durham, who also dates the eclipse A.D. 756. This is, however, a mistake, the eclipse having occurred on the evening of November 23, A.D. 755. Calvisius supposed that the occulted “star” might have been Aldebaran. PingrÉ, however, showed that this was impossible, and Struyck, in 1740, showed that the planet Jupiter was the “star” referred to by the early observer. Further calculations by Hind (1885) show conclusively that Struyck was quite correct, and that the phenomenon described in the old chronicles was the occultation of Jupiter by a totally eclipsed moon—a rather unique phenomenon.[88]

An occultation of Mars by the moon is recorded by the Chinese, on February 14, B.C. 69, and one of Venus, on March 30, A.D. 361. These have also been verified by Hind, and his calculations show the accuracy of these old Chinese records.

It has been suggested that the moon may possibly have a satellite revolving round it, as the moon itself revolves round the earth. This would, of course, form an object of great interest. During the total lunar eclipses of March 10 and September 3, 1895, a careful photographic search was made by Prof. Barnard for a possible lunar satellite. The eclipse of March 10 was not very suitable for the purpose owing to a hazy sky, but that of September 3 was “entirely satisfactory,” as the sky was very clear, and the duration of totality was very long. On the latter occasion “six splendid” photographs were obtained of the total phase with a 6-inch Willard lens. The result was that none of these photographs “show anything which might be taken for a lunar satellite,” at least any satellite as bright as the 10th or 12th magnitude. It is, of course, just possible that the supposed satellite might have been behind the moon during the totality.

With reference to the attraction between the earth and moon, Sir Oliver Lodge says—

With reference to the names given to “craters” on the moon, Prof. W. H. Pickering says,[90] “The system of nomenclature is, I think, unfortunate. The names of the chief craters are generally those of men who have done little or nothing for selenography, or even for astronomy, while the men who should be really commemorated are represented in general by small and unimportant craters,” and again—

The mathematical treatment of the lunar theory is a problem of great difficulty. The famous mathematician, Euler, described it as incredibile stadium atque indefessus labor.[91]

With reference to the “earth-shine” on the moon when in the crescent phase, Humboldt says, “Lambert made the remarkable observation (14th of February, 1774) of a change of the ash-coloured moonlight into an olive-green colour, bordering upon yellow. The moon, which then stood vertically over the Atlantic Ocean, received upon its night side the green terrestrial light, which is reflected towards her when the sky is clear by the forest districts of South America.”[92] Arago said, “Il n’est donc pas impossible, malgrÉ tout ce qu’un pareil rÉsultat exciterait de surprise au premier coup d’oeil qu’un jour les mÉtÉorologistes aillent puiser dans l’aspect de la Lune des notions prÉcieuses sur l’etat moyen de diaphanitÉ de l’atmosphÈre terrestre, dans les hemisphÈres qui successivement concurrent À la production de la lumiÈre cendrÉe.”[93]

The “earth-shine” on the new moon was successfully photographed in February, 1895, by Prof. Barnard at the Lick Observatory, with a 6-inch Willard portrait lens. He says—

Kepler found that the moon completely disappeared during the total eclipse of December 9, 1601, and Hevelius observed the same phenomenon during the eclipse of April 25, 1642, when “not a vestige of the moon could be seen.”[95] In the total lunar eclipse of June 10, 1816, the moon during totality was not visible in London, even with a telescope![95]

The lunar mountains are relatively much higher than those on the earth. Beer and MÄdler found the following heights: DÖrfel, 23,174 feet; Newton, 22,141; Casatus, 21,102; Curtius, 20,632; Callippus, 18,946; and Tycho, 18,748 feet.[96]

Taking the earth’s diameter at 7912 miles, the moon’s diameter, 2163 miles, and the height of Mount Everest as 29,000 feet, I find that

From which it follows that the lunar mountains are proportionately about three times higher than those on the earth.

According to an hypothesis recently advanced by Dr. See, all the satellites of the solar system, including our moon, were “captured” by their primaries. He thinks, therefore, that the “moon came to earth from heavenly space.”[97]