The history of the Seven Wise Masters forms an important epoch in the history of European popular stories, because it affords the most remarkable evidence of the literary descent and origin of stories, as distinct from a traditional descent. Professor Comparetti in his Researches respecting the Book of Sindibad, published by the Folk-Lore Society, Mr. Clouston in his Bakhtyar Nama and in his Book of Sindibad, two privately printed books, and Mr. Wright in his Sevyn Sages, printed by the Percy Society in 1846, have practically exhausted the literary history of this famous collection of stories. Shortly summarised from these three sources the main facts are these. There was an ancient original Indian book of stories which became so popular that it was copied frequently, and thus handed down from one generation to another. From this book two separate groups of texts have descended. To the first belong all the texts in the Eastern languages; to the other belong the Dolopathos, the Historia Septem Sapientum, the Erasto, and other numerous texts of the various European literatures of the Middle Ages. With the Eastern group of texts we have now nothing to do beyond saying that Professor Comparetti has restored, in the scholarly book above mentioned, the form of the original text for the guidance of the modern student. The Western group of texts has a history of its own quite apart from its Eastern origin. It has kept the original framework, but it has varied the setting; and this variation will be found of great interest to the student of popular tradition. Before, however, we come to this part of the subject, let us see the kind of work with which we are dealing. The framework of the romance is as follows: A young prince, falsely accused by the wife of the king, his father, of having attempted to offer her violence, is defended by seven sages, who relate a series of stories to show the deceits of women, the queen at the same time urging the death of the accused prince by the example of stories told by herself. This system of story-telling is practically the same as that adopted in the Arabian Nights. Boccaccio adopted this plan in his Decameron; Chaucer adopted it in his Canterbury Tales.

Among the Eastern texts is a famous one in Hebrew, dating as far back as the first half of the thirteenth century. Under the title of Historia Septem Sapientum RomÆ, a Latin translation of this was made by Dam Jehans, a monk of the abbey of Haute Selve, in the diocese of Nancy, in the thirteenth century. The earliest printed copy of this version that I have been able to find is one printed at Cologne in 1490, of which I shall say something a little further on.

It was through this Latin version that the work was communicated to nearly all the languages of Western Europe; and in 1520 a translation into English was printed by the famous printer Wynkyn de Worde. A fine copy of this is preserved in the British Museum, and from it is printed the text of the present version. One or two pages are missing from this copy, and the passages are restored from the earliest chap-book version which I have been able to discover—namely, that printed in 1671 at London, and belonging to the British Museum. This chap-book version is nearly identical with the Wynkyn de Worde, with the simple alteration of the spelling to the modern forms. One curious variation, however, illustrating the force of the change of religious opinions at the time of the Reformation, is well worth noting. On page 173 of our text will be found related how the murdered children of the Emperor Lodwyke were found alive singing "of ye moost blessed vyrgyne Mary, aue Maria gracia plena dns tecum," but in the chap-book of 1671 it is said they were singing praises to the Almighty.

Since 1671 many chap-book versions have been issued, and I have succeeded in obtaining a copy still published in Dublin. These later versions are all much deteriorated from the original. Besides the 1671 edition, there are the following: London 1684, 1687, and 1697; Glasgow 1713; London [1750]; Newcastle 1750; London 1780—7 [1785]; Boston 1794; London 1805; Warrington 1815. And I have no doubt that it has been continually reproduced until the present day.

Besides the closeness of the translation of the prose version of Wynkyn de Worde, one curious feature to be noted is the series of illustrations. It is well known that German woodcuts supplied English books with illustrations,[1] and this is a good instance of the practice. In the Bibliographer (vol. ii. p. 70) Mr. W. M. Conway has told the history of the woodcuts of the Lubeck edition of the Seven Wise Men. It was first printed in April, 1488, with the name of Claes Leeu, probably a brother of Gerard Leeu. In 1490 appeared another edition printed at Cologne by J. Koelhof de Lubeck, to whom the blocks must have been lent. He returned them to Leeu with the exception of one, which was either retained by him or lost on the journey; and the imperfect set, a new block being made by some other hand to replace the lost one, was employed in the edition printed by Leeu on the 6th November, 1490. One of the cuts (see p. 21) represents the Emperor coming angrily into the chamber of his wife with a drawn sword in his hand and reproaching her with her infidelity. She is seated on a chair on the right, with her hands clasped in an attitude rather of shyness than fear or remorse. One reason for this seems to be discoverable from the fact that along the top of the bed behind, the words Ave regina coelorum can be traced carved in reverse; and it is quite possible that the whole cut, with the exception of the figure of the Emperor, was copied from some print representing the Annunciation.

Both these editions, that by J. Koelhof de Lubeck and that printed by Gerard Leeu on 6th November, 1490, are in the library of the British Museum, the latter under the title of Historia de Calumnia Novercali. This book has a preface not contained in the other edition, and it formed the subject of a communication to the Gentleman's Magazine for 1767, p. 541, in a letter signed T. From this letter it would appear that later editions were issued. The preface quoted in the letter is the same as the preface in the British Museum copy, but the words of the latter are much more contracted than the writer in the Gentleman's Magazine indicates was the case with his copy. This letter is, I think, worth reproducing, as it conveys some useful information. It is as follows:—

"I lately met with a mutilated copy of a book, which to me, at least, appears a curiosity. It bears for its title, Historia de Calumnia Novercali: an history now commonly sold at stalls for the entertainment of English children, under the title of The History of the Seven Wise Masters; with which last-mentioned book mine agrees as to the substance and order of the tales, but differs considerably from it in the form and manner of relating them.

"It is printed in sixteens, in the common Gothic character of the time (the beginning, as I judge, of the 16th century), an English or black face approaching to a Roman, on a pica body, and with many abbreviations, and is ornamented with wooden cuts of the size of the pages, which, considering their age, are by no means contemptible.

"The preface runs thus:—

"'Composit pridem CalumniÆ Novercalis Historia quÆ Septem Sapientum dicitur, pulchro quidem argumento, pulchris etiam ac memoratu dignis tractata exemplis, in utramq: partem & defensionis & condemnationis sive vera sive ficta sit, nihil ad te attinere puto mi Gerarde: magis autem quid doceat adverte, intelligimus ex ea & qui sint malarum mulierum, & pravorum liberorum, & zelotyporum itemq: delirorum senum aliarumq: personarum mores atq: fortunÆ vari ratione, ut quid caveri quidve eligi oporteat agnoscamus. Cum autam nominum quorundam ratio temporibus satis respondere visa non esset, & textus nimium fluxus minimeq: cohÆrens videretur non indignum judicavi quo tibi morem gererem id postulanti, paululum mutatis verbis obmissisq: nominibus ne legentem offendant, re ipsa integra servata, hanc narationem efferre; ne quid inventori laudis aut inventioni veritatis detractum esse videatur: imposito potius nomine CalumniÆ Novercalis qualis & PhÆdrÆ fuit is Hyppolitum; et simili quoq: genere uxoris Putipharis in Joseph HebrÆum; & senum illorum in Susannam; ut eo nomine historia hÆc majorem notitiam gratiamq: apud lectores sit habitura.'

"From hence it appears that this book is an alteration and improvement of a more ancient work, intitled Historia Septem Sapientum, and, as the particulars here said to be altered are retained unaltered in the English translation, it should seem that the English history is translated from a performance of a more early date than this."

The woodcuts of the Wynkyn de Worde are not identical with the Cologne edition, but copies, having been decidedly improved. All these are reproduced in facsimile in the present edition. Owing to the missing pages, one or two of these illustrations are not given in the British Museum copy. The Cologne edition contains a frontispiece plate, one after the first two as printed on pages 4 and 8 of our text, and two printed at the end of the book, making four in all, which are not contained in the British Museum copy of the Wynkyn de Worde.

We will now consider the stories given in this version of the Seven Wise Masters. Although the framework, as I have pointed out, is ancient, the setting has been altered. The stories that suited Eastern fancy did not suit Western; and accordingly we have a considerable variation. In order to have the stories clearly before us, the following analysis will be found useful:—

(1.) The first example of the Empress.—In the garden of a Roman burgess was a tree famed for its cure of all diseases—the burgess one day discovered a "fair young imp"—this was planted and put under the care of the gardener—the young tree did not flourish—the burgess commanded the branches of the overshading old tree to be cut down to the ground—the young tree then did not flourish—the burgess commanded the old tree to be cut down to the ground—the young tree died.

(2.) The example of the first Master.—A knight had one son—also a greyhound and a falcon—the knight went to a tourney—a serpent in the hall attacked the child—the falcon roused the attention of the greyhound—the greyhound fought the serpent and killed it—the greyhound, wounded, went and laid down by the cradle of the child, which became covered with his blood—the nurses coming in thought the child was killed by the greyhound—they tell their mistress, who tells the knight—the knight kills the greyhound—he afterwards discovers his error and repents.

(3.) The second example of the Empress.—An Emperor had a forest in which was a boar that destroyed all men going through the forest—the Emperor proclaimed that whoever should slay the boar should marry his daughter—a shepherd by stratagem slew the boar, and married the daughter.

(4.) The example of the second Master.—In a city there was an ancient knight who had married a young wife—there was a law or custom in that city that whoever was found in the streets after the ringing of a certain bell should be put in the pillory—the wife had a paramour, and every night she went to her lover. One night the husband woke and missed his wife, and on her return would not let her in—she went to the well and pretended to drown herself—the husband came out of the house to help his wife out of the well—she then ran into the house and locked the doors, and her husband being found in the streets by the watch, was taken to prison and on the morrow put in the pillory.

(5.) The third complaint of the Empress.—There was in Rome a knight that had two daughters and one son—the knight, by hunting and tournaments, spent all his substance. There was an emperor at that time who had a tower full of gold—the knight and his son agreed to steal some of the gold—the keeper of the tower put a vessel full of pitch that the robber might fall in—the second time the knight and his son went the knight fell into the pitch—the son cut off the father's head and hid it, that the body should not be recognized—the daughters of the knight made a great outcry on seeing their father's body dragged through the streets—the son then wounded himself, and the officers believed his story that it was on account of his wound that his sisters made lamentations.

(6.) The example of the third Master.—There was a rich burgess that had a "pie" which he loved and taught to speak—his wife had a lover who visited her in the absence of the burgess—the pie threatened to tell the burgess—the wife imitated rain and hail and snow on the bird's cage and nearly killed her—when the burgess returned the pie told him that his wife's lover had stayed all night with her, and that the hail, rain, and snow that night had nearly killed him—the master hearing that the night had been quite fine, killed the bird, thinking it had told lies—he afterwards found out the truth.

(7.) The fourth example of the Empress.—There were once seven wise masters who governed Rome under an Emperor, who by their artifices they made blind whenever he left the palace—the Emperor, on pain of death, desired the seven wise masters to cure him—the masters discover a child who shewed the meaning of dreams—they brought him to the Emperor—the child discovered in the Emperor's bedchamber a well which had seven springs—the child commanded the wise masters to be killed, one at a time, and thrown into the well—the well and springs vanished.

(8.) The example of the fourth Master.—There was an old knight who married a young wife—the wife wished to have a lover, but on the persuasion of her mother tried the knight three times: 1st, by cutting down a favourite tree—2nd, by killing a favourite hound—3rd, by destroying everything on the table at a banquet. The two first the knight forgave, the third time he brought a barber who opened veins in the wife's arms—the wife thereupon said she would be content with her husband.

(9.) The fifth example of the Empress.—There reigned in Rome an Emperor who was covetous and loved gold above all things.—In the city was a wise master who made a tower, and in it as many images as there were provinces governed by Rome, and when there was any rebellion or dispute in these distant provinces the images rang a bell, and so informed the people. The kings of these provinces consulted together how best to defeat Rome. Four knights undertook to get the images and tower destroyed if they could have four tons of gold—they took this and went to Rome—and represented themselves as soothsayers, and pretended to discover by dreams quantities of gold which they had previously hidden—they obtained permission of the Emperor to dig under the tower for more gold—undermined the tower and rode away—the counsellors of the Emperor put him to death for betraying the image to their enemies.

(10.) The example of the fifth Master.—There was a famous physician named Ypocras—he had a nephew named Galienus, who in time excelled Ypocras—the king of Ungary sent for Ypocras to cure his son—Ypocras sent Galienus instead—Galienus on seeing the sick child said to the queen that the king was not its father, and demanded to know who was—the queen told him the truth and Galienus cured the child. Ypocras on hearing from Galienus that he had cured the child killed him by craft—Ypocras was taken grievously sick, and his scholars and disciples were unable to heal him—He knew that for the death of Galienus he was made sick—confessed from envy he had slain him, and died.

(11.) The sixth example of the Empress.—There was a king marvellously deformed in his visage so that women hated and abhorred him—the king desired his steward to bring a fair and beauteous woman, and promised a large sum of money to the woman—the steward from covetousness insisted on his own wife going to the king and thus obtaining the money—the king found out that the steward had undone his own wife, banished him on pain of death and kept the wife. The king assembled a great army to conquer Rome, but by the stratagems of seven wise masters there was defeated with great slaughter and killed.

(12.) The example of the sixth Master.—There was an emperor of Rome who had three knights whom he loved above all others. There was also in the city an ancient knight who had a fair young wife—this wife would sit at her window looking into the street and sing. The three knights at different times passed her window and fell in love with her—they each offered her a hundred florins—she consented to receive them, promising to send for them on a suitable opportunity. She told her husband, and suggested that when the knights came he should kill them and keep the hundred florins—the husband consented and killed each of the knights—the wife got her brother to dispose of the first body, and by telling him the corpse had come back again, of the other two—the husband afterwards quarrelled with his wife and struck her—she in revenge told how he had murdered the three knights—they were both drawn at a horse's tail and hanged.

(13.) The seventh example of the Empress.—A king loved his wife above all things and locked her up alwayes in a strong castle and kept the keys himself. A knight in distant parts dreamed of a fair queen whose love he would win—the queen dreamt the same night of the knight—the knight travelled about till he came to the queen's tower, and knew her for the lady of his dream.—He entered the king's service—fought bravely, was made the king's steward, and gained permission of the king to build a place adjoining the castle—He built a secret passage to the queen's rooms—gained her love—she gave him a ring the king had given her—the king saw the ring on the knight's hand and demanded of the queen the ring he had given her—she showed it to the king having previously got it back from the knight—the knight asked the king to be present at a banquet at which would be his lady love—presented the queen to the king as a lady of his own country—the king after the banquet went to the queen's rooms, found her there, and thought he had been mistaken a second time—the knight asked the king to be present at his wedding and to give the bride away—the king gave the queen to the knight and saw them sail away from the city—went back to the castle and found out how he had been deceived.

(14.) The example of the seventh Master.—A knight had a fair young wife whom he tenderly loved—one day she cut her hand and the sight of her blood killed her husband—she bewailed his death greatly—would not leave the grave—her friends made a little house close by where she might stay and get food. When a trespasser against the law was hanged the sheriff was obliged to watch all night by the gallows, and if the body was stolen the sheriff had to lose his land and his life. It happened soon after that a man was hanged, and the sheriff watched by the gallows—he saw the little house, asked permission to enter to warm himself—the sheriff went back to the gallows and found the body stolen—told the lady, who advised him, if he would marry her, to take up her dead husband and hang him on the gallows in place of the thief—when the body was dug up, the sheriff said he could not hang her husband up as he was, the thief having lost two front teeth, his ears, and was otherwise mutilated—the lady mutilated her husband in a corresponding manner—she reminded the sheriff of his promise to marry her—he refused, and killed her.

(15.) The example of Dioclesian, the King's son.—A knight had one son, who was sent away to learn, and returned well favoured—as they sat at table a nightingale sang—the son interpreted the song to mean that he should become great and be waited upon by his father and mother—the knight was angered, and cast his son into the sea—the son swam to land, from which he was rescued by a ship—the shipmen sold him to a duke—the duke took him into favour—the king of the country (Egypt) summoned his council to tell him why ravens followed him wherever he went, and promised to give his daughter to him who would interpret the event—the child, who went with the duke, interpreted the event, and the ravens left the country—the king thereupon took the child, Alexander, to live with him—before marrying his daughter, Alexander asked leave to visit the court of Titus—leave was granted, and he went and was much loved—there came also the son of the King of France, Lodwyke—the two, Lodwyke and Alexander, were much alike—the emperor had a daughter whom Lodwyke fell in love with—Alexander used to attend her—she fell in love with him—he, however, allowed Lodwyke to attend her in his stead—he assisted Lodwyke in his suit—presented gifts to her three times on behalf of Lodwyke—finally she consented to receive Lodwyke—the knights found out the intrigue, and sought to slay Lodwyke, but Alexander defended his friend—letters came to tell Alexander of the death of the King of Egypt—Alexander went to Egypt—Lodwyke at parting gave him a ring—Guydo, son of the King of Spain, then came to the court—he found out Lodwyke with the emperor's daughter, and told the emperor—a day of battle between Lodwyke and Guydo was appointed—Lodwyke was afraid to meet him, and by advice of the emperor's daughter got the day of battle adjourned, and went to Alexander—Alexander was going to be married to his betrothed—being so like Lodwyke he agreed to take his place, and Lodwyke was to take Alexander's place at the wedding, and to put a naked sword between him and Alexander's wife on the night of their marriage—Alexander went, as Lodwyke, and defeated and slew Guydo—Lodwyke, as Alexander, married his betrothed and kept the compact of putting a sword between them—when Alexander returned his wife, annoyed at him not loving her the first night, would not accept his embraces—she grew to love a knight, and by poison made Alexander a leper—he was driven from Egypt—he travelled to Lodwyke's court (who had succeeded Titus on the throne)—he made himself known to Lodwyke—Lodwyke asked his master to cure his friend—they could not do so—the only cure was revealed to Alexander in a dream—it was for Lodwyke to kill his two sons and wash his body with the blood of them—Lodwyke does this, and his wife afterwards agrees to it—Alexander is restored—the sons come to life again—Lodwyke assists Alexander in the recovery of Egypt—after a time he resolved to see his father and mother—he goes to them without revealing himself—they wait upon him—he then reveals himself to them, forgave them, and took them, honoured, to Egypt.

Of these fifteen stories only three are the same as those given in the Book of Sindibad, as published by Professor Comparetti—namely, No. 2, the example of the first Master, which is told by the fifth Master in the Sindibad version; No. 6, the example of the third Master, which is told by the first Master of the Sindibad version; and No. 11, the sixth example of the Empress, which is told by the fourth Master of the Sindibad version. No. 3, the second example of the Empress, may perhaps be a variant of the fifth example of the Empress in the Sindibad version. The remaining stories then might, prima facie, be considered of Western origin; and perhaps genuine Folk-Tales thus early enshrined in literature. No. 4 is to be found in Peter Alfonsi's Disciplina Clericalis and in the Decameron. And Mr. Wright, in his Introduction to The Seuyn Sages (Percy Society), p. liii. says he heard the same story told traditionally in an English country town of a townsman who had a scolding unruly wife. No. 5 is a variant of the legend of Rhampsinitus, king of Egypt, as told by Herodotus; and a similar legend is given in Pausanias, lib. ix. c. 37. No. 7 contains some of the incidents of Merlin's story told by the Chroniclers. No. 10, the example of the fifth Master, is something like Campbell's "Fearachur Leigh," No. xlvii. of his Highland Stories (vol. ii. p. 161). No. 13 bears an analogy to the plot of the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus. Upon the entire question of the occurrence elsewhere of these stories I would refer to Mr. Clouston's Book of Sindibad privately printed in 1884.

There are one or two curious words and expressions which may be of use to the philologist, but the reader will find that the language used is mainly that of the present day with a different spelling. Some of the difficulties of this style have been obviated by the insertion, where necessary, of letters left out in contracted words, and these insertions are printed in italics to distinguish them from the original.