IntroductoryRaw material may be made into a finished product which will have the quality of usefulness alone. Utility is the first purpose of most of the works of man. But when the maker is moved by pride in his work and a desire for beauty to make his handiwork pleasing in appearance as well as useful a second purpose is fulfilled. All civilization and most forms of savagery demand that the equipment of routine life shall be pleasing to the eye after its prime purpose of usefulness has been developed. If an article be pleasing in appearance its making will have involved some of the elements of design. The relationship of its parts, the lines of its construction, its coloring, the manner in which it is ornamented will depend first upon its purpose, but will be guided by a group of recognized traditions which we call the principles of design. Design governs the arrangement of masses, lines, and dots to secure the qualities of beauty and fitness. Any piece of work which is definitely arranged with consideration for its various parts and their relationship is called, in the abstract, a “design.” Thus we speak of a poster, a decorated wall, a building, or a printed page as “a design.” Any successful design will have the qualities of fitness and beauty. Fitness to purpose is largely a mechanical factor. An ugly building may protect its occupants from the weather, and an ugly printed page may be entirely legible. Beauty depends upon esthetic Harmony (of shape, tone, color, and conception). Balance and proportion (of mass, shape, and color). Rhythm (of shape, line, tone, and color). This conception of the elements of design covers all of the many things that mankind makes—buildings, or railroad trains, or sculpture, or paintings, or pottery, or furniture, or the printed page alike. In each, different though they be, the purpose of design is to relate the various surfaces, masses, and structural lines and to decorate or ornament the finished whole. Countless materials may be used and all the varied purposes of the equipment of mankind must be satisfied, but the application of the principles of design will be similar throughout. This point is emphasized so that the student of printing may find a common ground with the workers in all the fine and useful arts. The SurfaceIn the printed page, design is concerned with the arrangement of masses and lines on a flat surface—the face of the sheet of paper. Hence design in printing considers two dimensions only, width and length. The third dimension, depth, which must be treated in all but flat surfaces, can only be represented on the printed page and the means of showing depth is really an illusion by which the eye sees various colors and tones which convey a pictorial impression. It is important to note that design and pictorial representation serve each a different purpose in printing. Yet they are similar mechanically in that each requires a printing surface (type, borders, ornaments, and engravings) which may be prepared by the same As an example: Much of the material devised for the decoration of the printed page (ornaments and borders) is derived from natural forms; i. e., leaves, flowers, etc. The leaves, stems, and flowers which are adapted to form the ornament shown in Fig. 1 are a flat pattern of black and white. The same material is rendered pictorially in the pen sketch accompanying the ornament. It will be observed that the flat treatment The preceding points have been given emphasis as a warning against a tendency to use pictures, however pleasing, as decorative material; or to allow design in printing to be concerned with a representation of depth. The same masses of shadow and light which express roundness or depth in a picture may be formed into decorative flat masses and thus embodied in the design of the page. In Fig. 2, A is a picture which might be used as an illustration or for its own interest. B is a flat rendering whose arrangement of masses suggests the pictorial interest of A without denying the flat surface upon which it is printed. The Materials of DesignSince design is a matter of arrangement, its materials are the masses, lines, and dots which make up the whole form. A dot theoretically has no dimensions. And a line (being the path of a dot in motion) theoretically has length but no width. While if a line be moved sideways it produces a mass which has area and shape. Practically, a dot may be larger than a pin point and may have definite shape—a square dot or a round dot. Also in the common terms of design a line may have width (often called weight). Thus we speak of a narrow or light line as contrasted with a wide or heavy line.
A mass will have shape, which is the impression conveyed to the eye by its general contour. It will In printing, the successive lines of type which form a paragraph, block, or connected series of paragraphs or blocks, are considered as a mass. An initial letter may be another mass; a head-band still another; and ornaments or illustrations may form other masses. All must be considered as mass elements in the design of the page, with rule borders as surrounding lines, or heavier designed borders as surrounding masses. Thus all the component parts of the printed page are reduced to elements or materials of design, and with these materials an arrangement is to be made, for the sake of beauty, which will have the qualities of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm. The Qualities of DesignThe dictionary defines harmony, in art, as “a normal state of completeness in the relation of things to each other.” This “state of completeness” in a harmonious scheme is such that we have no desire to change or modify any detail or characteristic. Balance is defined as “the state of being in equilibrium.” In design this refers to the equilibrium or balance of attraction to the eye between the various masses. Proportion is “the comparative relation of one thing to another” with respect to size. Rhythm, in design, “is a movement characterized by regular recurrence of accent.” Let us discover the embodiment of these qualities of design with a simple experiment. Cut from black, dark gray, and light gray cover paper a miscellaneous assortment of small pieces as shown in Fig. 3. This group of squares, oblongs, triangles, diamonds, circles, and whatnot has none of the qualities of design as it appears in Fig. 3. But we note that in spite of the harmony of shapes in Fig. 4 some of the pieces of paper seem unduly prominent because of their blackness. They do not seem harmonious with the gray tone of the others. If we replace them with other pieces gray in color, as in Fig. 5, the result will be a more pleasing relationship of tone throughout the design. Thus we have made a simple demonstration of tone harmony. If our pieces of paper were of various colors we could make another arrangement to express a color harmony. The problem of color, however, has so many phases that it is considered separately in this series. If rhythm is to give us a “regular recurrence” of various features of a design, it will be possible to choose a combination of pieces of paper which will show a rhythmic arrangement, Fig. 6. It will be noticeable here that the shapes occur in successive groups which repeat an idea. We may also arrange a series of pieces in which the tones are rhythmic, progressing from light to dark in repeated groups. This will be a simple example of tone rhythm, Fig. 7. Summing up the experiment thus far the following definitions may be noted: Shape harmony will exist when masses similar in contour or shape are used to form a design. Tone harmony results from the use of tones in a design which carry a feeling of relationship. Tone rhythm is a recurrence of similar tones or a regular progression of related tones from light to dark or the reverse through a design. The four qualities above are so closely related that there is often no definite dividing line between them; indeed, a successful design will embody them all. ProportionOur definition of proportion as a comparative relationship of size is so broad that any sizes may be in proportion. The quality of proportion in design is always assumed to be a pleasing relationship of sizes. It thus becomes necessary to determine what relationship of sizes will be most pleasing. The use of equal masses in a design is monotonous. The eye finds variety of size more interesting. But to determine what form of variety is most interesting we must find, if possible, the ideal area relationship between masses in a design. This problem has of necessity been solved by the designers of all nations and all periods, and it is interesting to note that the result has everywhere been practically the same. Let us arrive at the expression of good proportion by the simple means of dividing a rectangle into two parts which will have the most interesting relationship. This rectangle is A in Fig. 8. B shows a division into equal parts, the result being uninteresting and monotonous. In C the division gives a feeling that the lower part is too large; it is crowding the upper and the result is not pleasing. The relationship in D is so nearly equal that the division seems to have been an inaccurate effort to locate the center. Somewhere It is interesting to note that when a space has been divided into the ratio of 2 to 3, the relationship of the smaller to the larger is practically the same as the relationship of the larger to the original whole. Or, mathematically, if the original, having an area of 5, is divided into parts of 2 and 3, then 2 is to 3 as 3 is to 5,—a ratio which is approximately true. The student of architecture finds the most careful consideration of proportion in the relationship of The most simple application of proportion to the division of a printed page occurs when a single type line or compact group of lines is to be placed on the page (Fig. 9). It is unfortunate that it is so easy to divide space mechanically in a type page by using identical measures of furniture or slugs above and below. When, in certain instances (as in a business card), tradition demands that a line be “centered” vertically, it will be found that the exact centering of the line will make it appear a bit low. An optical illusion demands that such a line be raised slightly if it is to appear in the vertical center (Fig. 10). This apparent center is called “the optical center.” BalanceThe physical equilibrium which exists in the balanced “seesaw” of our childhood and the optical balance which is the result of the proper adjustment of masses within the confining edges of a design are similar, in that each is an equalizing of forces of attraction. In the former the force is gravity; in the latter, the attraction to the eye, which varies with the size and tone of the mass. While the force of gravity usually brings balancing masses to a horizontal alignment, optical balance may bring the masses in a design into equilibrium on any desired line, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. The attraction which a mass possesses varies directly with its size and tone. Thus a mass of four square inches, solid black, will be twice as strong in attraction value as a mass of two square inches, solid black. It will also be twice as strong in attraction value as a mass of four square inches, neutral gray (the gray being half the value of black). The attraction value of gray tones particularly affects the consideration of blocks of type which vary in depth of tone according to the blackness of the type face, closeness of spacing, etc. Since the “seesaw” must have its sawhorse and the weighing scale its point of support, it follows that any condition of equilibrium, physical or optical, demands a point of balance. In design, this point will determine the location of the related masses. It will be apparent upon further thought that the point of balance should have some relationship to the edge or confines of the design. The confining edge of the design is usually a rectangle, on the printed page. The location of a point of When equal masses are to be balanced it is obvious that they will be equidistant from the point of balance. (Fig. 12.) When the masses are unequal the point is at unequal distances from the centers of the masses. These unequal distances have the same ratio as the masses themselves, but the larger mass is always the shorter distance from the point. If 1 pound is to balance 4 Hence, to balance two masses in a rectangle, the point of balance will be found by proportion, placing it The balance of three or more masses within a rectangle involves the consideration of two at a time, balancing the pair or pairs with the remaining mass or masses. In Fig. 15, masses 1, 2 and 3 are to be balanced within the rectangle. Balancing 3 with 1 gives the balancing point P. Taking 3 plus 1 from the point P, we locate the mass 2 to balance them across the line AB which divides the rectangle in good proportion. The point p then becomes the balancing point for the entire group. Mathematically, 3 plus 1 equal 4; 4 is twice 2; therefore the mass 2 must be twice as far from the point p as the balanced masses 3 plus 1. Two other combinations might have been worked out with the masses in Fig. 15: 3 plus 2, balanced by 1, the mass 1 being placed five times as far from the point p as would the point P. Or 2 plus 1 might have been balanced by 3, in which case the distances would have been equal. The application of these principles of balance to the problems of typography is largely a matter of influence. The typographer should be guided by them but he need not make mathematical calculations if his eyes be trained to judge relative attraction values so that he can arrange his various masses to secure balance. SymmetryWhen two parts of a design are equal in every respect so that if the design were folded over one-half would superimpose in every detail with the other half, then a state of symmetry exists and the design is said to be symmetrical. The line upon which such a design would be folded, or, in other words, the line which bisects a symmetrical design, is called its axis. In Fig. 16 the line AB is the vertical axis of the page. It is rarely possible that the printed page can be symmetrical with respect to its horizontal axis. Such VarietyThe absence of symmetry in a design gives it the character of variety, which may be defined as a state of inequality in the arrangement of the parts of a design. In Fig. 17, neither the horizontal axis nor the vertical axis divides the page so that its units are symmetrically arranged. MotionIn any arrangement, pictorial or decorative, the eye of the observer is attracted to various parts in succession, depending on their character and position with respect to each other. This quality, called motion, will be more pronounced as the several units tend to lead more definitely from one to another. Fig. 18 shows the path which the eye follows as it looks at the ornament. In pictorial composition the same quality is employed to emphasize the story to be told or the character of the arrangement used by the painter. Then it is called “line.” This quality of design is not to be confused with “action,” which is the depiction of a figure in motion, as shown in Fig. 19. On the printed page the eye may be definitely directed from one unit to another through this quality of motion, which forms a very valuable resource for the printer. Fig. 20 is a diagram of a simple use of motion, the eye progressing as indicated by the arrows through the masses which make up the page. OrnamentWhile the elements of design concern all the parts of a proposed scheme (on the printed page, its masses of type, decorative border, head-band, initial letters, tail-piece, etc.) certain parts will be used solely to beautify the whole design. They ornament or decorate it. “Ornament is a means by which Beauty or Significance is imparted to Utility.” Ornament may be either Symbolic or Esthetic. Symbolic ornament consists of elements or forms chosen because they are significant of the purpose of the design. In Fig. 22, the ornament is symbolic in its close connection with the message conveyed by the type. Esthetic ornament consists of forms chosen for their beauty alone. In Fig. 23, the head-band and initial are pleasing in design and they beautify the page without having the slightest relation to the text of the page. Esthetic ornament characterizes the periods of design which have had the most important influence in the development of printing: the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance. Symbolic ornament is found in Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzantine, Scandinavian, Celtic, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Chinese, and Japanese design. For intimate study of these various styles and periods the reader is referred to the various books listed in the bibliography. Ornament may be natural or inventive. Natural ornament confines itself to the rendition in decorative design of forms chosen from nature, either animate of inanimate. Inventive ornament consists of elements not derived from any natural source. It is usually geometric in character; that is, it is rendered in patterns and masses expressed in geometric shapes. The majority of geometrical ornaments may be divided into three groups. As we find them in typographical material these groups are bands or borders, made up visually of repeated units or spots; enclosed spaces or panels; and unlimited flat patterns or “all-over” designs. In nearly every style and period of design the plant-world has been the biggest source of material for adaptation. The direct imitation of natural forms, keeping as much as possible of their shape, color, formation, etc., is called naturalistic design. A departure from the exact details of the natural form, forming the design according to the rules of rhythm and symmetry, with strict attention to regularity leads to a result more artificial in character. Whether the ornament you consider be naturalistic or artificial, the original source, which is the plant-form or other natural form from which the design was made, is called the motif of the design. It is interesting to survey the world about you and note here and there a recognizable motif in the design of wallpaper, hangings, furniture, rugs, books, and so on all through the works of man. The development of a motif into ornament or decoration calls for the use of all the principles thus far established, plus familiarity with the medium to be used and the inventiveness that comes only with some Periods of Design Which Have Most Affected PrintingThe student of design finds that historical study of his subject carries him through the entire history of art, from the crude expressions of prehistoric man down the long and varied centuries to the styles and fancies of the present day. He will find his theme closely interwoven with the story of the development of races, the rise and fall of nations, the whole thrilling drama of ancient and modern history. Printing, as a means of making records and of embodying and illustrating thought, has given us the wide field of literature on design. But in the making of books as an application of design, and in the making of all other forms of printed matter, printers since Gutenberg have been influenced by relatively few of the many distinct periods through which art has come. And those few have usually been the artistic feeling which prevailed at the time the printers lived. To trace the periods of design that have most influenced printing is to tell in part the history of the craft. Since that subject is developed elsewhere in this series, suffice it to follow briefly the steps through which the making of books has passed. Since the invention of movable types came opportunely to meet the desire for enlightenment by means of books, it was natural that printed books should be planned closely to imitate the hand-written or lettered books. These latter, having been produced for centuries by the men of the church to whom had been given training in the arts, had been brought to a high state of perfection in design. It has often been said that Gutenberg’s forty-two line Bible, one of the first books printed from type, has never been surpassed in pure beauty of design and in the rich quality of its type masses. But the first books printed from type were all of religious character, and the type itself was designed to imitate the black, condensed “text” letter forms which had been developed by the scribes. The elaborate initial letters which marked the sundry divisions of thought were repeated by the early printers, sometimes to be illumined by hand and later as engravings on wood or metal. There was no distinct departure from the ecclesiastical style of the monks save as was necessitated by the mechanical limitations of the new process of printing. Hence came a style which marked the first years of printing with the influence of the church. And that style today can be embodied in modern work by means of typographic material, black text types, missal initials, and liberal use of color. But it will always be associated by the power of tradition with church literature and ecclesiastical printing. Just as Gutenberg, Fust and Schoeffer set a standard in ecclesiastical printing with their first efforts, so Nicholas Jenson in cutting his first Roman type established a precedent which has lived to the present day. Designers of today find inspiration in the classic expression of the Greeks for printed work which is to be similarly restrained and dignified. Type faces have been developed which are distinctly classic in feeling, echoing the letter-forms of the inscriptions which were cut in stone by Greek and Roman artisans. (Figs. 35-6.) The design of the Renaissance has been embodied in the books of many nations. Indeed, it may be said that modern book design dates from the start of printing in Italy. But, just as the fine arts have never since flourished as they did in that resplendent period, so has the progress of design in printing been a matter of the work of individuals or limited groups rather than the character of a period or a national expression. Type faces were cut at various times and by men of different nationalities which have marked characteristics, but they are not to be noted as establishing periods or styles in printing. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries printing in England grew into forms of expression which have been recognized under the term of “Georgian” or “colonial.” The first editions of Shakespeare typify the earlier development of this style, which was marked by poor typographical materials that were nevertheless arranged in a direct and interesting manner. (Fig. 37.) A few years later the growth of printing in the American colonies brought this form of typographic Through the ensuing decades printing developed mechanically, but it lapsed into styles which had little or no relationship to design. It is interesting historically to follow the efforts of the printers who rode on the first steamboats and railroad trains; who recorded the rise and fall of slavery and secession; who bent their rules and jumbled their type faces during the “early Pullman days” that marked the start of many modern successful printers. The history of the craft through all these times has been picturesque and closely identified with the growth of the country. But it has little or no significance for the designer. William Morris, in England, devoted a very few years, toward the end of his life, to a protest against the commonplace and mechanical qualities which had dominated printing previously. He revived many of the old traditions and marked his books with his strong personality. We owe much of our present wide-spread reverence for good design in printing to his influence, even as we are similarly indebted to him for the well-designed and useful appurtenances of our daily life which have supplanted twisted and distorted furniture, stuffed birds under glass jars, and all the atrocities of a generation or two ago. See Figs. Among the present-day designers of printing whose work shows an intimate study of the principles and the traditions of the craft are such men as Rogers, Updike, Goudy, Cleland, and Currier. The product of their work may frequently be seen in reproductions in the trade publications. It should be studied by younger designers, for it shows the results of earnest and understanding effort to make modern printing reach and even pass the artistic standards which were established nearly five hundred years ago. |