Suffocation may be defined, the destruction of life by the suspension of the function of respiration, occasioned by external violence. Unless we add “by external violence” we shall perceive that the definition would be far too comprehensive; and the term Suffocation would be made to embrace a much wider range of subjects than its popular acceptation would allow. If the physiological views be correct which we have adopted and explained in the foregoing section, “On the causes and phenomena of sudden death,” we should be compelled, without such a protecting adjunct, to include under the history of Suffocation, not only the phenomena of Drowning, Strangling, Hanging, Smothering, and noxious inhalation, but even those of Apoplexy, fatal Intoxication, and various diseases of the brain and spinal marrow, together with the effects of a great proportion of Poisons; for by such agents death is undoubtedly occasioned through the failure of the respiratory functions.

In Death from Suffocation the heart continues to pulsate for several minutes after the breathing has entirely ceased, in consequence of which the blood which passes through the pulmonary vessels no longer receives the influence of oxygen, and therefore black blood circulates; the brain, it would appear, soon feels the want of the florid arterial stream, by which alone its energies can be maintained. Bichat has shewn that when dark coloured blood is injected into the vessels of the brain, by means of a syringe connected with the carotid artery, the functions of the brain become immediately disturbed, and, in a short time, entirely cease; the effect is precisely similar, whether the dark coloured blood be transmitted to the brain by the syringe of the experimentalist, or by the heart itself. It is not until after the full effects of the suspended respiration are thus produced on the brain, that the motions of the heart become enfeebled, and that the ventricles contract less powerfully, and at longer intervals; at length, the action of the heart is altogether arrested, and if the thorax be examined at the instant that the circulation has ceased, nothing is observed, except a slight tremulous motion of the auricles; the cavities of the left side are much contracted, and contain only a small quantity of blood, while the right auricle and ventricle, and the large vessels communicating with them, are distended to an unusual size. This state of the heart, it will be observed, is very different from that which we have described as constantly occurring after Syncope. In the contemplation of these phoenomena, a question very naturally suggests itself in regard to the probable interval which elapses between the cessation of respiration, and the consequent failure of the heart’s action; in other words, it may be asked, how long can the heart support its contractions without the aid of respiration? It would appear that this interval not only varies in duration in different animals, but even in the same animal under different circumstances, such as that of age,^[25] capacity of the thorax, quantity of air in the lungs, state of the stomach, and general vigour of the animal; but in man, under the most favourable circumstances, it is extremely doubtful whether the heart ever continues to pulsate for so long a period as five minutes^[26] after the lungs have ceased to perform their office; and it is very questionable whether, in most instances, the interval is not considerably shorter than this.

It was formerly believed that Asphyxia^[27] from drowning, always depended upon the lungs and intestinal canal being filled with water;^[28] whereas it is hardly necessary to observe that it alone depends upon the blood, in consequence of the suspension of breathing, ceasing to possess the qualities which are essential to the preservation of life. M. Gauteron immersed a dog for more than a quarter of an hour, without inflicting the least injury, having previously inserted a long tube in the trachea, which was kept elevated during the experiment above the surface of the water.

If a small animal be immersed in water, contained in a transparent glass vessel, the phenomena of drowning are readily discernible; there is first a deep expiration, by which bubbles of air are expelled from the lungs; there is then an effort to inspire, but the effort is ineffectual; there being no air which can be received into the lungs, and a spasm of the muscles of the glottis seems to forbid the admission of any considerable quantity of water into the trachea. The attempts to breathe are repeated several times, and at each attempt at expiration a small proportion of air is expelled from the mouth and nostrils, until the air-cells of the lungs are almost emptied;^[29] then the animal becomes insensible; and convulsive action of the voluntary muscles mark the instant when the brain begins to suffer from the influx of the dark coloured venous blood. After the cessation of these convulsive actions, the animal becomes motionless, and gives no sign of life; but if the hand be applied to the thorax, the actions of the heart, gradually becoming fainter and fainter, indicate that some remains of vitality still linger in the system. Before the circulation of the blood altogether ceases, the muscles of respiration once more resume their actions, and ineffectual efforts are made to breathe. It is a remarkable circumstance that the diaphragm continues to exert itself nearly as long as the heart itself, and that the interval between the cessation of the motions of the diaphragm and that of the motions of the heart, which is so short in animals that die by strangulation, is still shorter in those who perish by drowning.^[30] These phenomena follow each other in rapid succession, and the whole scene is closed, and the living animal is converted into a lifeless corpse, incapable of recovery, in the brief space of a few moments, (Brodie’s Manuscript Notes). If however the animal be taken out of the water before the total extinction of life, and the diaphragm contract afterwards, so as to draw air into the lungs before the action of the heart has ceased, the circulation is maintained, and the animal continues to respire; he will thus have escaped immediate death from suffocation; but his life still remains in jeopardy, for there is a second period of danger, and one at which death may take place, when we are the least prepared to expect it; for the dark coloured blood which has been transmitted through the circulatory system, during the suspension of respiration, would seem to act like a narcotic poison upon the brain; no sooner therefore does it enter that organ, but deleterious effects are produced, the animal at first falls into a state of stupor, the pupils of the eyes become dilated, the respiration laborious, the muscles of the body convulsed, and the animal dies, poisoned by its own blood.

The body of a person who has died from drowning exhibits a physiognomy which it is important to notice. The whole surface is distinguished by a remarkable coldness and pallor; the eyes are half open, and their pupils considerably dilated; the tongue is pushed forward to the internal edges of the lips, and sometimes wounded; and the mouth and nostrils are covered with foam. At other times, instead of a pallid visage, we have one that is swelled, and bloated with livid blood.

Upon dissection we shall perceive the vessels of the brain more or less gorged with blood;^[31] in the trachea a watery and bloody froth will be found; the lungs will appear expanded, full of frothy mucus, and, generally, livid; the right cavities of the heart gorged with blood, the left nearly empty; and it has been sometimes noticed that the blood remains fluid^[32], and follows after every incision by the scalpel. The stomach will generally be found to contain some water. Hebenstreit also states, that since in the act of drowning the person dies on an inspiration, the diaphragm is necessarily found convex, or bent towards the abdomen; this statement however is erroneous.

Upon these appearances we have a few observations to offer, especially as they have given origin to some important questions; and first, with respect to the presence of water in the stomach and lungs, than which few indications, connected with the subject of drowning, have given occasion to greater controversy.^[33] For since it hath been observed that water is rarely found in the stomach or lungs of a person who has been submerged after death, it was inferred that the presence of that fluid in these organs necessarily proved that the individual must have been plunged into the water during life. As a general proposition this may be admitted as correct, although it is liable to certain exceptions with which the medical jurist ought to be acquainted; we may, for instance, suppose a case, in which the submerged person may be so plunged at once under water, as to have been suffocated without his previously coming to the surface, and when asphyxia has taken place, the powers of deglutition, on which the presence of water in the stomach wholly depends, are at an end; or we may suppose that the party in question faints from terror; a remarkable instance of this kind is quoted by FoderÈ,^[34] from Plater, of a young woman, who having been condemned to be drowned for infanticide, fainted at the moment she was plunged in the water, and having remained for a quarter of an hour under its surface, recovered after being drawn out.^[35]

With respect to the presence of water in the bronchiÆ and lungs, we may observe that, in the violent struggles of a drowning man, a certain portion of water generally passes the epiglottis; and being immediately mixed with the air and mucus of the trachea, constitutes that frothy mucus, which we have described as being so highly characteristic of this species of violent death; although we are not to conclude with Larrey, that it is the immediate cause of dissolution in such cases. The quantity of water, however, thus forced into the pulmonary structure, is extremely small, for its entrance is powerfully opposed by a spasm of the muscles of the glottis;^[36] were it to occur in any considerable quantity, and to appear in its fluid state, instead of that of froth, the influence would clearly be, that it had passed in after death.

Although the presence of this frothy matter must be considered as a strong presumptive proof that the person found in the water had perished by drowning, the converse of this proposition is by no means established by the absence of such an indication.

The buoyancy of the human body is another point in the history of Drowning, which has occasioned much discussion; and in solving the problem, so highly important in its forensic relations, whether a body found in the water, had been drowned, or thrown in after death, it has been considered by some physiologists as capable of affording a certain degree of presumptive evidence, although we are inclined to attach but little or no importance to such an indication. The specific gravity of the human body, under ordinary circumstances, is very little greater than that of fresh water, so small indeed is the difference that, when the lungs are inflated, a man will float^[37] with little or no effort, if he have sufficient self possession, and does not attempt to raise too great a portion of his body out of the sustaining fluid;^[38] but, when the air of the lungs is expelled, and probably, at the same time, a certain quantity of water is taken into the stomach,^[39] the body becomes specifically heavier, and the victim sinks. It may be assumed as a general rule, that no newly drowned body floats, although many facts have been adduced in support of a contrary opinion; the naval custom of loading the dead bodies with weights, before they are consigned to a watery grave, is not for the purpose of sinking the corpse, but for preventing its rising after the process of putrefaction has commenced. The period during which a body will remain at the bottom cannot be very accurately determined, as the change does not take place until a sufficient quantity of air be generated to buoy it again to the surface; in the melancholy instance of the loss of the Royal George, the dead bodies were observed ascending to the surface of the sea, on or about the fifth day. The general position of a body which has thus risen, provided there be no external or adventitious circumstances to change it, is such, that it floats nearly immersed, the face, arms, and legs hanging downwards, and the loins being uppermost; this is the form which the body must mechanically and hydrostatically assume, if the sustaining power of generated air be, as it generally will, in the cavity of the abdomen, where putrefaction is more likely to commence; for the head and limbs are generally^[40] specifically heavier than water, while the trunk, especially if inflated with air, is somewhat lighter.

It has been said that a position, different from that which we have just described, will take place where the person has been strangled, and the body then thrown into the water; for in this latter case, it is contended, that the lungs will be distended with air, and that consequently, the sustaining power must be in the thorax; in support of this opinion the story of the appearance of Caraccioli^[41], Admiral of the Neapolitan navy, has been ingeniously adduced; this unfortunate man was hanged in pursuance of the sentence of a court martial, and his body was committed to the deep in the usual manner; thirteen days after which, while the King of Sicily was walking on the deck of Lord Nelson’s ship, he suddenly exclaimed with a yell of horror—“Vien! Viene!”—The Admiral’s corpse, breast high, was seen floating towards the ship; the shot that had been attached to the feet for the purpose of sinking it, not being sufficiently heavy. This may perhaps be explained by supposing that the corpse was stiff before it was immersed, in which case, the centre of gravity being exceedingly low on account of the shot tied to the feet, he must have floated upright, wherever the buoyant power from generated air might be situated. At all events, we feel no hesitation in at once rejecting the proposition, for the support of which it has been brought forward; the fact is that, in relation to gaseous contents, the lungs are the same in strangled, as in drowned persons; for in both cases a quantity of air is forcibly expelled from them before dissolution.

2. BY HANGING:

The suspension of a person by means of a cord, or some other ligature, round the neck, by which death is produced by closing the trachea, and preventing respiration.

Although we are in this case bound to admit that the immediate cause of death is suffocation, yet we cannot deny that other injuries are often produced by hanging, such as

1. Pressure on the Vessels.—The red and livid hue of the face of persons killed by hanging, very naturally induced a belief that Apoplexy^[42] was the immediate cause of death; while it is evident that the pressure on the jugular veins must necessarily so prevent the return of blood to the heart, as to produce an accumulation in the vessels of the brain: Dr. Hooper has a preparation of the brain of an executed criminal, in which blood is seen extravasated among the membranes; and various other cases have occurred, where dissection has clearly demonstrated the existence of those vascular congestions and sanguineous effusions, upon which apoplexy is supposed to depend; but this merely goes to prove that apoplexy occasionally takes place from hanging; it does not establish the fact of its being the common cause of death on such occasions.^[43] Gregory made the following experiment to shew that it is to the interception of air that death is to be attributed; after having opened the trachea of a dog he passed a slip knot round the neck, above the wound; the animal, though hanged, continued to live and respire, the air was alternately admitted and easily expelled through the small opening; but as soon as the constriction was made below the orifice, the animal perished. Mr. Brodie hanged a dog, and as soon as it became insensible, the trachea was opened below the ligature, upon which he breathed, and his sensibility returned.

2. Pressure on the Nerves of the Neck. Although the pressure of a ligature on the nerves of the neck cannot be considered as the immediate cause of death in hanging, yet Mr. Brodie has very justly observed, that if the animal recovers of the direct consequence of the strangulation, he may probably suffer from the effects of the ligature upon the nerves afterwards. Mr. Brodie passed a ligature under the trachea of a Guinea pig, and tied it tight on the back of the neck with a knot; the animal was uneasy, but nevertheless breathed and moved about; at the end of fifteen minutes the ligature was removed; on the following morning, however, the animal was found dead. On dissection no preternatural appearances were discovered in the brain, but the lungs were dark and turgid with blood, and presented an appearance similar to that which is observed after the division of the nerves of the eighth pair; I do not, observes Mr. Brodie (Manuscript Notes) positively conclude from this experiment that the animal died from an injury inflicted upon the nerves of the eighth pair, but I think that such a conclusion is highly probable; and it becomes an object of inquiry whether a patient having recovered from hanging, may not, in some instances, die afterwards from the injury of the par vagum.

3. Fracture of the Spine, and Dislocation of the Neck. The death of a hanged person may occasionally take place by the luxation of the cervical vertebrÆ, and the consequent injury of the spinal marrow; this effect will be more likely to happen in heavy persons, and where the culprit suffers on a drop that precipitates him from a considerable height. It is said that Louis discovered that of the two executioners in Paris and Lyons, one dispatched the criminal condemned to be hanged by luxating the head on the neck, whilst those who perished by the hands of the other were completely strangled.

An animal, when first suspended, is observed to make repeated but ineffectual attempts to inspire; violent convulsions of the whole body then ensue, but which are not to be considered as the indications of suffering, for they arise in consequence of the dark coloured blood having reached the brain and spinal marrow; and the animal at this period is necessarily insensible; hanging does not occasion a painful death.^[44]

The lips, nose, and all those parts in which the hue of the blood can be observed, exhibit a dark colour; the countenance is distorted, the eyes protruded, and frequently suffused with blood, the tongue is also forced out of the mouth, and sometimes wounded, although it has been observed that this phenomenon will entirely depend upon the position of the rope, for that when it presses above the thyroid gland the tongue will be pushed back, in consequence of a compression upon the os hyoides, whereas if the pressure be applied under the cricoid cartilage it will have the effect of thrusting out the tongue. Blood is sometimes discharged from the ears. It is not unusual for the sufferer to void his urine, fÆces, and even semen, in articulo mortis. The fingers are usually bent, the nails blue, and the hands nearly closed; and the whole physiognomy exhibits a highly characteristic appearance.

The dissection of a hanged person exhibits the same phenomena as those described under the history of drowning, with the exception of the absence of water in the bronchiÆ. With respect to the quantity of air found in the lungs, much discrepancy of opinion has existed. Dr. Goodwyn, in his experiments on respiration, found that the lungs of a person who had died from hanging, contained double the quantity of gaseous contents of those who had died a natural death. This result, however, is certainly not correct; for there is always, as we have already stated, a very forcible expulsion of air from the lungs in the act of strangulation, and they are accordingly found almost empty after death. Mr. Coleman hanged an animal, and then secured the trachea by a ligature, and removed the lungs; when, upon receiving their gaseous contents in the hydro-pneumatic apparatus, he found their quantity was very far less than that which would have been collected under other circumstances.

3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION.

Whether strangulation be induced by the suspension of the body by the neck, or by a ligature drawn tight, or by any other pressure upon the trachea, the physiological phenomena of death are the same; where, however, the person has died from manual strangulation, the marks about the neck will probably be more evident, and the discolouration will correspond with the marks of the fingers and nails; and we may also expect to find traces of violence upon the chest, for since the weight of the body is not obtained in such a case, additional force becomes necessary to consummate the fatal act. On opening the bodies of those who have been taken off by manual strangulation, Dr. Smith thinks that the usual appearances of this kind of death may not seem so conclusive as in other cases: an opinion in which we feel inclined to coincide; for in consequence of the greater resistance of the sufferer, the functions of respiration and circulation may continue in some measure for a longer period than in drowning or hanging, which must be considered as more summary processes of suffocation. In the case of a woman who had been thus strangled by two men, Littre found the tympanum of the left ear lacerated, whence flowed about an ounce of blood; the vessels of the brain were unusually turgid, red blood was extravasated in the ventricles, as well as at the base of the cranium; the lungs were distended and their membrane vascular; not more, however, than an ounce of blood was found in the right ventricle of the heart, and it was fluid and frothy, like that in the lungs; this circumstance deserves particular notice, and can only be explained by supposing that the respiration and circulation were not at once arrested, but that the unhappy sufferer was enabled to inhale air, at intervals, during the protracted struggle^[45]; and yet in certain cases, death may be very easily occasioned by manual strangulation, of which the murder of Dr. Clench, in the year 1692, may be adduced as an example; this gentleman was strangled in a hackney coach by two men, while driving about the streets of the city, without the coachman having the slightest knowledge of the transaction, until he afterwards found him quite dead, kneeling down with his head on the seat, and a handkerchief bound about his neck, in which was a piece of coal, placed just over the windpipe.^[46]

4. BY SMOTHERING.

In this act the transit of the air into the lungs is prevented by forcibly closing the nostrils and mouth. It is very obvious that such a mode of destruction can very rarely occur in an adult; for a comparatively feeble resistance will be sufficient to overcome the assailant in such an attempt. It may, however, occur accidentally; it is not difficult to imagine that a person, in a fit of intoxication, may be unable to extricate himself from a position in which he might fall, and in which respiration could not be performed. In children this mode of suffocation is less rare, and it may be either the result of design or accident, to which we shall have occasion to refer, when treating the subject of Infanticide.

5. BY THE INHALATION OF AIR DEPRIVED OF OXYGEN.

There are many gases, the inspiration of which occasions death; some of these act simply by excluding oxygen, while others exert an absolutely deleterious action in consequence of the specific powers which they possess. It is exclusively to the first species that our attention is at present to be directed; the latter will constitute matter for future consideration, under the title of AËrial Poisons.

It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, that oxygen is the only principle which is capable of producing the necessary changes in the blood, during its transmission through the lungs; and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is deprived of this principle, it is no longer capable of supporting life, and the animal immersed in it instantly dies. It is thus that death takes place from exposure to the fumes of charcoal^[47], to those of lime-kilns, to the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, and dungeons.^[48]

The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common sewers, depends upon a different cause, and will be considered under the head of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, in the history of poisons.

The fatal effects of confined air in a small and crowded room, were fully exemplified in the year 1742, when twenty persons were crammed in a part of St. Martin’s round-house called the hole, during the night, several of whom died; the surgeons on that occasion gave it as their opinion, that when the doors and windows were shut, the place could not support twenty persons for three hours without danger of their lives. A trial took place at the Old Bailey in consequence; but we have not been more successful than Dr. Gordon Smith in our search for its report. The medical jurist would be called upon, on such an occasion, for his opinion as to the nature of the deteriorated air, the causes of its accumulation, and whether it was adequate to the production of the alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences might not have been averted by judicious caution, or active exertion. The most awful exemplification of the fatal effects of confined air is, however, recorded in the interesting narrative of what happened to the English in the black hole at Calcutta; and which we shall briefly relate in this place; as it involves some physiological phenomena to which we shall hereafter have occasion to refer.

It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy of Bengal laid siege to Fort William, the English factory at Calcutta. Mr. Holwell, assisted by the factors and the garrison, defended this post with extreme bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. There were at this time remaining in the fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one woman. The whole of this unfortunate company, many of whom were wounded, and several very dangerously, were shut up the same night in a small prison only eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now better known in England by the name of the black hole, was enclosed by strong walls, and had only two small windows at one end, secured by iron grates. In this confined situation, which allowed only a space of about eighteen square inches to each individual, the heat and want of fresh air soon excited the most horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of despair, began by attempting to force open the door, but in this they were unsuccessful. Mr. Holwell, who was placed near one of the windows, was more at his ease than the rest, and was consequently more cool and tranquil; and he recommended his companions to be quiet and orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts. This advice produced some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans of the wounded and the dying. The heat increased every moment. Mr. Holwell recommended them to strip off their cloaths, as a means of acquiring more space; this was accordingly done, but with no great relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning the air with their hats, but even this was too painful a task for men who were worn out by the fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. Another of the company was for their kneeling down, that they might have more air. They all readily agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to avoid confusion. This was done several times, but every time the signal was given to rise, the number of those who had strength enough to obey it diminished. There were constantly some remaining on the floor, who were unable to get up, and these were trodden to death by the survivors. All this happened during the first hour of their imprisonment. At nine o’clock in the evening they began to complain of excessive thirst, and to renew their efforts to open the prison door, and to tempt the centinels to fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest from the window became at once furiously delirious. The cry for water was unanimous. The guards brought water, and Holwell and two of his wounded friends received it at the window in their hats, and were going to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and tumultuous were the efforts of the crowd to get at this water, that Holwell’s two friends were suffocated, the water was spilt, and Holwell saw himself surrounded with dead bodies, who had either been crushed to death, or died for want of fresh air.

Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these unfortunate people, had been treated with some degree of respect, but now all distinction began to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw themselves towards the windows, and seizing the iron bars, some of them got even upon his shoulders. He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as to be deprived of all power of motion; he implored the pity of those who were upon his head and his shoulders, and requested them to let him go and die at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily complied with, every one was desirous of succeeding to his place, and without much difficulty he reached the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of these unhappy people were already dead, and they who were still alive pressed so eagerly towards the windows, that Holwell found himself somewhat freer in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that his breathing soon became extremely difficult and painful. Unable therefore to support this, he attempted once more to make his way to the windows; and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved to wait patiently for death. In this situation he remained about ten minutes, and then he experienced such a pain of the breast, and so violent a palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make one more attempt towards getting a less fatal air. There were five rows of his companions between himself and the window; his despair carried him through four of these. The palpitation of his heart now began to abate, but he felt inexpressible thirst, and cried out for water; but the water seemed to increase instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved to drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture from his shirt, which seemed to afford him some relief. A young man quite naked, who stood before him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for some moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. It was not yet midnight. The small number of those who were left, were transported to the greatest excess of rage and despair. They all called aloud for air, because the water that had been brought to them afforded no relief. Soon after this the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who were living laid themselves down, deprived of all their strength, and peaceably breathed their last. Others aimed at getting into Holwell’s situation; a Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a black soldier on the other. In this situation he remained till two in the morning, when he gave up his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out of it by the Dutchman. The officer retired with Holwell to the other corner of the prison, and in a few moments afterwards died. Holwell himself was soon deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we have no account of what passed. One of those who remained alive, at five in the morning, drew forth Holwell from the heap of dead, and found in him some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired whether he was still alive; he was told, that if the door was immediately opened, it would, perhaps, be possible to recover him, and orders were accordingly given for this purpose. But the door of the prison opened inwards, and they who were within it, and living, were deprived of all their strength, so that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the dead bodies were removed, which prevented the door from being opened.

At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of this melancholy dungeon three and twenty persons, the remains of the hundred and forty-six who had entered it on the preceding evening.

Upon the events thus related we have to remark, that no advice could be more judicious than that given by Holwell to his companions in the early part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts.” Nor can we imagine any measure more calculated to increase the sufferings of their situation than that which was subsequently proposed, and adopted, by another of the company, “to fan the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been satisfactorily established by physiological researches, that the demand for oxygen, in an animal body, will be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular exertions.^[49] Whenever, therefore, circumstances may render a supply of air deficient, we shall best economise that which we possess by perfect quiet. Lavoisier says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances, consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen in an hour, but he found that if he is engaged in raising weights the consumption is at the rate of 3200 in the hour.

Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation of oxygen than adults; and in some cases on record, life has been destroyed by circumstances that we should have a priori considered as hardly adequate to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who was suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly blown out a candle, and held the smoaking wick under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic investigated the circumstances, and declared the death to have taken place in consequence of suffocation. (Valentini Pand: Med: Legal: Sect: 2.)

6. BY OTHER MODES, NOT INCLUDED IN THE FOREGOING SECTIONS.

We have already stated that if the muscles of respiration be paralysed, the animal can no longer breathe; and it dies in a state of suffocation. There are several mechanical modes by which such a condition may be produced; a person buried in a heap of ruins, although his head should be free, will perish from the pressure of the surrounding rubbish preventing the due action of the respiratory muscles. It was in this way that criminals who obstinately refused to plead, often died under the pressure of the weights that were heaped upon their bodies.^[50].

There is a mode of suffocation, described by Galen, as being practised by the slaves when brought into the presence of the judges or executioners; it consisted in swallowing their tongue, by which it is said they voluntarily terminated their own existence. Several more modern authors have noticed this incredible mode of suicide, as one that is resorted to by negroes: now to confute such an idea, we have only to shew the attachment of the muscles of this part, and the motions which they permit; equally absurd is it to suppose with other physiologists, that persons can occasion suffocation by a voluntary suspension of their breathing; for if such an attempt were even made, the effort would be ended when self-possession was once lost, for then the impulse of nature must instantly triumph over any struggle to oppose it. We are not, however, prepared to say that such an attempt might not, in certain cases, occasion such a cerebral congestion as to produce apoplexy.

The last cause of suffocation which we have to mention is mechanical obstruction, from the entrance of foreign bodies into the aperture of the glottis; instances of this kind are too numerous and familiar to require many observations: it is thus that Anacreon is said to have perished from a grape-seed; Gilbert, the poet, terminated his existence in a similar manner; he was a man of great appetite, and in the midst of a festival went into a neighbouring room, but did not return to the great surprise of his convivial companions. He was found stretched on a couch without any signs of life. The assistance administered by his kind but uninformed friends was useless; on opening the body a small piece of mutton was found, that had stopped at the entrance of the larynx, and completely prevented the passage of air into this organ. In Oct. 1821, two inquisitions were taken at Mildenhall, before the Coroner of Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk; in the one case it appeared that John Harris had eaten some honey, from the honey-comb, and that a bee, having been concealed in it, entered the glottis, and occasioned almost immediate death by suffocation; the other case was that of an infant, Mary Bacon, who fell with her face upon a quantity of slacked lime, when a particle of it getting into the wind-pipe, produced inflammation of the lungs, and sloughing of the trachea, of which she died. We have no doubt but that persons, during the state of intoxication, or that of a spasmodic paroxysm, have often perished from suffocation, when the death has been attributed to other causes; if the stomach should reject its contents during a state of insensibility^[51], such an occurrence is by no means unlikely. We have lately received the history of a case of this description, which occurred in the St. James’s workhouse, and fell under the particular notice of Mr. Alcock. The patient was seized after a hearty meal of pork with an epileptic fit, during which he died; when upon opening the trachea, it was found to contain a quantity of animal matter resembling the pork upon which he had recently dined.