in architecture and ornament has always been influenced by tradition, racial influence, and the myths and religious beliefs of the people, and it developed with the progress of the nation, often culminating in some great epoch. Frequently the continuity was carried on by some contemporary or succeeding race, modified by different conditions and environments, yet still retaining the style in its general characteristics, or, this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for a time, only to spring into new life, endowed with fresh vitality and beauty, culminating again in splendour. Then fresh religious ideas and conditions engrafted their symbolism and traditions upon the style, thus forming a new period in the history of art.

Ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft, and in its primitive state was used symbolically. The ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation. Isolated as these islanders were from the influence of Eastern or Western art, and with but little communication among the various islands, the ornamental art of these people has its own traditions and characteristics, each province or group of islands showing different ideas and details in proportion to its culture or state of civilization, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest, while with the Marquesans the ornament is almost pure picture writings. The illustration of the beautiful paddle in the Heape collection, with its geometric ornamentation, shows the continuity and ornamental development of the representation of the human figure, which was originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or divinity.

In Europe and Asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to exist. The development and continuity of ideas and customs, the traditions of style and craftsmanship carried on through many centuries of the world’s history have obliterated the early or primitive style of ornament, chosen first for its significance or emblematic character.

Some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been recently found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru—relics of the Incas—long anterior to the Spanish conquest. Many fine examples of these woven textiles of cotton and wool are now in the South Kensington museum, forming the Smithies collection, and, as in the ornament of Polynesia, floral forms are entirely absent, the ornament consisting of conventional representations of the human figure, with the owl, condor and the toucan, mingled with the wave scroll and the fret, elements doubtless chosen for their significance.

Many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of ornament, showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and its remarkable influence upon contemporary and succeeding races.

Perhaps the form and enrichment of the Architectural Capital offer one of the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history and evolution of architecture. The remarkable persistency of the capital as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many centuries, though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial influences, yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and enrichment among the various nations of the earth.

The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns the weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and appropriateness of the capital depends:—

First, upon this functional treatment of strength;

Second, upon the beauty of profile or mass;

Third, upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital.

The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions and conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength, beauty of profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and harmony of parts, qualities which are essential to beauty of architecture. In the Parthenon, B.C. 438, we have the finest treatment of this capital—a treatment full of dignity, reserve, and unison of profile (plate 6). The many examples of the Doric Order in Greece and her colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the Greeks. The Indian capital (plate 24) exhibits the same functional treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which undoubtedly are a survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical of Eastern architecture.

The remarkable persistency of the profile, and enrichment of the capital extending through a period of 4,000 years, may be illustrated by a series of diagrams of typical examples. The profile of the capital has not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given, and the enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency, though differentiated by racial influences. The Corinthian capital, with its volutes and acanthus foliage, is but the architectural continuity of the Egyptian capital. The only pure Greek example of this order is from the monument of Lysicrates, but the Romans continued the tradition, assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent capitals of the portico of the Pantheon and the temple of Castor and Pollux. In these examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows of eight leaves each, the volutes springing from sheaths and stems between the leaves, which support the angle of the volutes. The example of early French Gothic has similar characteristics and illustrates the continuity of style.

The Ionic capital, though one of the most persistent in the history of architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection of other capitals. This was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being incompatible with the necessities of stone and marble. There is a want of unity between the volutes and ovolo of the capital; in brief, it has neither coherence nor harmony of parts. The exquisite craftsmanship of the capitals of the Erectheum, with their anthemion enrichment of the greatest purity, the beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the volutes compensates to some extent for the lack of unison (plate 6). The enrichment of the architectural capital is no doubt a survival of the primitive custom of binding floral forms round the simple functional capital, these forms being afterwards perpetuated in stone or marble.

In early Corinthian examples these floral forms were frequently of beaten metal, which, in turn, gave place to the beautiful marble foliage of the Greeks and Romans.

That the ancients used metal work in their capitals we have abundant proof. In the descriptions of the building of Solomon’s Temple we read of “Two chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars, and nets of chequer work and wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the pillars.”

The Composite capital is deficient in coherence and unity of parts, having the same defects as its prototype the Ionic. The annexed illustration from Ancient Rome gives an unusual treatment by the introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the capital.

The Byzantine capital differs from those of the Greeks and Romans in its marked symbolism of detail and the prevalence of the cushion form. Functionally, this type of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the vigorous upward growth of the Egyptian and early Gothic capitals.

The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety of detail, such as interlacing circles and crosses with their mystic symbolism, basket work, chequered details, and the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks.

These features are seen in the greatest profusion at S. Sophia at Constantinople; S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at Ravenna, and S. Marco at Venice. These splendid capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly beautiful in fertile inventiveness of enrichment, and show the assimilative power of the Byzantine craftsmen. The abundant use of chequer work, wreaths of chain work, and of lily work in Byzantine capitals, many of which are figured in Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” show the continuity of style and tradition in architecture.

The Byzantine capitals have the square abacus, usually consisting of a simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the billet, dentil or star pattern. The Dosseret, a singular adjunct to the capital was introduced during this period; it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon the abacus of the capital to give additional height (plate 11).

The Byzantine influence is seen upon the Norman capitals with their square abacus of fillet and chamfer, and the cushion profile of capital. Some remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are in the cloisters of the Benedictine Monastery of Monreale in Sicily, A.D. 1174-1184. The great fertility of inventiveness in the 200 capitals, their storiation, the intermingling of figures, birds and animals with the classic and Byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the history of the world. The Arabian capital, which frequently shows the traditional volute, differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its marked squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with colour.

The Early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful. The perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the significance of its detail as emblematic of the Trinity, the spiral growth of its foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief characteristics of this period. Lacking, perhaps, the delicacy or variety of detail of the Byzantine period or the later Gothic work, it excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrichment, which is more beautiful in the Early English examples with their circular abacus than in contemporary French capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. The transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always felt to be a difficulty, and was rarely overcome, but in the circular abacus of the Early English capitals we have a break in the continuity of the style of the capital.

The English foliage of this period differs from the French in the use of a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf. The French examples have a less pronounced mid-rib, and the leaf is convex in form and divided into three lobes, and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so characteristic of Early English work, is generally absent from French examples (fig. 12, plate 16).

The Decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the Early Gothic period, a more natural type of foliage being used, consisting of the briony, maple, mallow and oak. This foliage was carved with singular delicacy of touch and grace of profile, and is beautiful in its modelling and play of light and shade, yet frequently the capitals are trivial in conception and arrangement, lacking that architectonic character which is so essential to all architectural constructive features.

The perpendicular or late Gothic capital was usually octagonal in form with square conventional foliage of the vine, showing a marked decadence in tradition and craftsmanship (fig. 9, plate 17).

The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling for profile, splendid craftsmanship, diversity of enrichment, and vitality of conception, more especially in Italy, where the tradition of architecture culminated in the works of such remarkable men as Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio, Palladio, and Sansovenio. The tradition was worthily carried on in France by Pierre Lescot, Jean Bullant, Philipert de Lorme, and De Brosse, and in England by Inigo Jones, Wren, and Chambers.