William S. Furneaux

It is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the greater claim to each one. In the present chapter, however, we shall include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually commence to bloom before the beginning of June, even though they may continue to produce blossoms well into the summer.

One of the most conspicuous features of the meadows in spring is certainly the abundance of those bright yellow flowers known collectively as the Buttercups. But the name of Buttercup, standing alone, has no definite, scientific meaning, the name being applied to quite a number of flowers of the Ranunculus genus of the order RanunculaceÆ.

The earliest of these is undoubtedly the Pilewort or Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus Ficaria), which appears early in April, and often in such abundance as to cover the ground with its leaves and flowers. This flower is not confined to fields and meadows, but often covers large patches of bank and hedgerow, where, together with the Greater Stitchwort, it produces a most brilliant show of white and yellow stars.

The plant has a small rootstock, with a number of little oblong tubers which are renewed every year, and sometimes a branched, creeping stem. Its leaves usually all grow direct from the rootstock, and are stalked, heart-shaped, glossy, with crenate or angled margins. The flower-stalks bear a few small leaves, and a single flower with three sepals, and about eight glossy, oblong, yellow petals. The cluster of carpels in the middle of the flower form a large, globular head.

A little later in the season our pastures are bountifully bedecked by two of the most familiar Buttercups—the Creeping Buttercup (R. repens) and the Bulbous Buttercup (R. bulbosus), both of which appear early in May.

The Field Pennycress.

The former grows from six inches to a foot in height, and may be easily distinguished by its creeping stems, which give off root fibres and produce new plants at every node. The flowering stems of this species are clothed with long hairs, and the leaves are divided into three stalked segments which are lobed and toothed, the middle segment projecting much beyond the other two. The flowers are in loose panicles, on long, furrowed stalks, with five yellowish-green, concave, spreading sepals that are shorter than the petals. The carpels are ovate in form, somewhat flattened, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are smooth. This plant is abundant almost everywhere, and continues to flower till the end of the summer.

The Bulbous Buttercup is very similar to the last species, but may be known at once by its swollen, bulbous root. Its leaves are divided into three segments which are more or less toothed and lobed, and the sepals bend backwards on the peduncle as soon as the flower opens. Its carpels are smooth, and form a globular head; and the ripened achenes are also smooth. The plant is very abundant. It flowers from May to August.

The Wild Pansy.

Coming now to the Crucifers, we have first to note the Field Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense), which may be recognised at once by reference to our illustration. It is an erect, smooth, plant, from six to twenty inches in height, a common weed in cultivated ground, flowering from May to July. Its radical leaves are stalked, and wither early; and the small white flowers are soon followed by round siliquas, about half an inch in diameter, with a broad wing notched at the top.

The same order includes the Cuckoo Flower, Lady's Smock, or Meadow Bittercress (Cardamine pratensis), which is certainly one of our prettiest spring flowers, growing in abundance in most moist meadows, and flowering from April to June. It has a short rootstock, with small, fleshy scales, often so much swollen as to resemble tubers; and the stem is erect, either simple or branched, and a foot or more in height. The leaves are pinnately divided, the leaflets of the lower ones being ovate or round, and those of the upper ones very narrow. The flowers are rather large, white or lilac in colour, with stamens about half as long as the petals, and yellow anthers. The fruits are usually more than an inch in length.

One of the common weeds of cultivated fields is the pretty Wild Pansy or Heartsease (Viola tricolor), of the order ViolaceÆ. The plant may be easily recognised by its resemblance to the Garden Pansy, which is a variety of the same species. It is very variable, both in regard to its general build, and to the colour and size of the flowers. The plant is either smooth or slightly downy, and its branching stem varies from four to ten inches in length. The leaves are oblong or cordate, with crenate edges; and each one has a large, leafy stipule which is divided into oblong or very narrow lobes. The flowers are coloured with varied proportions of yellow, white, and purple; and the lower petal, which is the broadest, is usually purple at the base. This species flowers from May to the end of the summer.

In damp meadows, and especially near ditches and in marshy ground, we meet with the Ragged Robin (Lychnis Flos-cuculi of the order CaryophyllaceÆ). This is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a viscid stem that is slightly downy and never much branched. The leaves are few and small, the upper ones sessile and the lower stalked. The pretty red or rose-coloured flowers are arranged in a very loose terminal panicle, and have no scent. The petals are each divided into four very narrow lobes, of which the two middle ones are longest; and the fruit is a broad oval capsule, which opens, when ripe, by five teeth. The flowers appear first in May, and continue to bloom till the end of June or the beginning of July.

Several spring-flowering leguminous plants (order LeguminosÆ) are to be found in fields and meadows, and of these we will first notice the Spotted Medick (Medicago maculata), generally easily distinguished by the dark spot in the centre of the leaflets of its trifoliate leaves. It is a smooth plant, with procumbent, branching stems varying from six inches to two feet in length. There are fine, spreading hairs on the leafstalks, and the leaflets are obcordate and toothed. At the base of each leafstalk there is a pair of toothed stipules. The small, yellow flowers are in short, dense racemes, only a few in each cluster; and the pods are little compact spirals, almost globular in general form, with three or four ridges, and a central furrow broken by a number of fine, curved prickles. The plant is abundant in the southern counties of England and Ireland, where it grows on pasture-land, flowering from May to near the end of the summer.

The Netted Medick (M. denticulata), of the same genus, is a similar plant, flowering during the same period, and often seen in the southern and eastern counties of England, especially in fields near the coast. Its prostrate stems are of the same length as those of the Spotted Medick; and its leaves are also very similar, but the stipules are bordered with very fine teeth. The flowers are in small, yellow heads; and the pod forms a loose, flat spiral of two or three coils, deeply netted on the surface, and bordered with curved prickles.

We have next to note several species of Trefoils (genus Trifolium), all distinguished by trifoliate, compound leaves, so familiar to us in the clovers; and stipules which adhere to the leafstalks. Their flowers are in dense clusters, and each one has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular corolla of narrow petals which usually remains, in a withered condition, around the ripening pod. There are ten stamens, the upper one free, while the remaining nine, united by their filaments, form a split tube round the ovary. The pod sometimes contains only one seed, and never more than four.

The Subterranean Trefoil (T. subterraneum), which is abundant on the dry pastures of South England, is characterised by a stem, from six to eighteen inches long, which is underground for the greater part. The visible portion of the plant is small, and more or less covered with long, spreading hairs. The leaves are on long stalks, with obovate leaflets, and broad stipules. The flowers vary in colour from white to pink or crimson, and are usually in hairy clusters of from two to four. As the fruit ripens, the peduncle lengthens and bends downward. At the same time the calyx turns back on the stalk, exposing short fibres, each with five spreading teeth which fold over the fruit. The flowers appear during May and June.

The Dutch Clover or White Clover (T. repens) is one of the most familiar of the Trefoils. It is very abundant in English pastures, and has been introduced into Ireland, where it is now often selected as the national emblem in the place of the Wood Sorrel (p. 52), which is regarded by many as the original 'true Shamrock.' The whole plant is smooth or slightly hairy; and its creeping stem, from two to twenty inches in length, sends down root-fibres from its nodes. The leaves have long stalks, with stipules at the base; and the leaflets are broadly oval or obovate, finely toothed, and have usually a lighter, crescent-shaped mark near the middle. The flower-stalks are long, growing from the axils of the leaves; and each one bears a globular head of white or pinkish flowers. The plant flowers from April to the end of the summer.

A very similar species—T. hybridum—has been introduced into our country, and has now become established in many places where it was formerly cultivated. Its stipules are larger than those of the Dutch Clover; the pod contains only two seeds; and the flowers are usually pinkish.

The Common Purple Clover (T. pratense) is also largely cultivated for fodder, but it is indigenous, and grows abundantly in most parts as a wild plant. It is very similar to the Dutch Clover in general build, but its stem is more or less erect, the flowers are purple, and the whole plant is generally more hairy. The stipules are ovate, larger, veined, and have long points; and each flower-head has a pair of trifoliate leaves at its base. The individual flowers are about half an inch long; and the hairy calyx has the lower tooth longer than the others. The pod contains only one seed, and is surrounded by the brown, withered corolla, as well as by the calyx, which remains erect while the fruit ripens. This species also flowers from May to the end of the summer.

Two of the Vetches (Vicia—of the order LeguminosÆ) are also to be included among our spring-flowering field-plants. One of these is the Spring Vetch (V. lathyroides), which may be found in flower from April to June on dry pastures. It is a small plant, with a hairy stem that gives off spreading branches, from six to eight inches long, at the base. The leaves are pinnate, with two or three pairs of leaflets, rounded and notched at the apex, and no tendrils. The flowers are small, solitary, of a rich purple colour, situated in the axils of the leaves. The pods are smooth and usually less than an inch long.

The other species—the Common Vetch (V. sativa)—is a very similar plant, but its trailing stems grow to a length of from one to two feet. Its leaves have from four to seven pairs of leaflets, varying in form from linear to obovate or obcordate, and have branched tendrils. At the base of each leaf is a toothed stipule with, usually, a dark spot in the centre. The flowers are axillary and sessile, either solitary or in pairs, rather large, and of a pale purple colour. The pods are narrow, smooth, from one to two inches long, and contain about twelve smooth seeds. The plant is common in fields, and flowers during May and June. It is represented in Fig. 5 of Plate IV.

The very pretty Meadow Saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata), of the order SaxifragaceÆ, is very abundant in the meadows of some parts of England and Scotland, and may sometimes be seen on grassy roadsides. It varies from six to about ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The stem is erect, simple or slightly branched, and covered with spreading hairs; and the lower leaves are kidney-shaped, either crenate or lobed, having long stalks, while the upper ones are smaller, and either entire or sharply lobed. The rather large white flowers are in terminal cymes of from three to six. The calyx adheres to the ovary, and has blunt segments; the five petals are about twice as long as the sepals; and both petals and stamens are inserted into the bases of the segments of the calyx. The stamens are ten in number, and the ovary is two-celled, with two styles.

The principal spring-flowering umbelliferous plant of pastures is the common Earthnut or Pignut (Bunium flexuosum or Conopodium denudatum). This plant has a smooth, slender, stem, with a few forked branches, and is usually leafless at the base on account of the early decay of the lower leaves. Its popular names are due to the large, tuberous rootstock, which has somewhat the appearance of a chestnut, and is often eaten by country folk, and dug out of the ground by pigs. The lower leaves have three stalked segments, each divided pinnately into narrow lobes which are themselves divided; and the upper leaves, which are smaller, are cut into very narrow lobes, the middle one much longer than the others. The small, white flowers are arranged in umbels of from six to ten rays, with a few very narrow bracts or none at all. The umbels are usually terminal, and droop before the flowers are open. The fruit is oval or oblong, slightly flattened, with slightly-spreading styles, and ribs scarcely visible. The plant grows from one to three feet high, and flowers from May to July.

Dealing next with a few composite flowers (order CompositÆ), we first call attention to the leading characters of the Common Daisy (Bellis perennis), which is abundant in fields and meadows almost everywhere, and flowers practically all the year round. It has a tufted, perennial rootstock, from which grows a cluster of obovate leaves, usually smooth, and slightly toothed. The leafless peduncles also start direct from the stock, each one bearing a solitary flower-head with an outer whorl of nearly smooth bracts; a ray of strap-shaped, white or pinkish florets; and a disc of numerous little yellow, tubular florets.

The Dandelion (Taraxacum Dens-leonis or T. officinale) is equally familiar as a meadow and wayside plant, commencing to flower in March, and continuing in bloom till October. It has a thick tap-root, with a very bitter taste; and direct from the crown of this grow the spreading leaves and the hollow stalks of the solitary flower-heads. The former vary very considerably in shape, but are usually long and narrow, broader at the apex, and cut into triangular lobes which generally point backwards. Sometimes, however, the leaves are almost entire; and they also vary in colour, from a bright to a very dull green. The peduncles vary from two to eight inches in length; and the florets of the head, which are all yellow, are surrounded by an inner whorl of narrow, erect bracts, and outer bracts which either overlap or are turned back on the stalk. The little fruits have projecting points towards the top, and are provided with a slender beak, three or four times as long as the achene itself, at the summit of which is a tuft of silky hairs.

Our last example of the composite flowers is the Butterbur, variously named Tussilago vulgaris, Petasites vulgaris, and Tussilago Petasites. It resembles the Common Colt's-foot (Tussilago Farfara) in several respects; and, as will be seen from the above names, is sometimes included in the same genus. Its leaves are very large, and very similar to those of the Colt's-foot, being cordate and toothed, and appearing after the flowers. The flowering stems each bear a dense cluster of dull pink or purple heads, forming a raceme from four inches to a foot in height. The pistillate and staminate flowers grow almost exclusively on separate plants. In the former case the heads are larger and densely clustered, each one consisting of filiform, pistillate florets only, or almost entirely of these with a few tubular, staminate florets in the centre. On other plants the flower-heads are smaller and not so densely clustered; and each head consists entirely of tubular, male flowers, or has a few filiform, female florets round the outside. The plant is common in many parts of Britain. It grows in damp meadows, especially along the banks of streams and ditches, flowering from March to May.

The Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli), of the order ScrophulariaceÆ, is abundant in damp pastures, flowering from May to July. It is a parasitic species, deriving a portion of its food, in the form of ready-made organic compounds, from the roots of surrounding grasses, and its parasitic habits are referred to in Chapter XXIII. Its stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, lanceolate, and coarsely toothed. The calyx is almost globular, slightly flattened, with four small teeth. The yellow corolla has a tube longer than the calyx, and terminates in two lips, one or both of which have often a purple spot. The stamens are in two pairs; and the fruit is an almost globular capsule, containing a few large, flat seeds.

In similar situations we may find the Field Louse-wort (Pedicularis sylvatica) of the same order, also a parasitic species, extracting nourishment from the roots of grasses. It has spreading branches from three to ten inches long, more or less recumbent. Its leaves are alternately arranged, and pinnately cut into small, toothed segments. The flowers are sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, and vary in colour from rose to white. The calyx is broadly oblong, with five unequal lobes. The tube of the corolla is considerably longer than the calyx; and its upper lip has a very small tooth on each side, just under the tip. The plant flowers from April to July.

The only common spring labiate flower (order LabiatÆ) of fields is the Henbit Dead Nettle (Lamium amplexicaule), which is frequently met with on sandy soils, flowering from April to the end of the summer. It is a low plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, with a branching stem that is too weak to stand erect. The upper leaves are sessile, round, much wrinkled, and deeply crenate; while the lower ones, of the same form, are on long petioles. The flowers are arranged in a few compact whorls, in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is much shorter than the tube of the corolla; and its five, pointed teeth, which are as long as the tube, bend together as the fruit ripens. The lipped corolla is of a rose or purple-red colour, about half an inch long, with a comparatively long, straight tube.

In damp meadows we frequently see the changing Scorpion-Grass (Myosotis versicolor), also known as the Yellow and Blue Scorpion Grass, deriving its name from the fact that the corolla is yellow at first, and afterwards changes to a dull blue. It is a hairy plant, with an erect stem, from four to ten inches high, slightly branched. The leaves are oval or ovate, narrow, and sessile; the lower ones forming a spreading tuft at the base, while the others, few in number, are erect on the stem. The flowers are very small, almost sessile, and arranged in a one-sided, curved raceme. The calyx is deeply cleft into five parts which close quite over the ripening fruit; and the small corolla has a comparatively long tube and five spreading lobes. The plant flowers from April to June. It belongs to the order BoraginaceÆ.

The Cowslip (Primula veris—order PrimulaceÆ) is common in pastures in many parts of Britain. It usually grows from six to ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The whole plant is clothed with soft, downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards the base, and much wrinkled like those of the Primrose. The flowers are arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. The calyx is tubular, with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube, with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup.

Two species of Sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the spring. They are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they belong to the same genus (Rumex) of the order PolygonaceÆ. Both have erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green flowers which soon turn red. The latter are imperfect, with a deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. The male flowers have six stamens; and the females have three styles. The fruits are little triangular nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth.

One of these—the Common Sorrel (Rumex Acetosa)—is very abundant in damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the fruit.

The other species—the Sheep's Sorrel (R. Acetosella)—is a much smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths, flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit.

Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three flowers of the order OrchidaceÆ, the general features of which are described in Chapter XVIII; and the reader is advised to refer to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before attempting to identify the present species.

The first is the Twayblade (Listera ovata), frequently seen in moist pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes.

The other two belong to the genus Orchis. They are the Green-winged Meadow Orchis (O. Morio), and the Early Purple Orchis (O. mascula), and may be distinguished by the following summary of their characteristics:

The Green-winged Orchis.—Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes. Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common in the North. The flowers appear during May and June.

The Early Purple Orchis.—Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods, flowering from April to June.

Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of these is the Fox-tail Grass (Alopecurus pratensis), which grows from one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (A. agrestis), a very similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the former.