We have already observed the chief features by which we are able to distinguish between butterflies and moths (page 56), so we shall devote the present division to a description of the characteristics and life histories of some of the latter insects.

The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could be found for a brief description of every species, but with moths the case is very different. There are about two thousand known British species of this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year adds some newly discovered insects to this long list; we shall therefore have to content ourselves with making a selection of these for individual mention.

In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist with a fairly representative list—one that will enable him to become more or less intimately acquainted with all the principal divisions of the Heterocera; and his attention will be drawn especially to many which may be described as 'common' or 'generally distributed,' so that during his first few seasons at collecting he may be enabled to identify and study a fair proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of the rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking characteristic.

We shall commence with the tribe of Sphinges or Hawk Moths.

This group consists of three families—the SphingidÆ, including the largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the SesiidÆ or 'Clearwings,' and the ZygÆnidÆ, including the 'Foresters' and the 'Burnets'—numbering in all about forty species.

Family—SphingidÆ

This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvÆ to the celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very thick bodies, generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are rather narrow in proportion to the length, but are exceedingly powerful, and the flight is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid. The antennÆ terminate in a small and thin hook.

Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of their flight is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to follow them with the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure the insects in the net; consequently, the best way to study them is to search out the larvÆ on their food plants, and rear them till they attain their perfect form.

The larvÆ of the SphingidÆ are large and smooth, and most of them have a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but one. They all undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of the ground.

The Death's-Head Hawk (Acherontia Atropos)

Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head Hawk Moth—an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular title has been applied on account of the peculiar markings of the thorax, which are said to resemble a human skull; and this feature has certainly some connection with the superstitious beliefs of ignorant country folk concerning this moth. But this characteristic is probably not the only one that has caused the creature to be regarded with superstitious alarm. Both its superior dimensions and nocturnal habits serve to intensify the unfounded fear; but, what is particularly striking and unique about it is its power of uttering a squeaking sound, which it does when disturbed. Even the earlier stages of the insect possess this strange power. The caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when irritated, and the chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before the emergence of the perfect form.

The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown, beautifully mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small but conspicuous yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are yellow, with a black band and margin; and the body is yellow, with six broad black bands, and six large blue spots down the middle.

The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in some parts, but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is on the wing during August and September.

It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may with a little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them. These larvÆ feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna), and the woody nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara); and they are well known to potato growers in some parts of the country.

The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with numerous small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each side. The horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but recurved again at the tip.

It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the daytime. In August it is fully grown, and then retires into the ground to undergo its transformations.

The Privet Hawk (Sphinx Ligustri)

This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half inches from tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX in its natural colours, so that it need not be described.

The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common, is not frequently seen at large. The larvÆ, however, are to be met with in abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large towns we may see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet hedge, their beautiful green tint closely resembling that of the surrounding leaves. After a little experience they may be readily discerned by a careful observer, but there are certain signs by which their presence may be proved before they have been actually seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are completely stripped of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf stalks being almost or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are the large black masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above. When found, these larvÆ should always be removed on a piece of the twig to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by their claspers that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove them from their hold without injury.

These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of the other 'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the sides. These are each composed of two colours, white and lilac, and form a pretty contrast with the bright green of the rest of the body. The horn is smooth and curved, and is black with the exception of part of the under side, which is yellow.

They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month till the following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under privet and lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva.

The Spurge Hawk (Deilephila EuphorbiÆ)

This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been seen in this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found plentifully at Appledore and Braunton Burrows, in North Devon, feeding on the sea spurge (Euphorbia Paralias).

The perfect insect is shown on Plate IX (fig. 2).

The caterpillar is black, with a large number of small yellowish white dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on each side. There is also a red line on each side, and another down the middle of the back. The horn is rough and red with a black tip. It feeds during August and September.

The Small Elephant Hawk (ChÆrocampa Porcellus)

This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths. It is widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England and in the south of Scotland. It flies in June.

The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red hind margins, and a broad border of the same tint on the costal margin. The hind wings have also a rosy-red hind margin, and are smoky black along the costÆ, and yellow in the anal angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red, tinged with olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.

The popular name of this and the following species has been applied because of the power which the caterpillar has of extending and retracting its front segments, a peculiarity which has given the idea of a semblance to the elephant's proboscis. The colour of the caterpillar is light-brown or green, mottled with dark-brown, dark-green, or black. It has a conspicuous eye-like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth segments, and has no horn.

This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species of bedstraw (Galium verum, G. Mollugo, and G. palustre), willow herb (Epilobium hirsutum), or the purple loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria).

The Large Elephant (ChÆrocampa Elpenor)

This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in form and markings; but is, as its name implies, larger.

The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may be distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn, tipped with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown, mottled and spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth and sixth segments are black, and each contains a brown spot surrounded by a white line.

Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (Epilobium hirsutum), three species of bedstraw (Galium verum, G. Mollugo and G. palustre), the purple loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria), and the enchanter's nightshade (CircÆa lutetiana). It will also feed on the vine and the apple in confinement.

The Eyed Hawk (Smerinthus Ocellatus)

Our next genus (Smerinthus) contains three well-known moths, all of which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or indented.

The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX and named after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near the anal angle of each hind wing.

The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white dots, and marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each of which is bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are pinkish, surrounded by violet rings; and the horn is blue.

The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar may be found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow (Salix alba), sallow (S. cinerea and S. Caprea), poplar (Populus alba and P. nigra), aspen (P. tremula), and the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa).

As with many other Sphinges, the larvÆ are much more commonly seen than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be met with resting on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of their food plants.

The Poplar Hawk (Smerinthus Populi)

This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may be easily found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during May, June, and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily taken with a net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite trees or among the flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be beaten from the boughs of poplars and sallows during August and September, and during the latter month may often be seen creeping down and around the trunks of these trees, searching for a suitable spot in which to undergo its changes. The pupa may be dug out of the soil at the foot of the same trees during the autumn, winter, and spring months.

The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with darker tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The hind wings are similarly coloured except at the base, where there is a large patch of brick-red.

The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles are white, edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper, and reddish on the under side. Its chief food plants are the poplar, the Lombardy poplar (Populus pyramidalis), aspen (P. tremula), and sallow (Salix Caprea and S. cinerea).

The Lime Hawk (Smerinthus TiliÆ)

This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its rich olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.

The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very like the larva of Populi, but may be distinguished from that species by the orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above, and yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or violet scale with an edging of orange.

The food plants of this species are the lime (Tilia vulgaris), elm (Ulmus campestris), and the hazel (Corylus Avellana), from which the larvÆ may be beaten in August and September, and from under these the pupÆ may be dug out during the winter months.

The Humming-Bird Hawk (Macroglossa Stellatarum)

The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting British species. Their antennÆ are thickened toward the end, but terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather short and broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad tuft of hair; and the perfect insects fly during the daytime, delighting in the hottest sunshine. The larvÆ feed principally on low-growing plants, and undergo their metamorphoses on the ground among the foliage.

On Plate IX (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is the Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly rapid humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming sound.

This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to be well known to all observers of nature.

Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to a honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are almost sure to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and interesting ways of this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly that you first view it as an apparently motionless insect, suspended in the air, and thrusting its long proboscis into the tube of an attractive flower. Its wings vibrate so rapidly that they are quite invisible, and give rise to the soft hum already mentioned. Then it darts from one flower to another, making a similar brief stay before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise your hand as if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where. But it is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame flower as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a horizontal direction, or a sudden downward stroke, may secure it; but if you miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom, and give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.

This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the year—May to September, and will often greet you as you roam over flowery banks in search of butterflies.

The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (Galium verum), hedge bedstraw (G. Mollugo), and the goose grass (G. Aparine), and may be searched for in August and September. It is rough, green or brownish, and dotted with white. Along each side are two light lines. The horn is thin and short, rough, and points upwards.

The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk (Macroglossa Fuciformis)

The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from their resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike, but may be distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark border of the wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered respectively.

The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore wings are transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot and a broad reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are black and tinged with green. The hind wings are similarly coloured, but have no central spot. The body is olive-brown, with a broad reddish belt, and behind are tufts of hair, which are spread out when the insect flies, just after the manner of the tail feathers of a bird. The moth flies in May.

The larva resembles that of Stellatarum, but exhibits a violet tint above the legs. Its horn, too, is curved, and of a reddish or brownish colour. It feeds on the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), ragged robin (Lychnis Flos-cuculi), evening campion (L. vespertina), red campion (L. diurna), lady's bedstraw (Galium verum), and the field scabious (Scabiosa arvensis), during the month of July.

Family SesiidÆ—The Clearwings

This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that differ very much from other moths in many important and interesting particulars.

Their antennÆ, like those of the SphingidÆ, are thickest beyond the middle, and those of the males are slightly ciliated or hairy. Their bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of hair. The hind wings in all cases are transparent, margined and veined with black or brown; and the fore wings also, in most cases, have transparent bases.

These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen gracefully hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more like gnats, bees, and wasps, than moths.

The larvÆ of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their time within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in the material that forms both their food and their home. Within these they also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves to the free air and light till they reach their perfect stage.

The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar (Trochilium Apiformis)

We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings, the first of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded hornet, and whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars—features which will account for the above name.

The head of this species is yellow, its thorax brown with a large yellow patch on each side, its abdomen yellow with two brown belts, and its legs reddish orange. The front wings are transparent, with brown costÆ, and all the wings are margined with brown.

The caterpillar, when full fed, makes a cocoon with silk and the chips of wood that it has bitten off; and in this undergoes its metamorphoses. It is fully grown in April, and the moth flies from the end of May to the end of July.

There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds on the stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species just described by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax, both of which are blackish.

The Currant Clearwing (Sesia Tipuliformis)

This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too well known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of Ribes rubrum (red currant) and R. nigrum (black currant), especially those that present a withered or half-withered appearance, and you will almost certainly meet with signs of the presence of this intruder. Little wriggling larvÆ occupy the pithless stems throughout the winter and spring. These are full grown in April, and in June the pretty little moth emerges through a hole in the side of a shoot, leaving the empty pupa case within its former home.

The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black transverse bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three pale yellow belts, and black tufts of hair at the tip.

Family—ZygÆnidÆ

The remaining family of the Sphinges—the ZygÆnidÆ—includes seven British species, three of which are known popularly as the Foresters and the others as the Burnets.

Their antennÆ are thickest beyond the middle, but do not terminate in a hook. Their wings are narrow and completely covered with scales.

These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater part of their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When they do fly, their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings glisten in the sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them the appearance of bees rather than of moths. On account of this natural sluggishness, they are exceedingly local, for they never move far from the spots where their food plants abound, and where they had previously spent the earlier stages of their existence. Thus we often come across a very limited piece of ground actually alive with them, and outside which not a single specimen is to be seen.

The larvÆ, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump cylindrical bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three members of this family.

The Forester (Ino Statices)

The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a beautiful glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent, but of a dull smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a brilliant metallic green colour. The tips of the antennÆ are blunt, and the male may be distinguished from his mate by these organs being slightly fringed or ciliated.

The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish, with a row of black spots down the back, and a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the common sorrel (Rumex acetosa) and the sheep sorrel (R. acetosella), and when fully grown it spins a cocoon on the stem of its food plant, and there changes to a chrysalis.

The larva may be found during May and early June. The chrysalis state lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing during June and July.

The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet (ZygÆna Trifolii)

On Plate IX (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of this Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing are very close together, and often touch. The same remark also applies to the two spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at the list of British Moths (Appendix I) will show that we have also a Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar to the species now under consideration, but may be identified by the narrower purplish margin on the hind wings, and also by the shape of the antennÆ, which are not thickened so much near the end as they are in Trifolii.

The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a row of black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on the bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), hop trefoil (Trifolium procumbens), and the horse-shoe vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) in May. Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found in a silken cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect insect flies during June and July.

The Six-spotted Burnet (ZygÆna FilipendulÆ)

So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the blazing sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a bright midsummer day hundreds may often be started from their grassy beds from one little patch of ground.

The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last species, but there are two crimson spots instead of one near the tips of the fore pair.

The larvÆ may be seen in vast numbers during May and June, feeding on clovers (Trifolium pratense and T. repens), and the bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus); and in the latter month thousands of the chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on grass stems, may be seen on downs and sunny banks in almost every part of the country.

The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two rows of black spots that adorn each segment of the body.

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CHAPTER XVIII
BOMBYCES

This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few moths whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value. Many of the British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate compactness, but none of them yield a quantity and quality of silk to justify any attempt to utilise it in the arts.

There are more than a hundred British species in this group, and these represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a great variety in their general appearance and habits.

Family—NycteolidÆ
The Green Silver-lined (Hylophila prasinana)

This family, under the name of ChloephoridÆ, is included by some authors among the Tortrices (page 298), which they somewhat resemble in habits. It contains only four species, of which we will take one example—the Green Silver-lined.

The fore wings of this insect are pale green, with three oblique silvery white lines, the middle one of which is far more distinct than the other two. The hind wings are silvery white in the female, and yellow in the male. It flies in May, and is common in the wooded districts of the south-eastern counties.

The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow, and has a reddish transverse band on the second segment. It feeds on oak (Quercus Robur), birch (Betula alba), hazel (Corylus Avellana), beech (Fagus sylvatica), and alder (Alnus glutinosa), from which trees it may be beaten in July and August.

Family—NolidÆ
The Short-cloaked Moth (Nola cucullatella)

We select this common moth as a representative of the small family NolidÆ, which contains only five British species. These are all small insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be found at rest on the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars are hairy, and undergo their metamorphoses within silken cocoons.

The fore wings of Cucullatella are pearly grey, with a dark patch at the base, a triangular spot on the middle of the costal margin, and wavy lines beyond this, parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are grey, and devoid of any markings.

The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter patches down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair. It feeds on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), and also on plum trees in our gardens during the month of May. The moth is on the wing during June and July.

Family—LithosiidÆ
The Muslin Moth (Nudaria mundana)

The family LithosiidÆ contains several small moths, distinguished from the other Bombyces by the narrowness of their fore wings. When the insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped closely round the body. They fly at dusk on summer evenings, but may be obtained during the daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If an open net be held under the boughs during this operation, the moths will generally feign death and allow themselves to fall into it when they are disturbed.

Most of the larvÆ of this family feed on the lichens that cover walls and the bark of trees, and they conceal themselves so artfully among this peculiar vegetation that it is no easy matter to search them out; probably many still remain unknown to entomologists.

Our first example—the Muslin Moth—has light brownish-grey and semi transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker markings arranged as shown in the illustration. It is a common moth, and may be met with in July and August.

The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey colour, with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous little tufts of light hair.

The Common Footman (Lithosia lurideola)

The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a bright yellow costal stripe which dwindles to a point just before it reaches the tip. The hind wings are very pale yellow.

The larva is black, with a reddish line on each side just above the feet. It may be found during May and June among the lichens of oaks, blackthorns, and firs, especially in the woods of the south of England.

The perfect insect flies during July and August.

Family—EucheliidÆ
The Cinnabar (Euchelia JacobÆÆ)

The family EucheliidÆ contains only four British species, two of which must receive a share of our attention. The first of these is the Cinnabar Moth, which is common in all localities where its food plants—the groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) and the ragwort (S. JacobÆa)—abound.

Fig. 112.—The Larva of JacobÆÆ.

Its colours are so striking that a glance at its representation (fig. 1 of Plate X) will render a written description quite unnecessary.

The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its colour is bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and its body is thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or August) it descends to the ground, and there changes to a smooth and shining reddish-brown chrysalis.

The moth appears in June or early in July.

The Scarlet Tiger (Callimorpha Dominula)

This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths. Its fore wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre, and boldly marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots are arranged generally like those in the illustration, but are subject to great variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black patches, chiefly distributed near the hind margin. The thorax is black, with two white streaks; and the abdomen crimson, with a black line down the back.

This moth is a common one. It may be taken in June and July. I have seen it flying somewhat freely while the sun was still shining brightly.

The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is covered with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes a short black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down the back, and two others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale) and many other low-growing plants, hybernates through the winter, and is fully grown in May. Like the other members of this family, it spins a light silken cocoon, in which the hairs from its body are interwoven.

Family—CheloniidÆ
The Wood Tiger (Nemeophila Plantaginis)

The CheloniidÆ are popularly known as the Tigers—a title suggested by the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent species. They differ from the Scarlet Tiger and the other members of the EucheliidÆ in that the males have ciliated or fringed antennÆ. The larvÆ, too, are more densely covered with hair.

The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, somewhat variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that our illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be found commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods during May and June.

The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with little hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost and hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the middle of the body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for a week or two on the leaves of violets (Viola canina and V. odorata), heartsease (V. tricolor), plantain (Plantago), or groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), and then hybernates till the following March. It is fully grown in May, and then spins a light cocoon, with which its hairs are interwoven, among the leaves of its food plant.

The Tiger (Arctia caia)

This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and markings, but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of the illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream colour almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four of the wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This insect is probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere.

The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind of universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing plant, with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (Lamium album and L. purpureum). It feeds also on the lime tree (Tilia vulgaris), and is commonly met with on apple trees and on the various plants of our flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its appearance in the autumn, and hybernates after feeding for two or three weeks only. It is full grown in June, when it spins a silken cocoon, and changes to a shiny black chrysalis.

The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over with long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and the others brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the Woolly Bear.

The Cream-spot Tiger (Arctia villica)

There is yet another Tiger—the Cream-spot—too beautiful and too common to be excluded from our list. It is represented on Plate X (fig. 4); and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked that mistaken identity is impossible.

It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the wing, and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making any attempt to escape.

The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding on chickweed (Stellaria media) but sometimes on various other low-growing weeds, including the dock and the dandelion. Its colour is black, with red head and legs, and its body is covered with long brown hairs. It commences to feed in the autumn, hybernates throughout the winter, and is full grown in May, towards the end of which month it changes to a black chrysalis within a light silken web.

The perfect insect appears in June.

The Buff Ermine (Spilosoma lubricipeda)

The CheloniidÆ also include three moths that are popularly known as the Ermines, two of which—the Buff and the White—are exceedingly common, and are among the constant visitors to our gardens during June and July.

The Buff Ermine has all four wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and spotted with black as here represented.

The caterpillar is whitish, with a white line down the middle of the back, and its body is covered with long light brown hairs. It feeds on the dock (Rumex) and many other low-growing plants during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, lying within a loose cocoon on the surface of the ground.

The White Ermine (Spilosoma Menthastri)

In this species the wings are of a pale cream colour, and the dots of the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than in the last. Its habits and life history closely correspond with those of Lubricipeda, and its larva may be found feeding on the same plants.

This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the presence of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long brown hairs.

Family—HepialidÆ

The five species which compose this family are known as the Swifts, a title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight. Their wings are narrow, and the antennÆ very short.

In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs, that live under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of plants. The chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from the segments.

The Ghost Swift (Hepialus Humuli)

One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which may be seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England during the month of June. The wings of the male are white, with a silky gloss, and a very narrow brown margin. The fore wings of the female are yellow, marked with irregular reddish lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke colour.

The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny plate on the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the winter on the roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion, burdock, white dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.

The Common Swift (Hepialus lupulinus)

The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the middle of the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings are smoke coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is much less distinctly marked, and presents a rather dingy appearance.

The larva is dingy white, with brown horny plates on the second, third and fourth segments. It feeds on the roots of dead nettles (Lamium album and L. purpureum), black horehound (Ballota nigra), and various other herbaceous plants, throughout the winter months, and is full grown in April.

This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be seen on the wing in May and June.

Family—CossidÆ

The members of this family have longer antennÆ than the HepialidÆ, and the females are provided with extended ovipositors which enable them to place their eggs in the deep crevices of the bark of trees.

The larvÆ are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a plate on the second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or the interior of the stems of reeds. The pupÆ have spiny projections on each segment.

The Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda)

There are only three British species of this family, the largest of which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic odour of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the goat.

Fig. 119.—The Larva of Ligniperda (less than half full size).

The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with white, and marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind wings are somewhat similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings are less distinct. Its average breadth from tip to tip is over three inches, and it sometimes reaches nearly four inches.

The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish brown on the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is intensely black. It feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar, oak, elm, and other trees. The infected trees are often so riddled with the burrows of these larvÆ that they are completely destroyed, and the presence of the intruders is frequently indicated by a heap of small chips of wood lying on the ground near the roots. The odour of the larvÆ, too, is so powerful, that there is generally no difficulty in ascertaining their whereabouts by it alone.

It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these creatures, for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the remains of old palings and posts, that lie on the ground in damp places.

When fully grown they construct a strong cocoon of chips of wood, bound together by silk, and within this they change to the chrysalis.

The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found resting on the bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.

The Leopard Moth (Zeuzera pyrina)

Fig. 121.—The Larva of Pyrina (only partly grown).

The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and marked with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to remind one of the skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and the antennÆ of the male are doubly fringed for about half their length from the base.

The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees—elm, apple, pear, ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several others. It is yellowish, with black shiny spots, and a black plate on the second segment.

The moth appears in July, and is widely distributed. It is attracted by bright lights, but the best way to obtain it is to search the trunks and branches of trees that are known to harbour the larvÆ early in the morning, and so obtain newly emerged specimens.

Family—LiparidÆ

Passing over the two small species which are the only British representatives of the family CochliopodidÆ, we come to the interesting LiparidÆ, the remarkable feature of which is that most of the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and even the chrysalides are hairy.

The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally display very pale tints; and the antennÆ of the males are pectinated or feathered.

The Brown Tail (Porthesia chrysorrhoea)

The family contains two moths—the Brown Tail and the Yellow Tail—that are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have white wings, and their bodies also are white with the exception of the tuft of coloured hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the names to the species. Their larvÆ may both be found feeding on the same trees (whitethorn), and both change to a brown hairy chrysalis within a loose cocoon among the leaves.

The larva of Chrysorrhoea is black, with four rows of little wart-like projections on each side, from which proceed little tufts of hairs. These hairs are reddish with the exception of one row on each side, which is white. The tenth and eleventh segments have each a scarlet tubercle, and there are also other small spots of the same colour on some of the front segments.

The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree mentioned above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in August.

The Gipsy (Ocneria dispar)

The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker markings, including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The hind wings are brown, darker near the margin. The female is dingy yellowish white, with darker markings arranged as in the male. The male is much inferior in size, and its antennÆ are very strongly pectinated.

The larva is brownish black, finely dotted with yellowish grey. There is a grey stripe down the middle of the back, and six tubercles on each segment give rise to tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and various fruit trees.

The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in August.

The Black Arches (Psilura Monacha)

The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with zigzag black lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings are smoky grey. The hinder segments of the abdomen are banded with black and rose-pink. The male is much smaller than the female, and has the antennÆ strongly pectinated.

The caterpillar is hairy, and of a greyish-white colour. A brown stripe runs down the back. On the top of the second segment are two blue tubercles; and there is also a tubercle, of a reddish colour, on each of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments. It feeds on the oak, birch, fir, and the apple; and is full grown in June or July.

The moth flies during July and August.

The Vapourer Moth (Orgyia antiqua)

Fig. 126.—The Female Vapourer.

During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August and September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost everywhere, flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright rays of the midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth, which may be known at once by its bright chestnut colour, with darker transverse markings, and a white crescent-shaped spot in the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems somewhat partial to civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our metropolis, even in the very densely populated parts; and the larva is one of the commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and squares.

The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints are dark brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two long tufts of hair directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a similar tuft directed backward. On each of the segments five to eight inclusive is a brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on almost every tree usually to be found in parks and gardens.

When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on a wall or fence, and changes to a hairy chrysalis.

The female of this species is wingless, and never moves away from the cocoon out of which she has crawled, but lays her eggs on the outside of the silken web, and there remains to die.

The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the winter months.

Family—BombycidÆ

This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large size, in which the predominating colours are greys and browns. Their hind wings are generally paler than the front pair, and less distinctly marked; and the antennÆ of the males are pectinated.

The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvÆ of the last family.

The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not hairy.

We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.

The Oak Eggar (Bombyx Quercus)

The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The female is much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.

The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring, which it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there is a series of white spots down the middle of the back and along each side. It feeds on whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), heather (Calluna, Erica), poplar (Populus nigra), and various other plants and trees.

As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown in the following May, and the moth appears in July; but in Scotland the caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September, hybernates in the chrysalis state, and emerges in the following June. The same is true of the Cornish Eggars; but along the coast of South Devon both varieties are to be met with.

The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have seen large numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west throughout all hours of the day.

The Drinker (Odonestis potatoria)

The popular name of this species is applied on account of a peculiar feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies on its food plant.

The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge; that of the female is yellow. The front wing has an oblique dark bar passing from the apex to the middle of the inner margin; also two white spots—one in the middle of the wing, and the other between it and the costal margin.

The caterpillar is dark bluish grey above, and has a line of orange spots on each side. Along the spiracles are oblique orange streaks, and a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds on the annual meadow-grass (Poa annua), and several other grasses. It is a hybernator, commencing its caterpillar state in the autumn, and reaching its full dimensions about the end of the following May.

The moth flies during July and August.

The Lappet (Lasiocampa quercifolia)

Our last example of the BombycidÆ is the Lappet (Plate X, fig. 6), a large moth, the female often measuring considerably over three inches from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish brown, and exhibit a beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged insect. Scalloped black lines pass transversely across each wing, and a small black dot lies near the centre of the fore wings.

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and third segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the twelfth there is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct, runs along each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus), and the white willow (Salix alba).

The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June.

Family—EndromidÆ
The Kentish Glory (Endromis versicolor)

The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of its family. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7); the female is larger and similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.

This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the birch woods of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the bright sunshine, but the females must be searched for on the bark and branches of the trees.

The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (Betula alba), and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious at first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of each segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and there is a conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.

When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves beneath the tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the chrysalis state.

Family—SaturniidÆ
The Emperor Moth (Saturnia pavonia)

Here is another family with but one British member; but in this, as in the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect. The male Pavonia is shown on Plate X (fig. 8), and will need no written description as an aid to its identification. The female is larger, and similarly marked, but the ground colour of the wings is pale grey.

This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked for in the neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of May.

The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among which may be mentioned the willow (Salix alba), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), elder (Sambucus nigra), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), bramble (Rubus fruticosus), heaths (Erica tetralix and E. cinerea), and the meadow-sweet (SpirÆa ulmaria). Its colour is a lovely green; and each segment has several pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black hairs. The spiracles are orange.

In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the small end (fig. 28).

It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some of the larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist is likely to meet with larvÆ more frequently than the perfect insect. These moths, however, are mostly very hardy and easily reared; and a beginner cannot do better than endeavour to obtain either ova or larvÆ, in order that he may be able to watch the different species through their various stages.

Family—DrepanulidÆ

We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ in many important particulars from those we have just been considering. They are of such slender build that a beginner may easily mistake them for Geometers. Their wings, though small, are broad, and well proportioned to their bodies. In five cases out of the six the front wings are more or less hooked at the tips, and on this account the moths in question are called the Hook Tips.

The larvÆ are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections on their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the last pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen walking appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by their claspers only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward, and all the front segments being also elevated. When about to change, they descend to the ground, and spin their cocoons among dead leaves.

Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.

The Oak Hook Tip (Drepana binaria)

This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is fairly plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.

Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse lines. There are two black spots between the lines of the fore wings. The antennÆ of the male are pectinated; those of the female simple. The latter sex is further distinguished by the paler colour of the hind wings.

The larva is brown, with a broad stripe, edged with yellow, down the back. There are two projections on the back of the fourth segment. It feeds on oak (Quercus Robur) and birch (Betula alba).

This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in June and August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned trees in June and July, and again in September.

The Chinese Character (Cilix glaucata)

The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark blotch from the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion of this blotch is marked with silvery spots which are said to resemble Chinese characters. The hind margin is shaded with a dark grey border, inside which is a row of dark spots. The hind wings are clouded with grey.

This moth is widely distributed, and seems to be common throughout England. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in August.

The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles on each of the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), and the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa).

Family—DicranuridÆ

The five British species that represent this family are such interesting insects that we should like to have given a detailed description of all of them, but our limited space will allow of no more than an outline of the general characteristics of the group and a selection of two for individual mention.

They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are white and shades of grey. The antennÆ are pectinated in the males, and, with the exception of the Lobster Moth (Fagi), in the females also.

The larvÆ, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers, and stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They have two 'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of them (the Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely resemble it in habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described; but the larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon among the leaves of trees.

They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.

The Poplar Kitten (Dicranura bifida)

Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on the wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (Bicuspis and Furcula) so closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of distinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present species, is almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin being almost straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In Furcula, the outer margin of the band is generally sharply bent inward just below the costa. In Bicuspis the grey band varies considerably in shape, but both this and the dark blotch near the tip of the wing are more sharply defined than in the other two species.

The caterpillar is green, dotted with brown, and has a brown stripe on the back. This stripe is broken on the third segment, and widens out on the eighth and thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (Populus nigra) and Aspen (P. tremula).

When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs a very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body mingled with little pieces of the bark that it removes for the purpose. Thus made, the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding bark that detection is very difficult. I have frequently found these cocoons on the inner surface of loose bark.

This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in June and July. The larva feeds during August and September.

The Puss (Dicranura vinula)

No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May and June, and is common everywhere.

The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with a hump on the fourth segment, and a patch of brown from the fourth segment to the tail. This patch is very wide on the eighth segment, but tapers to a point on the thirteenth. The two horns are rather long and rough, and from each of them a very slender pink filament is protruded when the caterpillar is irritated.

It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of Bifida, though of course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally three or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows, and poplars, and may be found during July and August.

Family—NotodontidÆ
The Coxcomb Prominent (Lophopteryx camelina)

The family NotodontidÆ contains several moths of somewhat varied appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,' distinguished by a conspicuous projection on the inner margin of the fore wings.

Our example of this group is the Coxcomb Prominent.

Its fore wings are brown, with darker markings arranged as shown in the illustration; and the hind margins are scalloped. The hind wings are much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.

The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side. The spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the twelfth segment. It feeds during August, September, and October, on various trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and alder.

The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common and widely distributed.

Family—PygÆridÆ
The Buff Tip (Phalera bucephala)

The first of our two examples of this small family is the common and destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on Plate X, fig. 9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description. During June and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees almost everywhere, with its wings folded closely round its body, and its antennÆ tucked under the wings, looking just like a piece of stick, or a projection of the bark on which it sits.

The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be seen in dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty or thirty huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger they retain their gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip the leaves from large branches. They are of a dull yellow colour, hairy, and have seven broken black lines, one along the middle of the back, and three on each side. The head and legs are black.

When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow into the soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following June. The chief food plants of this species are the lime (Tilia vulgaris), elm (Ulmus campestris), and hazel (Corylus Avellana).

The Chocolate Tip (PygÆra curtula)

This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be met with more or less in most of the English counties in the month of May.

Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown. The hind wings are pale yellowish grey.

The young caterpillars feed in companies between leaves which they have spun together, but when nearly full grown they cease to be gregarious. They are also very different in appearance at different ages. When fully fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey colour, spotted with black, with a double row of orange-coloured warts on each side. There is also a little black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments.

The food plants of this species are sallows (Salix caprea and S. cinerea), poplar (Populus nigra), and aspen (P. tremula).

Family—CymatophoridÆ

This, the last family of the Bombyces, contains seven species of moderate size, the larvÆ of which are either quite smooth or have small warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into three genera, from two of which we shall select a representative.

The Peach Blossom (Thyatira Batis)

The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account of the resemblance of the pink patches of its olive-brown fore wings to the petals of the peach flower. It is a moderately common moth, widely distributed in England and Ireland, and flies during June and July.

The caterpillar is marbled with reddish grey and brown, and has a hump on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each of the segments six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (Rubus fruticosus) during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the dead leaves at the root of its food plant.

The Yellow-horned (Asphalia flavicornis)

This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the wing in March, when it may be attracted by means of sugar placed on the bark of the birch (Betula alba).

The wings are grey, with a decidedly greenish tinge, crossed by three dark lines near the base, and two others, which are zigzag, just outside the centre. Between these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale spot. The hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.

The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish, with both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and seldom ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in July or August.

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CHAPTER XIX
THE NOCTUÆ

We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day; that some come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down again to rest before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that others prefer the darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths we are next to consider includes the greater number (about three hundred) of our truly nocturnal species, hence the name that heads this chapter.

They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So closely, in fact, do certain of them resemble each other, that the greatest care has to be exercised in the identification of species—a task that is rendered still more difficult by the variations that we observe in the tints and markings of certain species.

These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore wings are somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest, these are brought close to the body, and the hind pair are folded up beneath them.

Family—BryophilidÆ
The Marbled Beauty (Bryophila Perla)

Our first family—the BryophilidÆ—contains only four British species. These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvÆ feed in early morning on the lichens that cover stones and old walls, and conceal themselves by day in holes and chinks and under stones.

The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may be described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every English county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.

Its wings are very pale grey, marked with a darker bluish grey, as shown in the engraving. These markings are variable, but the bases of the fore wings have always a dark blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or white, extending the whole width of the wing. The moth may be found from the beginning of July to the middle of September.

The larva feeds from February to April. It is black above, with a broad orange-bordered stripe down the back; and its body is covered with small warts, each of which bears a single hair.

Family—BombycoidÆ

In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which are exceedingly common. They are much larger than the BryophilidÆ, and of a much stouter build. The larvÆ are covered with little hair-bearing warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they may be mistaken for the caterpillars of the Bombyces.

The Grey Dagger (Acronycta Psi)

This is the commonest of all the BombycoidÆ. It may be found at rest on tree trunks and palings during the daytime throughout the summer. Its fore wings are pale grey, with four conspicuous black marks, one of which—that in the anal angle—resembles the Greek letter psi (?) placed sideways.

The larva is black or very dark grey, with a pale yellow line down the back, and a black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments, that on the fifth being much larger than the other. It feeds in the autumn on lime (Tilia vulgaris), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), fruit trees, and various other trees, shrubs, and herbs.

The moth called the Dark Dagger (Tridens) is hardly to be distinguished from Psi. It is not really any darker, and its markings are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different.

The Poplar Grey (Acronycta megacephala)

This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern and midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and July.

Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little inside the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot with a dark centre. This spot is represented in a large number of the NoctuÆ, and is known as the orbicular. It will be observed that in the present species it is very distinct.

The caterpillar is dark grey, with a line of black dots down the back; and it has a number of little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the eleventh segment is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on various species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of the bark.

The Figure of Eight (Diloba cÆruleocephala)

The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the wing, but nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish spots that resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish grey, with darker wing rays, and a dark spot near the centre.

This moth is common in all parts, and flies during September.

The caterpillar emerges from the egg in spring, and is fully grown in May or June. It is of a very pale colour—yellowish or greenish—with a broad and broken yellow stripe down the back, and a bluish or greenish stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name) with two black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha) and various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially the hawthorn) the little clusters of eggs may be seen during the winter.

Family—LeucaniidÆ

In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with, generally, no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or streaks.

Their larvÆ feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to the chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or under the surface of the ground.

Several of these insects are very common, and most of them abound in fens and marshes.

The Brown-line Bright-eye (Leucania conigera)

The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a transverse line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it about one-fourth the length of the wing. Another dark brown line, describing a sharp bend, passes across the wing near the base. The 'bright eye' is a light spot just outside the centre of the wing, nearer the costa than the inner margin. This is another of those marks that occur very constantly in the wings of the NoctuÆ. It lies beyond the orbicular spot, and is usually somewhat kidney-shaped, and is consequently named the reniform.

The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish, with a pale dorsal line edged with black. On each side of this is a broad black line, below which is a yellow line edged with black, then a whitish stripe, next a yellow line edged with black on the upper side, and lastly a broad brownish line, just above the spiracles, edged with black on both sides. It feeds on couch grass (Agropyron repens) and various other grasses, and is fully grown in May.

The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout the United Kingdom.

The Smoky Wainscot (Leucania impura)

This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in general appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of these we shall take two examples.

The first is the Smoky Wainscot, so called from the dark smoky tint of the hind wings. Its fore wings are wainscot brown, with lighter rays; and they each have three black dots arranged in the form of a triangle, one in the centre, and the other two between this and the hind margin.

The caterpillar is yellowish, with a fine white line down the back. The spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges (Carex) from March to May.

The moth is on the wing from June to August.

The Common Wainscot (Leucania pallens)

This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit the same three dots, but it may be distinguished by the pale colour of the hind wings.

The larva feeds on various grasses in March and April. It is of a pinkish grey colour, with two rows of black dots on each side of the dorsal line. There are also three stripes along the side, two of which are brownish and the other grey.

The moth is common everywhere from June to August.

The Bullrush (Nonagria arundinis)

Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is common in all parts where its food plant abounds.

It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore wings are yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of black spots. The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near the hind margin.

The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining brownish plate on the second segment. The spiracles are black. It feeds inside the stems of the reed-mace (Typha latifolia), and changes to a chrysalis within the gallery it has excavated, after making a hole through which it can escape when it attains the perfect form.

The caterpillar may be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August, and the moth in September.

Family—ApameidÆ

This large family contains no less than forty-four British species, many of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only about half a dozen can be regarded as rare.

Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions are dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground colours are dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply defined. They may be searched for on palings and the bark of trees by day, at which time they repose with their wings sloping like the sides of the roof of a house. Some are easily attracted by lights, and others partake freely of the entomologist's 'sugar.'

The larvÆ have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing plants, keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close to the ground.

The Frosted Orange (Gortyna Ochracea)

We commence with one of the brightest members of the family, the Frosted Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous, with distinct brown markings, the chief of which are two broad transverse bands. The orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct. The hind wings are dingy yellow. This moth flies from July to September, and is easily attracted by a light at night. It is common everywhere.

The larva is yellow, dotted with black, with a brownish plate on the second segment. It feeds inside the stems of a number of plants, including the marsh thistle (Cnicus palustris), musk thistle (Carduus nutans), burdock (Arctium minus), mullein (Verbascum thapsus), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), and elder (Sambucus nigra). When about to change to the chrysalis it eats nearly to the surface of the stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis to cover the hole through which it is to escape when it becomes a moth.

The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in July.

The Flame (Axylia putris)

This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than Ochracea. It is common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and waste grounds at dusk during June and July.

The fore wings are pale pinkish brown, with dark brown along the costa, and two patches of the same colour on the hind margin. There is also a double line of small brown dots parallel with the hind margin.

The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each segment. There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth and sixth segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and various other low herbs.

The Light Arches (Xylophasia lithoxylea)

The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a light brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the same colour along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots parallel with the same margin. The hind wings are pale ochreous: they are brownish along the hind margin, and have a light fringe.

The moth is very common in waste places, and flies in June and July.

The caterpillar is of a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a black head. It feeds on the roots of grasses in May.

The Flounced Rustic (Luperina testacea)

The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown markings. These latter are variable, but the most conspicuous is a series of dark crescent-shaped spots almost parallel with the hind margin, and immediately outside these is a series of paler crescents.

The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour, with a brown head, and a brownish plate on the second segment. It feeds on the stems of grasses.

The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in August and September.

The Cabbage Moth (Mamestra BrassicÆ)

Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to meet with BrassicÆ in abundance. They swarm round the insect hunter's sugar in such numbers as to become a positive nuisance. They are also attracted by light. During the day they may be seen at rest on palings. The caterpillar is even better known, and with reason, for it is fearfully destructive to our vegetables and even our flower beds. It burrows into the hearts of cabbages, filling the galleries it makes with its excrement, often leaving no very visible outward signs of its presence within. But its ravages are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats with more or less relish almost every vegetable and flowering plant of our gardens, and is equally partial to the various herbs of the field.

The fore wings of the moth are dingy brownish grey, marbled in a very confused manner by darker markings. The reniform spot is very distinct, the orbicular less so. A light zigzag line runs parallel with the hind margin. It flies in June and July.

The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which are white.

The Dot (Mamestra PersicariÆ)

The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled fore wings is always sufficient for the identification of this species.

This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month lays its eggs on the elder (Sambucus nigra), and the various low plants that supply the larva with food.

The larva is greenish or greyish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, with a light line down the back. The twelfth segment is humped, and there are dark V-shaped marks on the back of segments five to twelve inclusive. It is full grown in September, and burrows into the ground to undergo its change to the chrysalis, in which state it remains throughout the winter.

The Rustic Shoulder-knot (Apamea basilinea)

The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light brown markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of the base, from which feature the specific name (Basilinea) is derived. The hind wings are of a similar colour, but shading into a dark smoke colour at the hind margin.

The caterpillars feed at first on the grains of wheat, on the ears of which the moth deposits the eggs in June. At harvest time they remain hidden among the husks, and are often threshed out in large numbers by the blows of the flail. The cold weather soon overtakes them, and they then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter. On the approach of spring they come out again, and feed by night on various low plants, hiding themselves among the roots by day. In March they are full grown, and change to brown chrysalides beneath the surface of the ground.

The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most destructive of our NoctuÆ.

The Marbled Minor (Miana strigilis)

The next three genera (Miana, Phothedes, and CelÆna) include seven small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of them is the Marbled Minor, which is to be found in abundance everywhere during June and July.

This species is very variable, but the fore wings are usually dark brown, marbled with a lighter colour—white or grey. There is generally an irregular white or pale grey band crossing the wings parallel with the hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch across the middle of the wing.

The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to a chrysalis under the ground in May.

Family—CaradrinidÆ

There are only ten British species in this family, two of which are rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy. The transverse lines so often seen on the fore wings of NoctuÆ are generally well marked. The larvÆ have short stiff bristles, and feed on low plants; they undergo their changes in an earthen cocoon under the ground.

The Mottled Rustic (Caradrina Morpheus)

We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic—a common moth that may be procured from June to August. Its fore wings are brownish grey, with darker lines and spots; the hind wings are almost white, but darker at the tip.

The caterpillar is brownish grey, with a row of triangular spots on each side of the back. It is very sluggish, spending the greater part of its existence among the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout the winter, except during severe weather, and is full grown in April. The food plants include teasels (Dipsacus pilosus and D. sylvestris), hedge bedstraw (Galium Mollugo), orpine (Sedum Telephium), sallows (Salix), and various other plants.

The chrysalis may be dug out in May.

Family—NoctuidÆ

A glance at our list of British NoctuÆ (Appendix I) will show that this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera. It includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens and are to be met with during almost every summer evening ramble.

Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that comprise the genus TriphÆna are characterised by the bright colouring of the hind wings. The fore wings are narrow and more or less glossy, and overlap to a greater or less extent when the insects are at rest; and the hind wings are folded and completely hidden beneath them.

The larvÆ are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very dingy colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their ravages to the roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the ground or under the surface.

The pupÆ are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually inclosed in earthen cocoons.

We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three genera.

The Turnip Moth (Agrotis Segetum)

This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable and flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to become quite a nuisance to cultivators.

The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded with a darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes with a brown hind margin.

In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally very close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge they commence feeding on the lower parts of the stems, or burrowing deeply into the larger succulent roots. When the larvÆ have completed their work of destruction in this way, they change to brown chrysalides in the ground. Some undergo this change in October, and shortly after give rise to a second brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar state throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with hybernating larvÆ, continue to feed almost throughout the winter months, and change to the chrysalis in the following May.

The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or greenish colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line on each side of this, black spots between these lines, and black spiracles.

The Heart and Dart (Agrotis Exclamationis)

The destructive work of Segetum is assisted by similar operations of the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously on the roots of several of our cultivated vegetables, though the present species does not entirely confine its ravages to the farmer's crops, but attacks the roots of many low-growing herbs.

The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with a reddish tinge. The darker markings include a large and very distinct reniform spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous longitudinal blackish streak near the base of the wing known as the claviform. Beyond the reniform a curved and zigzag dark line crosses the wing. The hind wings of the male are very pale, those of the female darker, with a whitish fringe.

The moth flies from June to August, and is common everywhere. The caterpillar feeds in the autumn, and reaches its full size in October; but it is said to feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is dingy brown or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are black, and there are black dots on the sides.

The Garden Dart (Agrotis nigricans)

This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so unattractive that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it must not be omitted from our selection on that score, for our main object here is to give the beginner an acquaintance with those species that are most likely to be captured in the earlier part of his career, and this moth is certainly one of those that may be described as 'abundant everywhere.'

Its fore wings are dull dark brown, often tinged with red, and clouded with black. The reniform spot is pale, the orbicular spot less distinct, and between the two there is generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is also a short dark streak near the base of the wing, and a black spot before the orbicular. The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the hind margin.

The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on the back, and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also dotted with black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers (Trifolium pratense and T. repens) and various low plants in May and June.

The moth flies from June to August.

The Flame Shoulder (Noctua plecta)

As our example of the next genus we take the Flame Shoulder, a rather small moth, easily identified by the broad yellowish-white streak along the costa of the reddish-brown fore wings. The orbicular and reniform spots are margined with white, and a thin white streak runs from the base of the wing to the former. The hind wings are white. This moth flies in July, and is common throughout Great Britain.

The caterpillar is reddish brown, with a slender line of white dots on the back, and a similar line on each side. The body is smooth and velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark brown. It feeds on the lady's bedstraw (Galium verum), sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), and many other low plants; and is full fed early in July.

The Lesser Broad Border (TriphÆna ianthina)

We now come to the third and last genus (TriphÆna) of this extensive family, a genus which includes six interesting moths, with bright orange or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take three examples.

The first of them—the Lesser Broad Border—has fore wings of a rich reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind wings are bright orange, with a broad marginal band of black.

It is a common moth, particularly in the south-western counties, and flies during July and August.

The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish or greenish grey, with a light line down the back, and two black spots on each side of segments nine to twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout the winter by night on dead nettles (Lamium purpureum and L. album), primrose (Primula acaulis), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and various low plants; and may sometimes be seen in flower gardens. It is full grown in April.

The Lesser Yellow Underwing (TriphÆna Comes)

This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The fore wings are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black margin of the hind wings is proportionately narrower.

It is more abundant than Ianthina; in fact it is to be found everywhere in plenty during the month of July.

The caterpillar is yellowish brown. On the back of each of the eleventh and twelfth segments are two conspicuous dark marks. The spiracles are white, and below them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), chickweed (Stellaria media), thrift (Armeria maritima), and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and attacks sallows (Salix Caprea and S. cinerea) and whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha) as soon as the buds appear in the spring. It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the earth.

The Large Yellow Underwing (TriphÆna Pronuba)

This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be found everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It is represented on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable, sometimes a cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich and warm brown. On the costal margin, not far from the tip, there is always a small black spot, which will serve to distinguish it from Comes.

The caterpillar (fig. 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots of almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer weather of the autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full grown early in the summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the ground. Its colour is dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row of dark spots on each side.

Family—AmphipyridÆ
The Gothic (Mania typica)

The above family contains only four British species, two of which we shall briefly consider.

The first of these is the Gothic—a very common moth that may be seen everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown with darker marblings, and there are numerous lighter markings which may be easily made out by reference to the accompanying woodcut.

The caterpillar is smooth and velvety, of a dull brown or greenish colour, with darker dorsal and side stripes. The latter are crossed obliquely by a series of whitish lines. It feeds on fruit and other trees in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and feeds again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows into the soil to undergo its changes.

The Old Lady (Mania Maura)

This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance that the reason for placing the two in the same genus is not apparent till the earlier stages and life history have been studied. All its wings are very deep brown; the front pair has a darker band containing the orbicular and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across the middle.

It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses and sheds. It flies in July and August.

The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and lighter markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and hybernates during the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low plants, and changes to a chrysalis in May under the ground.

Family—OrthosiidÆ

This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of rather small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions, either in early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former season by the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.

Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure to be taken by a young collector during his first season.

The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the tip, and the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males may be distinguished from the females by their antennÆ, which are always more or less ciliated.

The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and the pupÆ are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.

The Common Quaker (TÆniocampa stabilis)

Several of the species of the family are known popularly as Quakers, the commonest of which—Stabilis—is abundant in all parts.

Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or reddish tinge. The orbicular and reniform spots are outlined with a paler colour, and there is a pale transverse line parallel with the hind margin, outside which is a row of indistinct black spots. The hind wings are greyish brown.

The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a yellowish line on the back and on each side; and a yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth segment transversely. It feeds during June and July on oak (Quercus Robur) and elm (Ulmus campestris), and changes to a chrysalis in August on the surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout the winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.

The Chestnut (Cerastis Vaccinii)

Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of even the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance, we come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at large in October and November, and sometimes even in December, and again appears, after a rather short period of hybernation, in February and March.

The fore wings are reddish brown, with darker wavy lines. The orbicular and reniform spots have pale outlines, and the lower half of the latter is very dark grey. The hind wings are smoky grey, with generally a pale band beyond the middle.

The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines. The spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It feeds during June and July on the elm (Ulmus campestris), oak (Quercus Robur), and sallow (Salix caprea), and various low plants.

The Pink-barred Sallow (Xanthia Flavago)

This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species, but has been taken more or less in all parts of England.

Its fore wings are orange yellow, with purplish markings arranged as represented in fig. 165. The hind wings are yellowish white.

The caterpillar is brown, with a lateral stripe formed by numerous red, yellow and white dots. It feeds on sallow (Salix caprea) and various low plants.

It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September.

Family—CosmiidÆ
The Dun-bar (Calymnia trapezina)

Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere during July and August.

Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across the middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with dark grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin. The hind wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base.

The caterpillar feeds on oak (Quercus Robur), hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), and birch (Betula alba), and may be found in abundance during May and June. It is green, with dark spots, and white lines on the back and sides. Although it partakes of the leaves of the above-named trees, yet its chief food seems to be other caterpillars, for it devours these with a savage greediness that is simply astonishing. It will chase an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the neck with a fatal grip, and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to be the larva of the Winter Moth (Brumata).

Family—HadenidÆ

Nearly fifty British NoctuÆ are included in the family HadenidÆ. They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in the brightness of their colours, some being very dingy, and others gaily tinted. Their antennÆ are rather long; and when at rest the wings slope from the back like the sides of a roof.

The larvÆ are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes a hump on the twelfth segment. The pupÆ are brown and shiny, and are inclosed in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of the soil.

The Broad-barred White (Hecatera serena)

Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there being a bright contrast between the white ground and the grey markings of the wings. It is common in the south of England, and seems to be plentiful in and around London.

The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish colour, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the back; and there are two distinct dots on the back of each segment. It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles (Sonchus oleraceus and S. arvensis), sleepwort (Lactuca virosa), and hawkweeds (Hieracia).

The moth flies in June and July.

The Marvel-du-jour (Agriopis Aprilina)

The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth—quite an exception among the NoctuÆ in this respect, and it is withal both common and widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it is represented on Plate XI (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for any other species.

The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal line is broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light lozenge-shaped spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is full grown in the latter month. It then burrows into the earth at the foot of the tree, and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon previous to changing to a chrysalis.

From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in plenty by breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect insect may be found toward the end of September and throughout October.

The Small Angle Shades (Euplexia lucipara)

This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of Plate XI. It is very common throughout the country, and may be seen in June and July.

The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually tapers from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a white stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each side of the back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the middle line, thus forming a series of V-shaped marks pointing towards the tail. It feeds on the common bracken fern (Pteris aquilina), foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), and the male fern (LastrÆa Filix-mas), in August and September.

The Angle Shades (Phlogophora Meticulosa)

This moth is so common and so widely distributed that it is almost sure to be taken by the young collector during his first season. Its wings are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous, often tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark brown as shown in the illustration. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in September and October.

The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered with white spots. It feeds on groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) and many other low plants, the first brood throughout the winter from November to April, and the second in July and August.

The Grey Arches (Aplecta nebulosa)

The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather dark smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are also subject to considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform spots are large, and paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag or scalloped lines, more or less distinct, cross the wings transversely.

The larva is brown, with a lighter line down the back. On each of the segments five to eleven is a dark lozenge-shaped spot, bisected by the dorsal line; and on the second segment is a shining plate and a triangular mark. It feeds on the dock (Rumex), and various other low plants during the autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of the sallow (Salix Caprea), birch (Betula alba), and whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into the ground to undergo its metamorphoses.

The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly every part of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by searching fences and tree trunks about midsummer.

The Shears (Hadena dentina)

The Shears is another very common moth of the same family. The ground colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally a lighter or darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it has a very decided brownish tinge. Across the centre of the wing is a darker band, wider on the costal side, containing the orbicular and reniform spots, as well as a light patch beneath them, and bordered on each side by a pale zigzag line. There is another similar line near to and parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are smoky grey or smoky brown, darker towards the hind margin.

The caterpillar is greyish, and has a series of triangular black spots along each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.

The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is on the wing in June and July.

The Bright-line Brown-eye (Hadena oleracea)

Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar may be found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in August and September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned over by the pupa digger.

The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The orbicular spot is usually very indistinct, being of almost exactly the same tint as the ground colour, and surrounded by a very fine whitish line. The reniform is generally more conspicuous, a portion of it being of a light ochreous colour. Near the hind margin, and parallel with it, is a white line, bent sharply into the form of a W, just on the anal side of the middle.

The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke colour towards the margin.

The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black and white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the spiracles. It feeds on the nettle (Urtica dioica), dock (Rumex), and many other low plants; and, according to some observers, on the elm (Ulmus campestris).

Family—XylinidÆ

The next family—XylinidÆ—contains twenty British species, several of which are local, but two or three are abundant and widely distributed.

The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the NoctuÆ are nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines take their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded rather closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very gentle slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout, particularly in the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful appearance.

The larvÆ are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and feed principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally inclosed in cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided with spines or bristles on the under side.

We shall select two members of this family.

The Early Grey (Xylocampa Areola)

One of the first of the NoctuÆ to greet us in the spring is the Early Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and, if the season is mild, in March.

Its fore wings are light grey, often tinged with rose pink, and marked with dark grey. The orbicular and reniform spots are very distinct, and surrounded by a pale line; they are both united at their lower edges. Along the hind margin is a series of dark spots. The hind wings are pale yellowish grey, with a darker central spot, a central transverse darker line, and a darker line along the hind margin.

The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter, and passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It feeds on the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum) in July and August, being full grown towards the end of the latter month.

The Shark (Cucullia umbratica)

The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on palings in June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles that of oak and other light-wood fences that detection is not so easy as with most other moths.

The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark lines, the principal of which is a line from the middle of the base to about the centre of the wing. The wing rays are also darker than the ground colour. The hind wings are greyish white or brownish grey.

The caterpillar is very dark brown, with orange spots on the back and along the spiracles. It feeds on sow-thistles (Sonchus oleraceus, S. palustris, and S. arvensis) and sleepwort (Lactuca virosa) at night from July to September, and hides during the daytime among the leaves that lie close against the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into a ring or feign death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about most vigorously as if to repel its foe.

Family—GonopteridÆ
The Herald Moth (Gonoptera Libatrix)

The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the angular margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains only one British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth that is common everywhere in August and September. It hybernates in the perfect state, and the hybernated specimens may be seen in the spring time, from March up to the end of May or the beginning of June.

Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked with brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three parts of nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are tinged with orange; and there is a small white spot in the base close to the thorax, also another near the centre of the wing. The hind wings are brownish grey.

The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on the side, and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (Salix alba) and sallow (Salix caprea); and when full grown, about the end of June, it spins a white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree, and changes to a very dark chrysalis.

Family—PlusiidÆ

The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the tufts of hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax. The abdomen also is crested, and the fore wings of several species have smooth patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.

Most of the larvÆ may be described as semi-loopers, for their claspers number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs are considerably humped, somewhat after the fashion of the GeometrÆ. Some of them further imitate the GeometrÆ in their position of rest, holding on by their claspers only, with body straightened out at an angle with the leaf or twig on which they support themselves.

Unlike the majority of the NoctuÆ, they do not descend to the ground when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the food plants.

The Burnished Brass (Plusia Chrysitis)

One of the commonest of the PlusiidÆ is the Burnished Brass, so called on account of the large patches of bright golden green on the fore wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully curved, and bordered with brown. A brown blotch fills the base of the wing, and the remaining area is of a beautiful metallic greenish yellow, broken by two large brown blotches, one on the costal and the other on the inner margin, which closely approach each other and sometimes meet.

This moth is very common everywhere, and is one of the frequent visitors to our flower gardens from June to August.

The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers from this point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal stripes on the back, but each segment is adorned with four or six oblique white marks. Just above the spiracles is a white stripe. It feeds on the dead nettle (Lamium album), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and burdock (Arctium minus), and is full grown in June.

The Silver Y (Plusia Gamma)

Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may be found in abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore wings are of a shiny grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich dark brown; and just below the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery spot, in form something like the Greek letter ? placed obliquely. The base of the hind wings is grey; along the margin is a broad and dark smoky brown band, and the fringe is very light grey, barred with the dark tint of the band. This moth is commonly driven out of its hiding places among low plants as we walk in waste places, and when thus disturbed it takes a short and rapid flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among the herbage that it is difficult to locate it correctly.

The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers gradually from this point towards the head. Its body is green, with several thin longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow stripe along the spiracles. It may be found from June to October, feeding on many kinds of low plants.

Family—EuclidiidÆ
The Mother Shipton (Euclidia Mi)

Passing over a few small and less important families, we come to the EuclidiidÆ, which contains only two British moths. One of these is the Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in June.

The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate XI, fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are also very dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous tint.

The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has only three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (Trifolium pratense and T. repens) and other plants.

Family—CatocalidÆ

This family contains only four British species, but these few are very striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the NoctuÆ generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under wings. When at rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the other pair, and then their general appearance is dull, though if closely examined it will be observed that these outer wings are really beautifully marbled with shades of grey.

The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed as they rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and rolling into a ring like so many other larvÆ of NoctuÆ, they apply themselves the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to remove them. Another peculiarity of these larvÆ is the possession of fleshy projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed on the leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the trunk, and there remain protected by their imitative colouring, detection being rendered even more difficult by the close application of their flattened under surface to the bark. Before changing to the chrysalis state, they spin a light cocoon among the leaves or on the bark.

The Clifden Nonpareil (Catocala Fraxini)

This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British NoctuÆ. The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with black and greyish blue.

The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect, for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of Fraxini command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives—give an exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their nationalities.

The Red Underwing (Catocala Nupta)

The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance, the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the popular names to the species.

The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows.

The caterpillar is similar in form to that of Fraxini, and when at rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow (Salix fragilis), sallow (S. alba), poplar (Populus), and plum (Prunus), and is full grown in June.

The Dark Crimson Underwing (Catocala Sponsa)

This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is rather broad and sharply bent—an important feature, since it is the most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light Crimson Underwing (C. Promissa).

The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of Fraxini and Nupta, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun together with silk.

The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious sugaring.

There yet remain a few small families of the NoctuÆ, but we must leave them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the other great division of the larger moths—the GeometrÆ.

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CHAPTER XX
GEOMETRÆ

We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvÆ of the present division that suggested the name GeometrÆ—a term that signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these caterpillars—peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various families of this important division for a more detailed description.

The GeometrÆ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after the manner of the NoctuÆ.

Family—UropterygidÆ
The Swallow Tail (Uropteryx sambucaria)

Our first family—UropterygidÆ—has only one British representative, and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII (fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous 'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary.

The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (Sambucus nigra), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), bramble (Rubus fruticosus), honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), and forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis). It may be found feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black.

Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner.

Family—EnnomidÆ

This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the GeometrÆ. Their wings are more or less angulated; and the antennÆ are generally pectinated in the males.

The larvÆ are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may be, are seldom used in walking.

The Brimstone Moth (Rumia luteolata)

As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is particularly plentiful during the month of June.

The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII (fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice. It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and the apple (Pyrus Malus), and may be found on these trees throughout the summer.

Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout the season.

The Light Emerald (Metrocampa margaritaria)

All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant.

The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation, on several of our forest trees, including the oak (Quercus Robur), elm (Ulmus campestris), birch (Betula alba), and beech (Fagus sylvatica). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of claspers.

The Scalloped Oak (Crocallis elinguaria)

This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennÆ of the male are strongly pectinated; those of the female are simple.

The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding on the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), beech (Fagus sylvatica), and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground. It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a piece of twig.

The August Thorn (Eugonia quercinaria)

Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The antennÆ of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are simple.

The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily attracted by lights in the evening.

The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees during the month of June.

Family—AmphidasydÆ

The seven British species of the family AmphidasydÆ are generally to be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy hair that covers their thoraces. The antennÆ of the males are pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the latter sex is wingless.

The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil.

The Brindled Beauty (Biston hirtaria)

Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact, so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennÆ and larger body.

The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime (Tilia vulgaris), elm (Ulmus campestris), and various fruit trees, and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil.

The Peppered Moth (Amphidasys betularia)

Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and tree trunks during the day.

The colour of the caterpillar is very variable—drab, grey, green, or brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head, and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its change to the chrysalis.

Family—BoarmiidÆ

In the next family—BoarmiidÆ—there are about twenty British members, most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them bear a resemblance to species of the family EnnomidÆ, their wings are not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths.

The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupÆ are to be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the soil.

The Waved Umber (Hemerophila abruptaria)

The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other GeometrÆ, it rests on fences and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August, and often frequents our gardens at dusk.

The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (Ligustrum vulgare) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably also on the dog rose (Rosa canina). When full grown it spins a silken cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its metamorphoses.

The Willow Beauty (Boarmia gemmaria)

Our second example of the BoarmiidÆ is the Willow Beauty, the male of which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than the male, and has simple antennÆ. The moth is abundant throughout England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June and July.

The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds on the oak (Quercus Robur), Birch (Betula alba), ivy (Hedera Helix), and other trees, and may be found in September and October.

Family—GeometridÆ

The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennÆ.

There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvÆ, but some have the head deeply notched.

The Large Emerald (Geometra papilionaria)

This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving.

The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England.

The caterpillar feeds on birch (Betula alba), beech (Fagus sylvatica) and hazel (Corylus avellana) in the autumn, and hybernates while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.

The Common Emerald (Hemithea strigata)

One of the commonest of the Emeralds is Strigata, which may be found in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is white, dotted with dull reddish brown.

The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (Quercus Robur) and whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), and may be found in June.

Family—EphyridÆ
The Maiden's Blush (Zonosoma punctaria)

The family EphyridÆ contains only six British species, chiefly remarkable for the fact that their pupÆ generally resemble those of butterflies.

We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in May and August.

The caterpillar feeds on oak (Quercus Robur), from which it may be obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.

Family—AcidaliidÆ

The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly marked. The antennÆ are simple in the females, and generally only slightly ciliated in the males.

The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed principally on low plants. The pupÆ are to be found in loose cocoons among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.

We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family.

The Lace Border (Acidalia ornata)

The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to August.

The caterpillar feeds on thyme (Thymus Serpyllum) and marjoram (Origanum vulgare).

The Riband Wave (A. aversata)

All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey. The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot.

The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts.

The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low plants, including the meadow sweet (SpirÆa ulmaria), water avens (Geum rivale), common avens (G. urbanum), and knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare), during April and May.

The Blood-vein (Timandra amataria)

Our last example of the AcidaliidÆ is the Blood-vein, which is common in most parts of England in June and July.

Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip of the fore wing.

The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds in the autumn on dock (Rumex), sorrel (R. acetosa), and knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare).

Family—CaberidÆ

Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day, with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on which they rest.

The larvÆ, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.

The Common Wave (Cabera exanthemata)

The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave, the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male may be distinguished by its ciliated antennÆ.

The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on sallows (Salix caprea and S. cinerea) and alder (Alnus glutinosa), and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or June.

This species is very abundant in most parts.

The Clouded Silver (Bapta temerata)

The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white, and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark spot.

This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It flies in May and June.

The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds in the autumn on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and the wild cherry (P. Avium), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a light silken cocoon.

Family—MacariidÆ
The V Moth (Halia Vauaria)

The family MacariidÆ contains only five British species, four of which have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent.

Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut.

This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer.

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web between the leaves.

Family—FidoniidÆ

We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths, downs, and open fields; but one—the Bordered White—is met with only in fir woods.

The wings are not angulated, and the antennÆ of the males are pectinated.

The larvÆ are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate beneath the surface of the soil.

The Common Heath (Ematurga atomaria)

Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are disturbed at almost every footstep.

The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is generally smaller than the male.

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on trefoils (Lotus corniculatus and L. pilosus) and various other plants that grow on heaths.

The Bordered White (Bupalus piniaria)

The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the centre.

The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and is generally to be secured by beating the branches.

The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris).

Family—ZerenidÆ
The Currant Moth (Abraxas grossulariata)

The family ZerenidÆ contains only four British moths, and of these we select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or less blotched with black.

From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement.

The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). About the end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).

Family—HyberniidÆ

Passing over the family LigiidÆ, which contains only one British moth, the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family, HyberniidÆ.

Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them, and may be seen from January to March.

The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they look more like spiders than moths.

The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the ground.

The Spring Usher (Hybernia leucophÆaria)

Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees, or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has only the slightest rudiments of wings.

The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (Quercus Robur) and sycamore (Acer Pseudoplatanus), concealing itself among the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains here throughout the summer and part of the following winter.

The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale green with white markings.

The Mottled Umber (Hybernia defoliaria)

This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour, evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless.

The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles are white. It feeds during spring on oak (Quercus Robur), whitethorn (CratÆgus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and other trees. When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over, or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the ground about the middle of June.

The March Moth (Anisopteryx Æscularia)

This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen.

The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees named for the last species, also on lime (Tilia vulgaris) and elm (Ulmus campestris).

Family—LarentiidÆ

This is by far the most extensive family of the GeometrÆ, containing as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of the whole group.

The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost throughout the year—from early spring to the middle of the winter.

Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps; and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.

We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual description.

The November Moth (Oporabia dilutata)

Our first example is the November moth—a rather dingy and very variable species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler, with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin.

The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak, whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June.

The Twin-spot Carpet (Larentia didymata)

The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct.

The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa), chervil (ChÆrophyllum temulum), and other plants.

The Grass Rivulet (Emmelesia albulata)

We represent the genus Emmelesia by the Grass Rivulet—a pretty little moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not abundant.

Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line near the hind margin.

The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli), protecting itself from its enemies by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis under the same cover.

The Netted Pug (Eupithecia venosata)

We now come to the enormous genus Eupithecia, containing about fifty small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their earlier stages.

The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented.

The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions (Silene Cucubalis, S. maritima, S. acaulis, and Lychnis diurna) and catchfly (Silene gallica and S. nutans).

The Narrow-winged Pug (Eupithecia nanata)

Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common in some localities.

Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white.

The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (Calluna vulgaris) and heath (Erica cinerea and E. Tetralix).

The Brindled Pug (Eupithecia abbreviata)

Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species, appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts, and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree trunks.

Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender angulated stripe.

The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.

The Small Seraphim (Lobophora sexalisata)

This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind wings when at rest.

The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described as common.

The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (Salix alba) and sallow (S. caprea) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter.

The Blue-bordered Carpet (Melanthia bicolorata)

This same family (LarentiidÆ) is remarkable for its large number of pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are exceedingly common in our woods and gardens.

Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base, and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars, separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore wings.

The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (Alnus glutinosa) and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa); and when full grown it changes to a brown chrysalis within a light silken web.

The moth flies in July and August.

The Beautiful Carpet (Melanthia albicillata)

The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as Bicolorata. Its wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings.

The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (Rubus fruticosus), raspberry (R. IdÆus), and wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca). It may be found in June and July.

The moth flies in June.

The Common Carpet (Melanippe sociata)

The genus Melanippe contains twelve species, some of which are extremely common. One of these moths—the Common Carpet—is represented in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our illustration better than from a written description. It is a double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the end of July.

The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw (Galium Mollugo), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon on the ground.

The Silver Ground Carpet (Melanippe montanata)

In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar, containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings.

This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on the wing throughout the summer.

The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright red spot. It feeds on the primrose (Primula acaulis) in the autumn, hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of April.

The Garden Carpet (Melanippe fluctuata)

Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet—a moth that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the commonest of all the GeometrÆ that frequent our gardens.

The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less distinct, cross the wing.

This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but is most abundant in June and July.

The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green, brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (TropÆolum majus), rape (Brassica Napus), and various other cruciferous plants; and may be found from April to August.

The Yellow Shell (Camptogramma bilineata)

Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at almost every stroke while beating low bushes.

All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings.

The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May. The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two white stripes on each side.

The Small Phoenix (Cidaria silaceata)

Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the small Phoenix as the last example of this very extensive family.

The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour, and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing towards the hind margin.

This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is double brooded, appearing in May and August.

The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web.

Family—EuboliidÆ

This is the last family of the GeometrÆ we shall notice, and contains ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance obliquely inward.

They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their hiding places during the day.

The larvÆ are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants.

We shall briefly examine two species.

The Small Mallow (Eubolia limitata)

This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low plants.

Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.

Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and June.

The Treble Bar (Anaitis plagiata)

Our last example of the GeometrÆ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species, particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.

The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum).

This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and remaining with us throughout the month following in each case.

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CHAPTER XXI
THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA

The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the Macro-lepidoptera; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of small British moths that represent what is known as the Micro-lepidoptera.

It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the 'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their path.

Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in outline, with both these divisions of the Lepidoptera in a work of the present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the collector may at least know something of the insects he captures, even though he may not be able at once to fix on their names.

The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet, may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the names and other details he may require.

The Micro-lepidoptera are divided into five main groups—Pyralides, Pterophori, Crambi, Tortrices, and TineÆ, each of which is divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the 'Macros.'

Pyralides

The Pyralides may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.' Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local, though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.

The larvÆ have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally gregarious in their habits.

This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as follows:

1. PyralididÆ, including about forty species.
2. BotydÆ, about thirty species.
3. SteniiadÆ, containing only five species.
4. HydrocampidÆ, four species.
5. AcentropodidÆ, containing only one.

The Tabby (Aglossa pinguinalis)

The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables.

Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term 'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is correct.

The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.

The moth emerges in July.

The Meal Moth (Pyralis farinalis)

The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.

The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to and continuous with those of the front pair.

This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities, sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in the evening.

The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.

The Small Magpie (Eurrhypara urticata)

The family BotydÆ contains the moths that are popularly known as the 'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its species—the Small Magpie—is shown in the accompanying illustration. Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may be seen in the figure.

It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste places where the stinging nettle grows.

The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), always remaining concealed between leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.

The Mother-of-Pearl (Botys ruralis)

This is another very common species of the family BotydÆ, abundant almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August.

Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all the markings are of a dull dark grey.

The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) during May.

The Garden Pebble (Pionea forficalis)

The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country.

The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted line parallel with the hind margin.

The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.

The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn.

The Beautiful China Mark (Hydrocampa stagnata)

Our last example of the Pyralides—the Beautiful China Mark—belongs to the family HydrocampidÆ. This small family is remarkable for the fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water, feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other aquatic plants. These curious larvÆ live either in cases which they construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvÆ of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held in solution in the water.

The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during June and July.

The Pterophori

The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that has gained for them the popular name of Plume Moths. Their fore wings are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally divided into three distinct feathery plumes.

The larvÆ are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but some of them feed in the autumn.

The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly smooth.

Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter, often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months.

The Pterophori include only about forty British species, all of which, with two exceptions, belong to the family PterophoridÆ. The two exceptions represent as many families—one the ChrysocorididÆ, and the other the AlucitidÆ.

Platyptilia gonodactyla

This is one of the commonest of the PterophoridÆ, generally appearing in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.

Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the middle of the inner margin.

The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March and April.

Leioptilus osteodactylus

This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is more local than the last.

Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct plumes like those of Gonodactyla.

This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July.

Aciptilia pentadactyla

The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings are pure white, and consist of three plumes.

This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during June and July.

The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.

Alucita hexadactyla

Our last example of the Pterophori is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only British representative of the family AlucitidÆ.

This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots, flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October, and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.

The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum). It is not hairy, like most of the larvÆ of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis in a silken cocoon.

Crambi

The third group of the 'Micros' is the Crambi, and contains about eighty species, arranged in four families.

Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly distinguishable from the stems on which they repose.

The larvÆ have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits. Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the honeycomb.

The four families are:

• 1. ChilidÆ—five species.
• 2. CrambidÆ—about thirty species.
• 3. PhycidÆ—over forty species.
• 4. GalleridÆ—five species.

Chilo Phragmitellus

This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the family ChilidÆ.

Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the hind margin.

The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed (Phragmites) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring, when it resumes its feeding.

This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy places where reeds abound.

Crambus hamellus

The family CrambidÆ is represented by the above-named species, which has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth, but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage.

Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale greyish brown with a yellowish margin.

Crambus tristellus

The same family contains the species Tristellus, which, unlike the preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.

Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable. A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing, and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.

The moth flies from July to September.

Crambus hortuellus

This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June and July.

Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining surface, and the fringe is light.

The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss in April and May.

Galleria mellonella

Our last example of the Crambi is a moth that the young entomologist is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted to introduce it on that account.

It belongs to the family GalleridÆ, the larvÆ of which feed on the wax combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front segments—the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding.

The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings are greyish brown.

It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June.

The Tortrices

This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar habit of a number of the larvÆ of twisting or rolling up leaves for their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits.

The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that, when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much the shape of a bell.

The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that insects of the same species are often very different from each other. So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances.

There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even give a representative of each family, but the following outline will serve to show the extensiveness of the group.

• Family 1. TortricidÆ, about sixty species.
• " 2. PenthinidÆ, " twenty "
• " 3. SpilonotidÆ, " twelve "
• " 4. SericoridÆ, " twenty-seven species.
• " 5. SciaphilidÆ, " twenty-four "
• " 6. GrapholithidÆ, about one hundred and fifty species.
• " 7. PyraloididÆ, four species.
• " 8. ConchylidÆ, about fifty species.
• " 9. ApheliidÆ, three species.

We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of the group.

Tortrix xylosteana

This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be met with in abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs to the family TortricidÆ.

Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark oblique streak, edged with yellow, runs from the inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in the centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow on the costa, and expands as it approaches the inner margin. Beyond this are another dark patch on the costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind margin.

The larva is greenish brown, marked with white spots which have black centres; and it feeds on oak (Quercus Robur), honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), and other plants, in the month of May.

Tortrix viridana

In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be seen flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings are one uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow along the costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a single twig without being seen unless closely examined. The hind wings are of a pale smoky tint, and rather glossy.

The larva is green, with black spots, and feeds in May and June on the oak and other trees, often almost completely devouring the foliage.

Peronea cristana

This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in many of the woods of the south. It is remarkable for the large number of varieties that have been observed, many of which have been regarded as distinct species.

Its fore wings are of some shade of brown or grey, with a light streak of variable colour along the inner margin, and a tuft of raised white scales in the middle of the wing.

It flies during August and September.

Ptycholoma lecheana

Our last example of the family TortricidÆ is Lecheana, a moth that is common in most parts in June and July.

Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the base. There are no very distinct markings, but there is generally a darker patch in the middle of the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.

The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks and elms, in the month of May.

Penthina pruniana

The next family—PenthinidÆ—contains the common species Pruniana, which may be readily known by its boldly marked wings. The basal portion of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the whole, is very dark brown. The remaining third is almost white, and clouded with grey. The hind wings are smoky brown with a paler fringe.

The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) in May, and the moth flies in June and July.

Antithesia salicella

This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is fairly plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It belongs to the same family as Pruniana.

The fore wings are whitish at the base and along the inner margin, but the light tint is dotted and clouded with shades of brown. The remainder of the wings is marbled with dark brown of different depths, relieved near the hind margin with a little blue. The hind wings, as is usual with the Tortrices, are dull smoky brown.

The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds during May in rolled leaves of willows.

The moth flies in August and September.

Sciaphila octomaculana

Our single example of the family SciaphilidÆ is the species Octomaculana, which, though not very abundant, is widely distributed, and moderately common in parts.

Its fore wings are white, dusted with grey, and each is marked with four dark grey patches which have given rise to its specific name—a word which signifies 'eight-spotted.' The hind wings are grey.

The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the moth flies from August to October.

Ephippiphora cirsiana

This insect represents the family GrapholithidÆ. It is a common moth, and is widely distributed.

Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on the middle of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the anal angle, is a pale grey patch containing three or four black dots. The tips of the wings are reddish brown.

The moth flies in June and July; and the larva, which feeds on thistles, may be found in the stems from October to the following May.

Carpocapsa pomonella

The same extensive family contains a few moths that are very destructive to our fruits, the larvÆ burrowing into and living entirely within their substance. One of these—Pomonella—is popularly known as the Codlin, as its larva is so often found in the interior of small apples of the same name.

The fore wings of this insect are grey, with a number of dark transverse lines. The spot in the anal angle is edged with a coppery tint, and inclosed by a curved black line.

This moth is common in all parts, flying during June and July; and the larva may be looked for in apples and pears in August and September.

Xanthosetia zoegana

Our last example of the Tortrices is Zoegana, which belongs to the family ConchylidÆ. Its fore wings are yellow, with a reddish streak along the costa near the base, and a small reddish spot opposite this near the inner margin. The tip of the wings is dark reddish brown, in the middle of which is a large yellow spot.

This moth is widely distributed, and in some parts common. It flies from May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious (Scabiosa columbaria).

The TineÆ

We have noticed that the Tortrices form a very extensive group of moths, but they are far outnumbered by the TineÆ, for of these there are over seven hundred known British species.

Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the TineÆ form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but little difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other Micros.

The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the length of the fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies, too, are long and slender.

The larvÆ are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual number of sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen. Again, the larvÆ of several genera have only fourteen legs, and some are absolutely legless.

With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable, for while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled leaves. Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they always remain under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free to ramble in search for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the group includes the so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvÆ devour our garments, furs, and the upholstering of our furniture.

We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may become better acquainted with the general characters of the group.

Diurnea fagella

This moth represents the small family EpigraphiidÆ, containing only six species, all of which appear in the winter or early spring.

The present species is very common in most parts, and may be seen at rest on the barks of trees in March and April.

The fore wings are usually pale grey or yellowish grey, and dotted with brown; but there is a great variety both in the depth of the ground colour and the distinctness of the markings. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the insect.

The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October, always protected between leaves that it has spun together.

Adela cuprella

The family AdelidÆ contains ten species, all remarkable for the great length of their antennÆ. The one selected for illustration is a beautiful little moth with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a glossy surface.

This moth does not seem to be widely distributed, but is fairly plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest are good localities for it. It is on the wing in April and May.

Hyponomeuta Padellus

The family HyponomeutidÆ contains about twenty insects, some of which are very common and exceedingly destructive to our trees. In May and June hawthorn and fruit trees may be seen swarming with the gregarious larvÆ of some of them, and almost entirely stripped of their leaves.

The species here figured has grey or white fore wings with three rows of black dots. The hind wings are darker grey without dots.

The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect insect flies in July and August.

Depressaria nervosa

The next family—GelechiidÆ—is represented by the species Nervosa, which is common in many localities.

Its fore wings are reddish brown, and are marked by a number of short longitudinal streaks of a darker colour. The hind wings are light grey.

The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings, and having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the hemlock water dropwort (Œnanthe crocata) during June and July.

The moth flies in August and September.

Harpella Geoffrella

The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented in the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty insect. The basal portion of its fore wings is yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks, the outer one of which is bent towards the inner margin near the middle of the wing. The remaining portion of the wings is brown, with two yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and one on the inner margin. On the middle of the costa is a short dark streak.

This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very abundant in some parts.

Coleophora ibipennella

The family ColeophoridÆ contains about seventy small moths, characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long fringes, and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint of the antennÆ.

The larvÆ live in little cases which they construct, and feed on various leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their cases, and change to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.

One of these moths—Ibipennella—is shown in fig. 239. Its fore wings are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the tips. The 'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The hind wings are dark grey.

The larva feeds on the birch (Betula alba), and may be seen walking on the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging after it, the pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding save its head and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth flies in July.

Tischeria complanella

This species represents the rather extensive family ElachistidÆ, the members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of them are adorned with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally so small that a lens is necessary to show up the splendour of their clothing. Most of the larvÆ are leaf miners, and are easily reared. All that is necessary is to pluck a few twigs, the leaves of which, when held up to the light, reveal the tiny larvÆ in their burrows, and place them in a vessel of water. They do not feed long, and it is probable that most of the larvÆ so treated will be ready to change before the leaves have become dry. The present species has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey cloudings at the hind margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and flies during the month of June.

The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a yellowish colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and its presence is indicated by light blotches on the foliage.

Nepticula aurella

The family NepticulidÆ—the last of the TineÆ—contains a number of little moths, including the smallest of the Lepidoptera. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with various tints of a splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed only by the use of a magnifying lens, and they are so small that very great care and patience is required to set them properly.

They may be recognised by their short and thick antennÆ, rather large head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind wings.

The larvÆ have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very imperfectly developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are sometimes so abundant that several may be found in a single leaf.

The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden brown, with deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow beyond the middle. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The larva excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves of the bramble.

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