William S. Furneaux

The sea-side naturalist, in the course of his ramblings and searchings on the coast, will certainly come across many objects, dead or alive, that he will desire to set aside for future study or identification in his leisure moments at home. Some of these will be required for temporary purposes only, while, most probably, a large proportion will be retained permanently for the establishment of a private museum, that shall serve not only as a pleasant reminder of the many enjoyable hours spent on the shore, but also as a means of reference for the study of the classification of natural objects and of their distribution and habitats.

We will first deal with those specimens that are required for temporary purposes only—those of which the collector desires to study the general characters, as well as, perhaps, something of the internal structure; but before doing so we cannot refrain from impressing on the reader the advisability of learning as much as possible of the external features and mode of growth of the different living creatures while still alive, for it must be remembered that it is impossible to preserve many of them without more or less destruction of their natural colouring and distortion of their characteristic forms.

In those cases where it is possible to keep the creatures alive for a short time only, it is a good plan to make notes of their movements and all observed changes in form, and their methods of feeding, and also to illustrate these notes by sketches drawn from life. This may seem quite an unnecessary procedure to many beginners in the study of natural objects, and may even, as far as the sketches are concerned, present difficulties that at first appear to be insurmountable; but the power to sketch from nature will surely be acquired to a greater or less degree by constant practice, and illustrated notes prepared for the purpose we suggest will undoubtedly be of great value to the student. Further, though it may often be necessary to set specimens aside in a preservative fluid until one has the leisure to examine their structure, it should always be remembered that they never improve by keeping, also that they are rarely in such good condition for dissection after saturation with the preservative as when perfectly fresh.

One of the most convenient preservatives for general use is undoubtedly methylated spirit. This is alcohol that has been adulterated in order to render it undrinkable, so that it may be sold free from duty for use in the various arts and manufactures without any danger of its being employed for the concoction of beverages. It may be used just as purchased—that is, in its strongest condition—for many purposes, but in this state it has a powerful affinity for water, and will rapidly abstract water from animal and vegetable objects, causing the softer ones to become hard, shrunken, and shrivelled, often to such an extent that they are almost beyond recognition.

By diluting the spirit, however, we satisfy to a great extent its affinity for water, and thus prevent, or, at least, reduce the action just mentioned. A mixture of equal quantities of spirit and water is quite strong enough. Unfortunately the common methylated spirit of the shops produces a fine white precipitate, that gives the whole mass a milky appearance, when it is diluted. This is due to the presence of mineral naphtha, which is added in a certain fixed proportion in accordance with the Government regulations. But it is possible, by special application, to obtain the ‘non-mineralised’ or ‘ordinary’ methylated spirit of former years, though not in small quantities, and this liquid dissolves in water without the formation of a precipitate. It should be noted, however, that the use of the spirit as a preservative is in no way interfered with by the presence of the mineral naphtha, the only disadvantage of this impurity lying in the fact that the milkiness consequent on dilution prevents the objects in a specimen jar from being observed without removal.

We have just referred to the hardening action of strong spirit as a disadvantage, and so it is when it is required to preserve soft structures with as little as possible of change in general form and appearance; but there are times when it becomes necessary to harden these soft structures in order that sections may be made for the purpose of examining internal structure with or without the aid of the microscope, and for such purposes strong spirit is one of the best hardening agents that can be employed.

Formaldehyde is another very good preservative. It is a colourless liquid, and should be considerably diluted for use, a two per cent. solution being quite strong enough for all ordinary purposes. It possesses some distinct advantages as compared with spirit. In the first place, it does not destroy the natural colours of objects to the extent that spirit does; and, although a hardening agent as well as a preservative, it does not harden soft structures by the extraction of the water they contain, and therefore does not cause them to become shrivelled or otherwise distorted. It will also occur to the reader that, since a small bulk of formaline represents a large volume of the diluted preservative, it is very conveniently stored, and a very small bottle of it taken for outdoor work may, on dilution with water, be made to yield all that is required for the preservation of the takings of a successful day, or even of a longer period. Formaldehyde is usually sold in solution of about forty per cent. strength, and for the preparation of a two per cent. solution it will be found convenient to provide a glass measure graduated either into cubic centimetres or fluid ounces and drams. One hundred volumes of the original solution contain forty of pure formaldehyde, and if water be added to make this up to two thousand volumes, a two per cent. solution is obtained. Thus, one hundred cubic centimetres of the original solution is sufficient to prepare two litres (three and a half pints) of suitable preservative.

A very good preservative liquid may be made by dissolving two ounces of common salt, one ounce of alum, and two or three grains of corrosive sublimate (a deadly poison) in one quart of water, and then, after allowing all sedimentary matter to settle to the bottom, decanting off the clear solution. This mixture is known as Goadby’s fluid, and is well adapted for the preservation of both animal and vegetable structures. It does not cause any undue contraction of soft tissues, and, as a rule, does not destroy the natural colours of the objects kept in it.

Glycerine is valuable as a preservative for both animal and vegetable objects, and especially for the soft-bodied marine animals that form such a large percentage of the fauna of our shores. It maintains the tissues in a soft condition, and preserves the natural tints as well as any liquid.

An inexpensive preservative may also be made by dissolving chloride of zinc—about one ounce to the pint of water. This is considered by some to be one of the best fluids for keeping animal structures in good condition.

Now, although the different fluids here mentioned are described in connection with the temporary preservation of natural objects, it must be remembered that they are equally adapted for the permanent preservation of the animals and plants that are to figure in the museum of the sea-side naturalist; and, although some marine objects may be preserved in a dry state in a manner to be hereafter described, yet there are many species of animals, and also some plants, that can be satisfactorily preserved only by immersion in a suitable fluid.

This method may be applied to all soft-bodied animals, such as anemones, jelly-fishes, marine worms, shell-less molluscs (sea slugs, cephalopods, &c.), the soft parts of shelled molluscs, fishes, &c.; and most sponges retain their natural appearance much better in a preservative fluid than in a dry condition. Many sea-weeds also, which are practically destroyed by the most careful drying process, are most perfectly preserved in fluid.

But the puzzled amateur will probably be inclined to ask: ‘Which is the best preservative liquid for this or that specimen?’ No satisfactory general rule can be given in answer to such a question, and a great deal will have to be determined by his own experiments and observations. Whenever he has two or three specimens of the same object, as many different fluids should be employed, and the results compared and noted. In this way a very great deal of useful information will be obtained and by the best possible means. However, it may be mentioned that all the fluids alluded to above may be safely used for almost every animal or vegetable specimen with the following reservations: strong spirit should not be employed for any very soft animal, nor should it be used for delicate green plants, since it will dissolve out the green colouring matter (chlorophyll), leaving them white or almost colourless. Further, the greatest care should be exercised in dealing with sea anemones and jelly-fishes. If spirit is used for preserving these creatures, it should be very dilute, at least at first, but may with advantage be increased in strength afterwards, though this should be done gradually.

Whatever be the preservative used, it is sure to be more or less charged with sedimentary and coloured matter extracted from the object immersed in it; hence, if the specimen concerned is to form part of a museum collection, it will be necessary to transfer it to a fresh solution after a time, and a second, and even further changes may be necessary before the object ceases to discolour the fluid or render it turbid.

Considerable difficulty will sometimes be found in the attempts to preserve a soft-bodied animal in its natural attitude. Thus, when a sea anemone is removed from its native element, it generally withdraws its tentacles, and, contracting the upper part of its cylindrical body, entirely conceals these appendages, together with the mouth they surround; and a mollusc similarly treated will generally pull itself together within its shell, leaving little or no trace of the living body inhabiting the lifeless case. Then, if these animals are transferred to any fluid other than sea water, or placed anywhere under unnatural conditions, they usually remain in their closed or unexpanded form. Thus, almost every attempt to kill them for preservation deprives them of just the characteristics they should retain as museum specimens.

Some such animals may be dealt with satisfactorily as follows: Transfer them to a vessel of fresh sea water, and leave them perfectly undisturbed until they assume the desired form or attitude. Then add a solution of corrosive sublimate very gradually—a drop or two at intervals of some minutes. In this way the bodies of anemones may be obtained ready for preservation with expanded tentacles, tube-secreting worms with their heads and slender processes protruding from their limy or sandy cases, molluscs with their ‘feet’ or their mantles and gills protruding from their shells, and barnacles with their plume-like appendages projecting beyond the opening of their conical shells.

The specimens thus prepared may be placed at first in very dilute spirit, and then, after a time, finally stored in a stronger solution of spirit in water; or they may be transferred to one of the other preservative solutions previously mentioned.

All specimens permanently preserved in fluid for a museum should be placed in jars, bottles, or tubes of suitable size, each vessel containing, as a rule, only one. Where expense is no object, stoppered jars made expressly for biological and anatomical specimens may be used for all but the smallest objects; or, failing this, ordinary wide-mouthed bottles of white glass, fitted with good corks or glass stoppers.

For very small specimens nothing is more suitable than glass tubes, but it must be remembered that wherever corks are used, even if they are of the best quality procurable, it will be necessary to look over the specimens occasionally to see if the preserving fluid has disappeared to any extent either by leakage or evaporation; for such loss is always liable to occur, although it may be very slow, and especially when methylated spirit is the liquid employed.

Fig. 40.—Jars for preserving Anatomical and Biological Specimens

The writer has preserved many hundreds of small marine and other objects in glass tubes of dilute spirit that have been hermetically sealed, thus rendering the slightest loss absolutely impossible, while the perfect exclusion of air prevents the development of fungoid growths that sometimes make their appearance in imperfectly preserved specimens. The making and closing of such tubes, though a more or less difficult operation at first to those who have had no previous experience in glass-working, become exceedingly simple after a little practice; and believing it probable that many of our readers would like to try their hand at this most perfect method of preserving and protecting small objects, we will give a description of the manner in which it is done.

The apparatus and materials required for this work are:—Lengths of ‘soft’ glass tubing, varying from about one quarter to a little over half an inch in internal diameter; a supply of diluted spirit—about half spirit and half water; a Herapath blowpipe, preferably with foot-bellows; and a small triangular file.The glass tubing may be cut into convenient lengths by giving a single sharp stroke with the file, and then pulling it apart with, at the same time, a slight bending from the cut made.

Cut a piece of tubing about eight or nine inches long, heat it in the blowpipe flame, turning it round and round all the time, until it is quite soft, then remove it from the flame and immediately pull it out slowly until the diameter in the middle is reduced to about a sixteenth of an inch (fig. 41, 2). Make a slight scratch with the file at the narrowest part, and divide the tube at this point (fig. 41, 3). Now heat one of these pieces of tubing as before just at the point where the diameter of the drawn part begins to decrease; and, when very soft, pull it out rather quickly while it is still in the flame. The part pulled now becomes completely separated, and the tube is closed, but pointed. Continue to heat the closed end, directing the flame to the point rather than to the sides, until the melted glass forms a rather thick and flattened end; and then, immediately on removing it from the flame, blow gently into the open end until the melted glass is nicely rounded like the bottom of a test-tube (fig. 41, 4). When the tube is cold, the specimen that it is to contain, and which has already been stored for a time in dilute spirit, is dropped into it. The tube is now heated about an inch above the top of the specimen, drawn out as shown in fig. 41, 5, and again allowed to cool. When cold, the fresh spirit is poured into the open end of the tube, but the middle part is so narrow that the spirit will not run down freely. If, however, suction be applied to the open end, air from the bottom will bubble through the spirit, and then, on the cessation of the suction, the spirit will pass down to take the place of the air that was withdrawn. This may be repeated if necessary to entirely cover the specimen with the fluid. Any excess of spirit is then thrown from the upper part of the tube, and the latter cut off. Nothing is now left but to close the tube hermetically. This is done by heating the lower part of the narrow neck, and then drawing it out in the flame, taking great care that the tube is withdrawn from the flame the moment it is closed. The tube must also be kept in an upright position until it has cooled. The appearance of the finished tube is shown in fig. 41, 6.

All preserved specimens should have a label attached on which is written the name of the specimen, the class and order to which it belongs, the locality in which it was found, together with any brief remarks that the owner desires to remember concerning its habits &c.

The bottles or tubes that are too small to have a label attached to them in the ordinary way may be mounted on a card, as represented in fig. 42, and the desired particulars then written on the card.

When soft or delicate specimens are preserved in a bottle of fluid they frequently require some kind of support to keep them in proper form and to display them better for observation. Perhaps the best way to support them is to fasten them to a very thin plate of mica of suitable size by means of a needle and very fine thread. The mica is so transparent that it is invisible in the fluid, and the few stitches are also hardly perceptible, thus making it appear as if the specimen floats freely in the fluid.We will now pass on to consider those objects of the shore that are usually preserved in a dry condition, commencing with

Starfishes and Sea Urchins

Starfishes are commonly preserved by simply allowing them to dry in an airy place, with or without direct exposure to the sun’s rays, and this method is fairly satisfactory when the drying proceeds rapidly; but care should be taken to maintain the natural roughness of the exterior as well as to have the numerous suckers of the under surface as prominent as possible. If the starfish is simply laid out on some surface to dry, the side on which it rests is often more or less flattened by the weight of the specimen itself, which therefore becomes adapted for the future examination of one surface only; but a better result, as regards both the rapidity of drying and the after appearance of the specimen, may be obtained by suspending it on a piece of fine net or by threads. A still better plan is to put the dead starfish into strong spirit, which will rapidly extract the greater part of the moisture that its body contained. After allowing it to remain in this for a day or two to harden it, put it out to dry as before mentioned. The spirit, being very volatile, will soon evaporate, so that the specimen will shortly be ready for storing away.

It is most important to observe that dried specimens—not starfishes only, but all animal and vegetable objects—should never be placed in the cabinet or other store-case until perfectly dry, for a very small amount of moisture left in them will often encourage the development of moulds, not only on themselves, but on other specimens stored with them.

Very small and delicate starfishes, when preserved in a dry condition, may be protected from injury by fastening them on a card by means of a little gum, or by keeping them permanently stored on cotton wool in glass-topped boxes.

Sea urchins, or sea eggs, as they are commonly called, may be preserved exactly in the same way as starfishes, though it is more essential in the case of these to soak them in strong spirit previous to drying, otherwise the soft animal matter within the shell will decompose before the drying is complete. Here, however, it is possible to remove the whole interior with the aid of a piece of bent wire, and to thoroughly clean the inner surface of the shell before drying it.Some of the shells should be preserved with the spines all intact, and others with these removed in order to show the arrangement of the plates which compose the shell, as well as the perforations, and the rounded processes to which the spines are articulated.

The majority of sea urchins are provided with a most complicated and beautiful arrangement of teeth which are well worthy of study. These should be removed from a moderately large specimen, the soft surrounding structures carefully dissected away, and then cleaned by means of an old tooth-brush without disarranging them.

It will be found that dried sea urchins will require care when preserved with spines attached, for these appendages are usually very brittle and are easily dislocated at their bases where they are united to the shell by ball-and-socket joints.

It may be mentioned here that corrosive sublimate is very valuable for preventing the development of mould on the surfaces of starfishes, sea urchins, and museum specimens generally. It is best supplied in the form of an alcoholic solution made by dissolving a few grains in about half a pint of methylated spirit; the advantage of this over an aqueous solution being the rapidity with which it dries. In most cases it is simply necessary to apply the solution to the object by means of a soft brush, but, as regards starfishes and urchins it is far better to dissolve a few grains of the corrosive sublimate in the spirit in which the objects are placed previous to drying.

Crustaceans

The preservation of crustaceans by the dry method often requires some care and demands a certain amount of time; but the process is never really difficult, and the satisfaction of having produced a good specimen for a permanent collection well repays one for the trouble taken and time spent.

Some of our crustaceans are only partially protected by a firm outer covering, and almost every attempt to preserve these as dry objects results in such a shrivelling of the soft tissues that the natural appearance is quite destroyed. This is the case with some of the barnacles, and the abdominal portion of the bodies of hermit crabs, which are, therefore, far better preserved in fluid. Dilute spirit is quite satisfactory for most of these as far as the preservation of the soft structures is concerned, but it has the disadvantage that it turns the shells of some crustaceans red, making them appear as if they had been boiled.

Other crustaceans are so small, or are hardened externally to such a slight extent, that they also are not adapted for the dry method of preservation. Speaking generally, such crustaceans as shrimps and sand-hoppers are best preserved in fluid, while the different species of crabs and lobsters are more conveniently preserved dry unless it is desired to study any of their soft structures.

It is quite impossible to remove the soft parts from small crabs and lobsters previous to drying them, hence the drying should be conducted as rapidly as possible, so that no decomposition may set in. Where the process goes on very slowly, as is the case when the air is damp, or when the specimens are not set out in an airy spot, a decay of the soft structures soon proceeds, and the products of this decay will generally saturate the whole specimen, giving rise to most objectionable odours, and destroying the natural colour of the shell.

If it has been found that the species in question are not reddened by the action of methylated spirit, they should be allowed to remain in this fluid, with a few grains of dissolved corrosive sublimate, for at least a few hours, and then they will dry rapidly without any signs of putrefaction; and even those species that are reddened by spirit may be treated to a shorter immersion in this fluid with advantage.

The specimens should always be set out in some natural attitude to dry, unless it is desired to spread out the various appendages in some manner that is more convenient for the study of their structure. A sheet of blotting-paper may be placed on cork or soft wood, the specimens placed on this, and the appendages kept in the desired positions when necessary by means of pins placed beside, but not thrust through them. When more than one specimen of the same species has been collected, one should be set in such a manner as to exhibit the under side; and, further, in instances where the male and female of the same crustacean differ in structure, as is commonly the case, two of each should be preserved, one displaying the upper, and the other the under surface.

When perfectly dry, all small crustaceans should be mounted on cards with the aid of a little gum, and the name and other particulars to be remembered then written on the card.

The question may well be asked: ‘Which is the best gum to use?’ In answer to this we may say that gum tragacanth is certainly as good as any. It holds well, and leaves no visible stain on a white card. A small quantity of the solid gum should be put into a bottle with water in which a grain or so of corrosive sublimate has been dissolved. It absorbs much water, becoming a very soft, jelly-like mass. Any excess of water may be poured off, and the gum is then ready for use.

The larger crabs and lobsters contain such an amount of soft tissue within that it becomes absolutely necessary to clear them in order to avoid the unpleasant and destructive effects of decomposition.

In the case of lobsters the abdomen should be removed from the large cephalo-thorax by cutting through the connecting membrane with a sharp knife. The soft portions of both halves of the body are then raked out by means of a piece of wire flattened and bent at one end, and the interior cleaned with the aid of a rather stiff bottle-brush. The large claws are then removed by cutting through the membrane that unites them with the legs, and these are cleared in a similar manner. The different parts are next laid out to dry on blotting-paper, with the various appendages attached to the body arranged just as in life; and, finally, when all parts are quite dry, both within and without, the separated parts are reattached by means of some kind of cement. For this purpose a solution of gelatine in acetic acid is much better than gum tragacanth, as it has a far greater holding power, and this is necessary when we require to unite rather large structures with but small surfaces in contact.

Large crabs are to be dealt with much in the same manner, but, instead of removing the abdomen only, which, in the crab, is usually very small and doubled under the thorax, the whole carapace—the large shell that covers the entire upper surface of the body—should be lifted off, and replaced again after the specimen has been cleaned and dried.

Marine Shells &c.

We have previously dealt with the preservation of the shell-less molluscs, and the soft bodies of the shelled species when such are required, so we will now see what should be done with the shells.

Numerous shells are often to be found on the sea beach—shells that have been washed in by the breakers, and from which the animal contents have disappeared, either by the natural process of decay, aided by the action of the waves, or by the ravages of the voracious or carrion-eating denizens of the sea; and although these shells are rarely perfect, having been tossed about among the other material of the beach, yet we occasionally find here the most perfect specimens of both univalve and bivalve shells in such a condition that they are ready for the cabinet, and these often include species that are seldom found between the tide-marks, or that are otherwise difficult to obtain.

However, the shell-collector must not rely on such specimens as these for the purpose of making up his stock, but must search out the living molluscs in their habitats and prepare the shells as required.

The molluscs collected for this purpose are immersed in boiling water for a short time, and the animal then removed from the shell. In the case of bivalves it will generally be found that the hot water has caused the muscles of the animal to separate from the valves to which they were attached, or, if not, they have been so far softened that they are easily detached, while it does not destroy the ligament by means of which the valves are held together at the hinge; but the univalve molluscs must be removed from their shells by means of a bent pin or wire. In the latter instance care must be taken to extract the whole of the body of the animal, otherwise the remaining portion will decompose within the shell, giving rise to the noxious products of natural decay.

The univalves have now simply to be placed mouth downwards on blotting-paper to drain and dry, when they are ready for the cabinet. If, however, they include those species, like the periwinkles and whelks, that close their shells by means of a horny lid (operculum) when they draw in their bodies, these lids should be removed from the animal and attached to their proper places in the mouth of the shell. The best way to accomplish this is to pack the dry shells with cotton wool, and then fasten the opercula to the wool by means of a little gum tragacanth or acetic glue.

Bivalve shells should, as a rule, be closed while the ligament is still supple, and kept closed until it is quite dry, when the valves will remain together just in the position they assume when pulled together by the living animal. The shells of the larger species may be conveniently kept closed during the drying of the ligament by means of thread tied round them, but the very small ones are best held together by means of a delicate spring made by bending fine brass wire into the form shown in fig. 44.

There are many features connected with the internal structure and surface of the shells of molluscs that are quite as interesting and instructive as those exhibited externally; hence a collection of the shells intended for future study should display internal as well as external characteristics. Thus, some of the spiral univalve shells may be ground down on an ordinary grindstone in order to display the central pillar (the columella) and the winding cavity that surrounds it, while others, such as the cowries, may be ground transversely to show the widely different character of the interior. Bivalve shells, too, may be arranged with the valves wide open for the study of the pearly layer, the lines of growth, the scars which mark the positions of the muscles that were attached to the shell, and the teeth which are so wonderfully formed in some species.

Some collectors make it a rule to thoroughly clean all the shells in their collection, but this, we think, is a great mistake; for when this is done many of the specimens display an aspect that is but seldom observed in nature. Many shells, and especially those usually obtained in deep water, are almost always covered with various forms of both animal and vegetable growth, and it is advisable to display these in a collection, not only because they determine the general natural appearance, but also because these growths are in themselves very interesting objects. Further, it is a most interesting study to inquire into the possible advantages of these external growths to the inhabitants of the shells, and vice vers—a study to which we shall refer again in certain chapters devoted to the description of the animals concerned.

But there is no reason whatever why some of the duplicate specimens should not be cleaned by means of a suitable brush, with or without the use of dilute hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt), or even polished, in some few cases, to show the beautiful colours so often exhibited when the surface layer has been removed. This, however, should be done somewhat sparingly, thus giving the greater prominence to the exhibition of those appearances most commonly displayed by the shells as we find them on the beach or dredge them from the sea.

Very small and delicate shells may be mounted on cards, as suggested for other objects; but, as a rule, the specimens are best displayed by simply placing them on a layer of cotton wool in shallow boxes of convenient size. The number of insects that may be described as truly marine is so small that their preservation is not likely to form an important part of the work of the sea-side naturalist; and even though a considerable number of species exhibit a decided partiality for the coast, living either on the beach or the cliffs, the study of these is more generally the work of the entomologist. For this reason, and partly because we have already given full instructions for the setting and mounting of insects in a former work of this series, we consider a repetition inadmissible here.

The subject of the preservation of fishes, also, will require but few words. There is no satisfactory method of preserving these in a dry state, though we often meet with certain thin-bodied species, such as the pipe-fish, that have been preserved by simply drying them in the sun. Fishes should be placed in dilute spirit, or in one of the other liquids recommended, but a change of fluid will always be necessary after a time, and also frequently the gentle application of a brush to remove coagulated slime from the surface of the scales.

The great drawbacks in the way of preserving a collection of fishes are the expense of the specimen jars, and the large amount of space required for storing the specimens. Of course the former difficulty can be overcome by substituting ordinary wide-mouthed bottles in the place of the anatomical jars, while the latter can be avoided to a considerable extent by limiting the collection to small species, and to small specimens of the larger species. If this is done, it is surprising what a large number of fishes can be satisfactorily stored in bottles of only a few ounces’ capacity.

Flowers and Sea Weeds

The apparatus required for the preservation of the wild flowers of our cliffs, and the sea weeds, consists of a quantity of blotting paper or other thick absorbent paper cut to a convenient size, a few thin boards and a few pieces of calico of the same size, some heavy weights, and several sheets of drawing paper.

The wild flowers are arranged on the sheets of absorbent paper while still fresh, care being taken to display the principal parts to the best advantage. They are then placed in a single pile, with a few extra sheets of absorbent paper between each two specimens to facilitate the drying, boards at the bottom and top as well as at equal distances in the midst of the pile, and the weights on the top of the whole.

The natural colours of leaves and flowers are not very often preserved satisfactorily, but the best results are obtained when the drying process proceeds most rapidly. Hence, if the press contains any specimens of a succulent or sappy nature, they should be taken out after the first day or two, and then replaced with a fresh supply of dry paper.

The flowers must be left in the press until quite dry, and they may then be mounted on sheets of drawing paper, by fixing them with a little gum tragacanth, or by narrow strips of gummed paper passing over their stems.

Some collectors prefer simply placing their botanical specimens inside double sheets of drawing paper, not fastening them at all, and there is much to be said in favour of this, especially as it allows the specimens to be examined on both sides; and even when they are fastened to the paper double sheets are much to be preferred, for the specimens are not then so liable to be damaged by friction when being turned over, especially when the names are written on the outside of each sheet.

The larger sea-weeds may be dried in the same manner, though it is a good plan to absorb the greater part of the moisture they contain by pressing them between pieces of calico previous to placing them in the ordinary press. It should be observed, however, that many sea-weeds exude a certain amount of glutinous substance that makes them adhere to the paper between which they are dried, while they do not so freely adhere to calico. These should be partially dried in the calico press, and then laid on the paper on which they are to be finally mounted, and re-pressed with a piece of dry calico on the top of each specimen.

Many of the smaller weeds may be treated in the manner just described, but the more delicate species require to be dealt with as follows:—Place each in a large, shallow vessel of water, and move it about, if necessary, to cause its delicate fronds to assume that graceful form so characteristic of the algÆ of our rock pools. Then immerse the sheet of paper on which the weed is to be finally mounted, and slowly raise the specimen out of the water, on the paper, without disturbing the arrangement of the fronds. If it is found necessary to rearrange any of the fronds, it may be done by means of a wet camel-hair brush. Now lay the specimen on calico or absorbent paper, placed on a sloping board, to drain; and, after the greater part of the moisture has disappeared by draining and evaporation, transfer the specimen to the press with a piece of dry calico immediately over it. All are dealt with in turn in the manner described, and allowed to remain in the press until perfectly dry, when it will be found that the majority of them have become firmly attached to the mount, and require nothing but the label to fit them for the herbarium.

Sea-weed collectors often make the great mistake of pressing tufts that are far too dense to admit of the structural characters being satisfactorily examined. To avoid this fault, it will often be necessary to divide the clusters collected so that the forms of their fronds may be more readily observed.

The calcareous corallines may be pressed in the same way as the other algÆ, but very pretty tufts of these, having much the appearance of the living plant, may be obtained by simply suspending them until thoroughly dry; though, of course, specimens so prepared must not be submitted to pressure after they are dry, being then so brittle that they are easily broken to pieces.

The hard framework of these interesting corallines is composed principally of carbonate of lime, a mineral substance that dissolves freely in hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt). Thus, if we place a tuft of coralline in this acid, which should be considerably diluted with water, the calcareous skeleton immediately begins to dissolve, with the evolution of minute bubbles of carbonic acid gas; and after a short time, the end of which is denoted by the absence of any further bubbling, nothing remains but the vegetable matter, now rendered soft and pliant. A decalcified specimen of coralline may be pressed and dried, and then mounted beside the plant in its natural condition for comparison; and the true appearance of the vegetable structure may also be retained, and in a far more satisfactory manner, by preserving a portion of the specimen in dilute spirit.

Finally, it may be observed that many sea-weeds, like wild flowers, do not retain their natural forms and colours when preserved dry. They are spoilt by the pressure applied, or become so shrivelled and discoloured in the drying as to be but sorry representatives of the beautifully tinted and graceful clothing of the rocks of the coast. But many of those that suffer most in appearance when dried may be made to retain all their natural beauty by preserving them in a fluid; and it is most important that this should be remembered by all who desire to study the weeds at home, and particularly by those who possess a microscope, and wish to search into the minute structure of marine algÆ. Our own plan is to keep not only the dried specimens for the purpose of studying the general characters and classification of the algÆ, but also to keep a few large bottles—stock bottles—filled with weeds of all kinds in a preservative fluid. These latter are exceedingly useful at times, and are frequently brought into requisition for close inspection, with or without the microscope. Small pieces may be detached for microscopic examination when required, and sections may be cut either for temporary or permanent mounting just as well as from living specimens, such sections showing all the details of structure exhibited by the living plant.

The Museum

One of the greatest difficulties besetting the young collector lies in the choice and construction of the cabinet or other store-house for the accommodation of the specimens that accumulate as time advances.

Of course, when expense is a matter of no great consideration, a visit to the nearest public or private museum to see the manner in which the specimens are housed, followed by an order to a cabinet-maker, will set the matter right in a short time; but it is probable that the majority of our readers are unable to fit up their museum in this luxurious style, and will either have to construct their own cabinets and store-boxes or to purchase cheap substitutes for them.Where one has the mechanical ability, and the time to spare, the construction of a cabinet with the required number of drawers may be undertaken, and there is no better form of store than this. The whole should be made of well-seasoned wood, and the drawers should vary in depth according to the size of the specimens they are to contain. Some of these drawers may be lined with sheet cork, and the cork covered with white paper or a thin layer of cotton wool. This will enable some of the specimens to be fixed in their places by means of pins. As a rule, however, no pins will be required, and the specimens will be most conveniently arranged in shallow cardboard boxes, placed in rows in the drawer, a little cotton wool covering the bottom of each.

Failing the usual cabinet, the specimens may be stored in shallow trays or boxes, or even in the little cardboard cabinets so often sold for storing stationery &c. The best and cheapest things of this kind we have ever met with are the little cabinets, each containing either six or twelve drawers, made by Macdonald & Co., of Temple Row, Birmingham. By the use of such as these the specimens may be neatly stored away, and additions to match may always be made as the collection increases in magnitude.

The specimens should all be classified according to their positions in the animal or vegetable world, and accompanied by labels giving the name of species and genus, together with localities, habitats, &c. The outlines of classification may be studied from the later chapters of this work, in which the common objects of the sea shore are described in their scientific order, beginning with the lowest sub-kingdoms and classes; and further, it will be observed that the sub-kingdoms are divided into classes, the classes into orders, orders into families, families into genera, and that the genera contain a smaller or larger number of closely allied species.

The collection must be kept in a perfectly dry place, otherwise many of the specimens will be liable to develop moulds, and this will, of course, quite spoil their appearance. It is almost sure to be attacked by mites and other animal pests unless some means be taken to prevent their intrusion.

As regards the latter, it is well to know that it is far easier to prevent the intrusion of small animal pests than it is to exterminate them after they have once found an entrance; and so, from the very commencement of the formation of the collection, all drawers and boxes should be charged with some substance that is objectionable, if not fatal, to them. Small lumps of naphthaline (albo-carbon) put into the various compartments, and renewed occasionally as they disappear by evaporation, will generally suffice to prevent the entrance of all pests, but this substance is not effectual as an insecticide for the purpose of killing them after they are in.

Perhaps the best of all insecticides is the corrosive sublimate already mentioned, and this may be applied to any animal or vegetable object that is capable of providing food for museum pests, and it is difficult to find such an object on which they will not feed.

Many of the specimens that find a place in a museum have been temporarily preserved in spirit previous to being dried, and if a little corrosive sublimate was dissolved in this spirit, the specimens will have been rendered perfectly free from all attacks of marauders, since the spirit will have saturated the whole object, carrying with it the dissolved poison.

Most of the specimens that have not been treated by the above method would not suffer from a short immersion in spirit containing the corrosive sublimate; but in cases where it is considered inexpedient to do this, the same liquid may be applied to them by means of a soft brush. In this way even the dried botanical specimens may be rendered perfectly secure from attacks.