Louis Figuier

The Raptores enjoy a greater amount of public notoriety than almost any other birds, although they are of little or no service to us, and possess infinitely fewer claims to our interest than a multitude of other winged creatures. The audacity and courage by which several species are distinguished, the marvellous stories to which their exploits have given rise, and the superstitious terror caused by their appearance may help to explain the reason of their popularity. Poets and novel-writers, in order to characterise their heroes, have often inspired them with the qualities or defects of some of the Rapacious birds. They have made the Eagle a type of nobility, strength, and valour; the Vulture the incarnation of cowardly and unclean cruelty. The Owl, with its staring aspect and noiseless flight, has become with them a bird of ill omen; its doleful hoot echoing through the shades of night, over the house of sickness, is an infallible prediction of death. These superstitions have had considerable influence upon popular imagination, and have thus passed into habitual use in conversation.

The Rapacious order is characterised by a very strong, hooked, and sharp-edged bill, which is furnished at its base with a membrane called the cere—it is generally of a yellow colour, and upon it the nostrils open; strong legs, covered with feathers; four toes, three in front and one behind, which are usually very flexible, and provided with crooked and retractile talons, often possessed of considerable strength. Their powers of vision are very great, and they are marvellously organised for flight; their long and vigorous wings enabling them to hover in the highest regions of the air, and to travel over immense distances in an incredibly short space of time.

Their generic name sufficiently indicates that they live only by rapine, and are naturally plunderers and bloodthirsty. They correspond, in the class of Birds, with the Carnivora among Mammalia. Like them, they live on animals, either dead or living; like them, too, they possess the strength and adroitness which are necessary to satisfy their sanguinary appetites.

With her ever-admirable foresight Nature has wisely limited the reproduction of these destructive creatures—the largest only lay two eggs a year; the others, on an average, five or six. It is a singular thing that the female is often nearly a third bigger than the male; hence the name of "tarsel," given to the latter in certain species.

The Raptores present none of the grace and charming prattle of other races of birds. They enjoy no powers of song; their sole utterance consists either of harsh cries or strange and plaintive modulations. Their plumage, which is nearly always of a sombre colour, is sad and monotonous in its appearance. Destruction is the sole object of their existence; they are the terror of all the rest of the feathered creation, among which they every day make numerous victims. They live alone, or in couples, in the most deserted places; it is only exceptionally that they gather together in flocks, and then merely to devour in common some putrid carrion. They are of a despotic and combative temperament, and will not suffer any rivals in their neighbourhood. They practise absolutism in its strictest form, and reign as lords and masters in the districts which they choose for their territory.

The Raptores are met with over the whole surface of the globe; the larger species inhabit lofty mountains, or seek a hiding-place in the face of inaccessible and solitary cliffs.

This order is divided into two sub-orders, the Nocturnal and the Diurnal. This division is a very rational one, for it is founded on dissimilarity of habits, which is owing to a difference of organisation.

Nocturnal Birds or Prey.

Nocturnal birds of prey are distinguished by large staring eyes, directed straight in front, and surrounded by a circle of slender and stiff feathers, which, by their circular radiation round the face, form a nearly complete disk, to which the name of facial disk has been given; by the large development of their head; by very short bills, devoid of cere, which is replaced by a plain skin covered with hairs; by tarsi feathered down to the claws; by the mobility of the outside toe, which can be turned either forwards or backwards; by very strong, sharp, and retractile claws; by abundant and soft plumage; and by tails which are generally short.

But the original characteristic of these birds, and that which has contributed to their union in one group, is their inability to bear the light of mid-day, and the faculty they possess of being able to see in twilight, owing to the pupils of their eyes having enormous powers of dilation. They therefore remain hidden in their retreats while the sun is high, and do not begin to hunt until the luminary has approached the horizon, when they are able to distinguish with surprising clearness the objects on which they prey.

We are not, however, bound to believe that these birds can see in the midst of perfect darkness. When the night is thoroughly obscure they again become subject to the law common to all. The epithet of "nocturnal," which is applied to them, is, therefore, not strictly accurate, and must not be taken literally. They manifest the greatest amount of activity when the moon diffuses her light over the earth; then it is that they revel in their destructive instincts, levying a heavy tax on all weaker animal life.

The Raptores have the sense of hearing strongly developed, owing to the large cavities existing in their skulls, which communicate with the internal ear, and thus increase the capacity of this organ.

Their plumage is streaked with diversely-arranged markings, and is quite as soft and delicate as the down of fledglings. These peculiarities are probably owing to the special conditions of their existence. Constantly deprived as they are of the rays of the sun, the action of which upon colour of plumage cannot be doubted, they are not arrayed in those splendid hues which clothe diurnal birds of tropical regions.

Owing to the structure and nature of their feathers, nocturnal birds of prey fly without making the least noise. They can, therefore, pounce unawares on their victims, seizing them before they have any idea of necessity for escape. When they lay hold of their prey it is immediately devoured—an easy matter on account of the enormous expansion of their bills. Their stomach afterwards separates the indigestible parts, such as bones, hair, and feathers, and when these are rolled together in the shape of a ball or pellet, they are ejected by vomiting. Diurnal birds of prey which subsist on living animals possess the same power.

With the exception of the Barn Owl, nocturnal birds of prey all lay eggs of a spherical shape. They live in couples, only assembling in flocks at the epoch of migration; they never, however, hunt in common. They do not build any nest, but deposit their eggs in cavities in old trunks of trees or ruined habitations. They exhale a disagreeable and unwholesome smell, which is no doubt owing to their exclusively animal diet.

A nocturnal bird of prey, unless forced, never comes out of its lurking-place during day. When compelled by circumstances to do so, it is assailed by all the Passerines of the neighbourhood, which resent its intrusion, and avenge the oppression exercised over them during the night, by combined attacks. It places itself in the strangest postures, ruffles up its feathers, and balances its head with a stupid look, making its bill crack, when so assaulted. It does not, however, try to defend itself, and passively receives the blows of its feathered enemies, which do it but little harm. This natural antipathy of small birds for their nocturnal destroyers has been taken advantage of for purposes of sport. The method of catching birds by calling is founded upon it. Imitating the voice of an Owl, the birds flock together and perch on the trees or bushes in the suspected neighbourhood, where twigs covered with birdlime have been abundantly scattered. This operation must take place about an hour before sunset; if later, it would not be successful. This way of catching birds was in use in the days of antiquity, for Aristotle has given us a description of it.

The Owl has given rise to more fables and prejudices than any living creature, doubtless in consequence of its peculiarities. Although inoffensive in general, and even useful—for they destroy a large quantity of rats and mice—in the rural districts nocturnal birds of prey have occasioned so much superstition and terror, that they have been hunted down with the utmost animosity.

The Greeks dedicated the Owl to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, no doubt on account of the calm and grave attitude which distinguishes it, and gives it the air of a philosopher meditating on the problems of life.

Mr. Swainson divides Owls into three groups—namely, Typical Owls, Horned Owls, and Hawk Owls; for simplicity and brevity we prefer making only two families—namely, those with horns and those without.

Horned Owls.

Horned Owls are distinguished by two tufts or horns of feathers placed on each side of their head. They are subdivided into three genera—the Great Horned Owls, the Long-eared Owls, and Small Horned Owls.

The Common Great Owl (Bubo maximus), Fig. 274, is the most remarkable of the family on account of its size and strength. Its height is, on an average, two feet, and it is justly acknowledged as the king of nocturnal birds. Its bill and claws are of a black colour, very strong and hooked. Its plumage is russet, variegated with black spots and brown stripes; its wings, when extended, are not less than five feet across. Its eyes are large and fixed, with black pupils surrounded with yellow. It bears light with less inconvenience than the other nocturnal birds, and therefore goes out sooner in the evening and returns home later in the morning. This bird makes its home among the clefts of rocks, or in the recesses of old towers situated on the mountains, which elevated ground it but rarely leaves to descend into the plain. Its cry, huibou, houhou, bouhou, ouhou, resounding in the silence of the night, is a source of terror to those animals which form its prey. It feeds principally upon hares, rabbits, moles, rats, and mice. Now and then, and especially when rearing its young, which are very voracious, it devours toads, frogs, and small reptiles.

Fig. 274.—Great Owl (Strix bubo, Linn.).

The Great Owl is very courageous, and often has battles with the Tawny Eagle, from which it frequently comes off with honour. The fight is sometimes so severe that it terminates in the death of both combatants.

M. Bailly relates that he was told, by reliable witnesses, that an Eagle and Great Owl, which were fighting together in the mountains of Savoy, drove their claws so deep into one another's flesh that they could not withdraw them, so both died from their wounds on the scene of action. In a similar fight near Zurich a Great Owl, which was the conqueror, was so fastened to its adversary that they fell to the ground together, and, being unable to disengage its talons, was in consequence taken alive.

When wounded so as to be unable to fly, and attacked by dogs, the Great Owl will sell its life as dearly as possible; for, turning upon its back, with open claws and menacing bill it presents an appearance to its enemies which is enough to make the bravest shrink from the assault.

In spite of this combative temperament, the Great Owl easily becomes tame; it knows its name, and comes at the call of its master. Perfect liberty may then be safely allowed it, as it will remain in the neighbourhood of its home, returning at meal-times. Frisch relates that he twice kept birds of this kind, and that they lived for a considerable time; he fed them on ox-flesh and liver. They would sometimes swallow as many as five mice without stopping, having first broken their bones with blows from their bills. In case of necessity they would eat fish. Some hours after taking their food, they ejected the bones and hair of their victims. Instances have been known, however, in which this Owl would not submit to confinement.

The Great Owl is possessed of the strongest attachment to its young. M. Cronstedt, a Swiss gentleman, lived for several years on a farm situated at the foot of a mountain, on the top of which a couple of Great Owls built their nest. The servants caught and shut up in a hen-house one of the young birds, which the thirst for rapine had doubtless impelled prematurely to leave the maternal abode. The next morning they were surprised to find at the door of the hen-house a freshly-killed Partridge. The idea was that the parent birds, attracted by the cries of the young Owl, had thus provided for its sustenance. The same thing occurred fourteen days running. M. Cronstedt, wishing to come to a right understanding on the matter, watched during several nights in order to surprise the hen bird in this act of maternal love. But he failed, probably because the bird, thanks to its penetrating sight, took advantage to leave her offspring's provisions at a moment when his attention was diverted. These parental duties ceased in the month of August, when the young bird became capable of providing for itself.

The Great Owl inhabits Europe and Asia, but is common in Switzerland and Italy. It is not often met with in France, except in the eastern and southern departments, where it rarely remains during winter.

Another species, which is very common in Egypt, differs but little from the last mentioned. It is sometimes seen in the South of Sardinia and Sicily. It is commonly designated by the name of the Great Short-eared Owl.

The Virginian Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus), the Strix virginiana of Vieillot, inhabits North and South America. This bird is nearly the size of the Great Owl of Europe; it is distinguished from the latter by a different arrangement of the feathered projections on its head, which, instead of starting from the ears, take their rise close to the bill. This bird feeds on young GallinaceÆ, which it boldly carries off from the very midst of the poultry-yards; the Turkey especially is a particular favourite with it. When other food fails, it feeds on dead fish found on the river-banks. If caught when young it is easily tamed, but as it gets mature its bloodthirsty instincts become so powerful that it ultimately proves a most expensive pet.

The Short-eared Owl (Fig. 275) is about a foot in height. The horns on this species' head are shorter than those of the Great Owl in proportion to the birds' size. Its wings are thirty-nine inches across; in its plumage russet predominates, shaded with grey and brown. It has a blackish bill and claws, and beautiful yellow eyes. It inhabits hollows in rocks or dead trees, and old ruined houses, and sometimes instals itself in nests left vacant by Magpies, Ravens, and Buzzards. It is much less wild than the Great Owl, and is frequently in the habit of prowling round dwelling-houses.

This Owl being very fond of mice, which form its principal food, all that is requisite to attract it to a snare is to imitate the cry of these little animals. It also feeds on moles, and, in cases of emergency, even on frogs, toads, leverets, young rabbits, and insects. This bird displays much courage in the defence of its young when it thinks them in danger, and does not then fear even to attack man. Its cry consists of a kind of low moaning clow, cloud, which it frequently utters during the night. It is easily tamed if taken young; but if old when caught, it persistently refuses food.

The Short-eared Owl is more sociable than most nocturnal birds of prey, and is often met with in flocks of seven or eight. Its habitat is the North of Europe, quitting it in the autumn to winter in warmer regions: it regularly visits France in October and November. It is sometimes found in thickets close to marshes and rivers, where it catches frogs, and even fish. In the North, especially in Iceland, it builds its nest in the ground, sometimes occupying burrows made by rabbits. We shall see further on that this singularity is shared by one of the American Owls.

A species very similar to the last described is found in Senegal; but the head, tarsi, and lower part of the body are white; its height is ten inches.

Lastly, the Ketupu is a native of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. It often frequents the banks of rivers, and feeds principally upon crabs and fish. The name it bears is that which has been given to it by the natives.

The Scops-eared Owl (Scops), Fig. 276, is remarkable for its diminutive size, which does not exceed that of a Thrush, and for its horns, which are perfectly rudimentary and formed of a single feather. Its plumage, which is beautifully shaded with russet, grey, and black, is much more pleasing than that of the preceding species.

These Owls are more sociable than larger ones, and assemble in flocks in autumn and spring to migrate into warmer climates; they depart after the Swallows, and get to their destination about the same time. They are of great service to the agriculturist in destroying field-mice. "At times when this kind of scourge was prevalent," says Buffon, "Small Horned Owls have been known to arrive in numbers, and wage such a successful warfare against the field-mice, that in a few days the ground was cleared of them."

Dale, an English author, mentions another example of the utility of the Scops. In 1580 such a large quantity of mice appeared in the plains near South Minster that all the plants were gnawed off by the roots. Soon after, a number of Small Horned Owls came in flocks, and destroyed the mice.

When pressed by hunger, the Scops is not above eating fish. It may then be seen hovering over ponds and rivers, and seizing fish upon the surface with remarkable dexterity. Bats and large insects also are its prey.

It is difficult to kill or catch the Scops, although they travel in numerous companies; for they do not begin their journey until the evening, a short time before night closes in, and settle down in the woods during the day. If they meet with a place favourable for their subsistence, such as a plain intersected by marshes and small woods, they remain there for two or three days. In the evening they have a strange habit of following people passing through their haunts. Sometimes they precede them, hopping from tree to tree, and uttering low, plaintive cries, frequently fluttering round almost sufficiently close to touch them. The Scops is easily tamed, and becomes very familiar; it is, consequently, in much request in Savoy for the purpose of bird-catching. It perfectly recognises the voice of whoever feeds it, and, although at liberty, will not abandon the house of its master. But when the season of migration arrives it would be of no use to attempt to detain it; kindness and caresses are all in vain. Unless the precaution of shutting it up be taken, it rejoins its companions, and accompanies them, perhaps, to Africa or Asia.

There is a variety of this bird, named Scops asio, which is found in North America, on the shores of the Ohio and Mississippi. It is very gentle, and allows itself to be caressed when taken, without attempting to bite or scratch. Audubon relates that he carried one of these birds from New York to Philadelphia; he kept it in his pocket during the whole journey, accustomed it to eat out of his hand, and the bird did not attempt to escape.

Several other species of Scops are scattered over the two continents. The most interesting is the exotic species called Choliba, which the inhabitants of Brazil and Paraguay rear in their dwellings to destroy rats and mice.

Hornless Owls.

The family of Hornless Owls is distinguished from the Horned group by the absence of projecting feathers on their heads. They comprehend several species, the principal of which are Sparrow Owls (Strix passerina, Aud.), Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia), Barn or Screech Owls (Strix flammea), Hawk Owls (Surnia funerea), Ural Owls (Surnia uralensis), and Snow Owls (Surnia nictea).

Sparrow Owls are of small size; their facial disk is incomplete; the tarsi are elongated; the claws bare or slightly hairy; their tails short and square. There are numerous species, of which we shall only notice the principal.

The Common Sparrow Owl, which is very numerous in France, and, in fact, through the whole of Europe, is about the size of a Thrush. It inhabits old ruins and quarries, but never lives in the hollows of trees; therefore it rarely makes its abode in the woods. Its nature is much less nocturnal than that of its congeners, and it is often seen pursuing small birds in broad daylight, though probably with but little success. Its general food consists of mice, which it tears in pieces before eating, as it is unable to swallow them whole. It also very skilfully plucks the feathers from birds which become its victims. In winter, when the snow is on the ground, it devours the filth deposited in the farm-yards. Like the Scops, it delights in following persons who pass its retreat, especially at the break of dawn. When flying it utters a cry, poopoo, poopoo! which it substitutes, when perched, for a sound very like the voice of a young Frenchman saying aime, heme, esme! Buffon relates a curious anecdote on this subject:—"I was sleeping in an old tower of the ChÂteau of Montbard, when a little before daybreak, at three o'clock in the morning, a Sparrow Owl came and perched on the window-seat of my chamber, and woke me by its cry of heme, edme. As I listened to this voice, which seemed to me all the more singular as it was so near, I heard one of my servants, who was sleeping in a room above, open his window, and, deceived by the well-articulated sound of edme, answer the bird: 'Who is down there? My name is not Edme, but Peter.' The servant actually believed that it was a man calling, so much did the voice of the Owl resemble that of a human being, and so distinctly did it articulate the word."

The bird-catchers of Tessin employ the Sparrow Owl for enticing birds into their nests. If taken when very young it is easily tamed, and shows itself sensible of attention. M. Bailly possessed one which exhibited much satisfaction when rubbed on the breast, back, or head. It would remain perfectly immovable, sometimes on its chest, and sometimes on its back, showing in every way the pleasure it felt.

In Northern Italy this bird is reared in captivity; it feeds on mice, and even eats fruit and polenta. M. GÉrard relates that he reared a Sparrow Owl, which became so tame that it willingly allowed itself to be caressed at any moment of the day. It destroyed a great many insects, and ate everything that was given it, but showed such a very decided taste for raw meat that it sometimes, without letting go its hold, hung suspended to a morsel of intestine for more than ten minutes. It was on the best of terms with the cat of the house; and they were often found lying close together in the same basket. The dog was never able to gain the bird's affections; and a Raven, which lived in the house by the same right as the Owl, was cordially hated by it. It showed much irritation at the sight of other birds, even if they were only stuffed ones; and when able to obtain possession of them, carried them into a corner and plucked off their feathers at leisure. It also delighted in rolling in the dust.

A more diminutive species still, the Small Sparrow Owl, inhabits the northern part of the two continents, and sometimes ventures as far south as Germany. Its plumage, which is ash-coloured above, below the chest is dazzling white, marked with black spots. It has a white stripe round the front of its neck.

The Pampas Sparrow Owl is found in South America, and is no bigger than a Thrush. This bird, though so small, has strongly-developed bloodthirsty instincts; for it slips under the wings of poultry, and kills them by tearing open their sides.

Buffon classes with this species a variety which inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and is endowed with magnificent plumage, red and black partly mixed with grey. The colonists tame it, and use it to keep their houses clear of mice.

The Burrowing Owl derives its name from the place in which it makes its nest. This bird is about the size of a Pigeon, and frequents the immense plains, or pampas, of South America, and the prairies of North America. The burrows, however, it does not dig itself, but simply takes possession of those belonging to other animals, after having driven them away by its disgusting odour. This mode of conquering a territory, although of a peaceful character, is, to say the least of it, singular.

Burrowing Owls do not confine themselves to going out in the evening and morning. They love the light of day, and willingly seek their food even when the sun is vertical. It is a curious fact that this bird lives in association with beings with which it has no natural tie, such as the prairie dog, a sort of marmot peculiar to the New World. Captain Francis Head, an English traveller, who one day came across a flock of these creatures thus living together, depicts their attitude as follows:—

"Towards the evening the prairie dogs keep outside their burrows, with a serious look on their faces, like grave and reflective philosophers or moralists. During the day the entrance to the subterranean burrow is guarded by two Owls, which never quit their post. While the travellers were galloping over the plain the Owls continued their duty as sentries, looking them full in the face, and one after the other shaking their venerable heads in a way which was most ludicrous on account of its solemnity. When the horsemen came near them the two sentinels lost much of their dignified look, and darted hurriedly into the burrows."

This Owl feeds on rats, reptiles, and insects. It is gentle, and may be easily tamed, and is sometimes kept for the purpose of destroying vermin.

The birds which are comprised in the genus of Barn or Screech Owls have a complete facial disk, and short tarsi feathered down to the claws. They are as large, and even larger than the Short-eared Owl.

The first of this group is the Tawny Owl, or Howlet, commonly called the Wood Owl. One of its names is derived from its cry, hoo-oo-oo! which resembles the howling of a wolf, and caused the Romans to call it Ulula, from ululare, to howl.

The Tawny Owl has a large head, and is about fourteen inches in height. It inhabits the woods during the summer, and conceals itself in the thickest bushes or the old trunks of trees. It remains hidden all day, only going out in the morning and evening to hunt small birds and field-mice, its favourite prey. In the winter it approaches human habitations, and even ventures into barns to catch rats and mice; but it retires to its hiding-place as soon as day begins to dawn.

At the beginning of autumn, the education of its young ones being completed, this bird takes up its abode in damp places, where it can catch frogs and reptiles, to which it is very partial. During that season Woodcock shooters often flush them.

Like many individuals of the same family, the Barn Owl will lay its eggs in strange nests, such as those of Ravens, Magpies, and Buzzards, or even in a dovecot. The young ones are very voracious. Before they are strong enough to stand upon their feet they will support themselves on their stomachs, and, holding their prey in their claws, tear it to pieces with their bills; when they become stronger, they stand on one leg, and use the other to convey food to their mouths.

This Owl has a gentle disposition, and is easily tamed; it knows its master perfectly well, and calls to him for food by uttering low cries. It is found scattered all over Europe, and frequently in Scotland.

As stormy weather has a great effect on animals' calling, and this dark variety is more frequently found in northern and stormy regions than the lighter-coloured, many authorities erroneously consider the Screech and Barn Owls different birds.

The Common Barn Owl is found over a great portion of Europe, but in France it is rare. There are several varieties of this bird; the one best known in England has the following characteristics:—Its plumage is agreeably variegated with yellow, white, grey, and brown, and is more pleasing than that of any of the other Nocturnals. The eggs, which are elliptical, are generally five in number, sometimes six or seven, and are deposited in holes in walls, or hollow places in rocks and old trees; but the bird does not take the trouble to line these holes with grass or leaves. It is but seldom it takes possession of the nests of other birds, although stories are told of its driving away the Martins from their retreats, and installing itself therein, having first considerately devoured the young.

When the Barn Owl finds a deficiency of food it has recourse to fishing. It may then be seen diving perpendicularly on to the water to capture fish which are floating upon the surface.

The Chinese and Tartars pay special reverence to the Owl, in memory of a fact which well deserves to be recorded. Gengis Khan, the founder of their empire, having been put to flight by his enemies, was one day compelled to take refuge in a wood, and an Owl which came and perched in the thicket in which he had hidden himself was the sole cause of his escaping the pursuit of his foes; for those who were searching for him very naturally omitted to explore the bushes in which he was concealed, thinking that it was impossible that a covert should at the same time shelter both an Owl and a man. Thus, thanks to the intervention of the bird, Gengis Khan was saved from his foes. In memory of this event the Chinese were in the habit of wearing on their heads an Owl's feather. Certain tribes of the Calmucs have an idol representing an Owl.

The Canada Owl (Fig. 278) is common in North America, and especially in Canada. It appears casually in the North of Europe, in Sweden and Norway. Its plumage is of a greyish-brown colour. It feeds on hares, rabbits, rats, mice, reptiles, and birds; it is about fifteen inches high. Audubon often had an opportunity of examining it.

"Its cry," says he, "is a waah, waahha, which one is tempted to compare with the affected laugh of a votary of fashion. Often in my distant excursions, when encamped under the trees, and roasting a slice of venison or a squirrel by means of a wooden spit, I have been greeted with the laughter of this nocturnal disturber. It stopped at a few paces from me, exposing its whole body to the gleam of my fire, and looking at me in such an odd way, that had I not feared to make a fool of myself in my own eyes, I should have politely invited him to come and partake of my supper. This bird visits Louisiana, and is met with in all the most isolated woods even in open day. If it appears likely to rain, it laughs louder than ever; its waah, waahha, penetrates into the most remote recesses of the woods, and its comrades answer it in strange and discordant tones: one might almost think that the Owl nation was celebrating some extraordinary fÊte."

Audubon adds that when you approach one of these birds it thoroughly scrutinises you, assuming at the same time the most grotesque attitudes. If any one fires at it and misses, it flies away, but stops at a little distance and utters its mocking cry.

The name Hawk Owls has been given to this genus, as it serves as a transition from the Nocturnal to the Diurnal birds of prey. In fact, although, by their general shape and physical conformation, they evidently belong to the former, they are also connected with the latter by their habits and mode of hunting, which are very like those of the Sparrow-hawk; hence their name. They are easily recognised by their long and tapering tail, and by their free and bold gait. They form a very characteristic group, and the species, which are four in number, present but little diversity.

The White Owl (Surnia nictea), the Strix nictea of Foster, can be tamed; but it must not be closely confined. It requires both air and space to move about at will. Under these conditions it constitutes a useful auxiliary to the farmer, and will advantageously take the place of several cats. But if it is kept in a cage it refuses food, and dies after a few days' captivity.

The White Owl may be found in all parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. There are two varieties of it: one in Java, the Calong Owl; the other in Mexico and the Antilles. These two species differ but little from the Common White Owl, and are characterised by nearly the same habits.

The Caparacoch Owl, called by Buffon the Great Canadian Sparrow Owl, measures about fifteen inches. In summer it feeds upon small rodents and insects; in winter, on Ptarmigan, which it accompanies in their migrations from the South to the North. It will sometimes pounce down on the game which is killed by the sportsman, and, if care is not taken, will carry it off. It is a native of the Arctic regions, especially those of America. Sometimes it penetrates as far as Germany, but rarely makes its appearance in France.

The Harfang Owl, improperly called by some naturalists the King of the Owls, attains to about twenty-two inches in height; that is, to nearly the size of the Great Horned Owl. With the exception of the Lapland or Ash-coloured Owl, which measures two feet, this is the largest among the Owls. Its plumage is a brilliant white, with some black spots on the head. This colour is well suited to the nature of the places in which the Harfang lives. This bird inhabits the most desolate solitudes to the north of America: Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Greenland. It is also found in Iceland and the neighbouring islands, but is only accidentally seen in England and France. Thanks to its colour, which harmonises so perfectly with all around, it is enabled to traverse almost unseen the immense deserts of snow, and thus has great facilities for surprising its prey, which consists of Hazel Hens, Ptarmigan, Grouse, Hares, and Rabbits. Owing to its abundant plumage and thick down, it is able to brave the inclemency of a climate that would be fatal to any creature less amply protected.

The fact is attested by the statement of Captain Parry, of Arctic-region notoriety, that this bird frequently dies of starvation. Sometimes it shows so much audacity and greediness that it is impossible to entertain any doubt on the subject of its hunger, as it will pounce on the game shot by the sportsman, totally disregarding human presence.

The Lapland and the Ural Owls have the same habits as the Harfang, only their geographical distribution is less extended. Mr. Gould regards the latter as one of the rarest European Owls. As their names indicate, they are peculiar to certain countries. Neither have they the dazzling whiteness of the Harfang Owl; and this is the characteristic which specially distinguishes them from the latter.

We may class in the same genus two exotic species discovered by Levaillant. These are the Choucou, which is a native of Africa, and the Huhul Owl of Guiana, which hunts its prey in open day.

Diurnal Birds of Prey.

All that we previously remarked, when commencing the consideration of this order, as to the general characteristics which distinguish birds of prey, applies more particularly to the diurnal portion of them. We shall not repeat here what we have already stated, but only add a few words, in order the better to specify this division of the order.

The diurnal birds of prey have their eyes placed at the sides of the head, and the toes completely bare. They vary in size from that of the Sparrow-hawk, the spread of whose wings is scarcely twelve inches, to the Condor, which stretches its pinions over a space of four or five yards. They lay their eggs, which are generally of an oval shape, in rude nests called "aeries."

The Diurnal section of the Rapacious order is divided into three families: the Falcons (FalconidÆ), the Vultures (VulturidÆ), and the Serpent-eaters (Gypogeranus).

Falcons.

The Falcon tribe have a very strong and comparatively short beak, which is generally curved from the base, with denticulated or scalloped edges; the head and neck covered with feathers; the talons very powerful, and furnished with retractile nails—not, indeed, in the same manner as cats, which have the power of withdrawing or sheathing theirs within the integuments, but by a conformation which gives the bird of prey the power of elevating its claws at pleasure.

These are the birds of prey par excellence. They feed for the most part on living animals; there are, however, some which, when other means of sustenance fail, devour putrefied flesh. Their flight is very rapid, and they ascend to immense altitudes in the sky. They are seldom to be seen on the ground; if they settle there it is but to seize their prey, which accomplished, they without delay take wing to their aerie. They lay, on an average, three or four eggs. Their plumage alters considerably during their early years; to such an extent, indeed, does this occur, that the young and the adult birds have often been taken for two distinct species. This fact has not a little contributed to confusing students of ornithology.

This family is a very numerous one, comprising no less than nine genera; namely, Eagles, Sea Eagles, Harpy Eagles, Caracara Eagles, Hawks, Goshawks, Kites, Harriers, and Buzzards.

The Eagle genus is characterised as follows:—The bill scalloped, but not toothed, and presenting a straight portion at the base; the nostrils elliptical and transverse; the tarsi short, and feathered down to the toes; the wings long; and the tail rounded.

Buffon has sketched a portrait of the Eagle, but his picture is by no means a model of accuracy:—

"The Eagles," he says, "both physically and morally, present several points of harmony with the Lion. In the first place, in strength, and consequently in an empire over other birds, as the Lion over beasts. In magnanimity; for he, too, disdains small creatures, and despises their insults. The Eagle will for a long time bear with the troublesome cries of the Crow and the Magpie ere he makes up his mind to punish them with death. Added to this, he covets no good things that he has not conquered for himself, and no other prey than that of his own catching. In temperance; for he scarcely ever eats the whole of his victim, and, like the Lion, leaves the bits and fragments for other creatures. However great may be his hunger, he will never feed upon dead carcasses. Again, like the Lion, he lives a solitary life, inhabiting a desert, into which he allows no other bird to enter, and in which he himself must be the sole hunter; for two pairs of Eagles in the same mountain district are, perhaps, a rarer sight than two families of Lions in the same part of a forest. They keep at a sufficient distance from one another, so that the space allotted to them should furnish each an ample subsistence; and the extent of their demesne is regulated by its productiveness. The Eagle has a flashing eye like the Lion, and is nearly of the same colour; has claws of a similar shape, a breath equally rank, and a cry equally frightful. Both seem as if they were made for combat and the pursuit of prey; both are alike inimical to companionship, alike ferocious, alike proud, and difficult to tame."

Buffon has much overrated the reputation of the Eagle; it will be well to reduce it to somewhat more just proportions. Agreeing with the immortal naturalist, we admit that the Eagle is endowed with no common amount of strength. With regard to its magnanimity, we must be allowed to entertain a doubt. As a matter of fact, the Eagle always attacks animals which are unable to resist it; if it disdains small birds, it is because they can easily evade its pursuit, and after all, there would be but little profit gained if they were caught. As to its moderation, it is easily proved to have no existence save in the imagination of the distinguished naturalist. On the contrary, the Eagle is voracious; it never leaves its prey until it is completely surfeited, and then only because it is unable to carry away the remainder to its aerie. So far from despising dead carcasses, it will readily feed upon them, even when it is not compelled by need, for it will gorge itself on carrion to such an extent that it frequently becomes incapable of avoiding its enemies. Its honesty, too, is a fact not better established, for the Fish Eagle pursues birds that are weaker than itself, and, in defiance of all justice, takes from them the booty which they have acquired through labour.

By a kind of rhetorical metaphor the Eagle has been proclaimed "the king of birds." If the possession of strength, and the abuse which is made of it, constitute the attributes of royalty, the Eagle has an unquestionable right to the title. But if with the kingly rank we connect the ideas of courage and nobility, it would never do to place the crown on the Eagle's head.

The ancients were inspired with a juster sentiment in making the Eagle the symbol of victory. The Assyrians, the Persians, and the Romans placed an Eagle with outspread wings on the top of their standards; and even in modern times we find a representation of this bird filling the same emblematic post in the armies of several European nations. Some, as Austria, instead of one Eagle, adopt two as their allusive emblazonry.

In consequence of the Eagle mounting up to such prodigious heights the ancients looked upon it as the bird of Jupiter and the messenger of the gods. When Jove, after the withdrawal of Hebe, came down to earth to seek for another cup-bearer, he changed himself into an Eagle, and it was under this shape he carried off Ganymede.

But we must leave mythology and symbols, and turn our attention to a matter-of-fact description of the great bird of prey.

In the Eagle the sense of vision is developed to its very highest excellence. Contemplate him hovering majestically among the clouds, and you will be struck with admiration. By an imperceptible motion of his wings he maintains this prodigious height without fatigue. Perceiving a Hazel Hen on the heath below, he folds his wings, and in a few seconds drops down to within a short distance of the ground; then, with his legs stiffened, he swoops upon his prey, seizes his victim, and carries it away to some adjacent mountain.

The great strength of the muscles which work the wing of this bird (Fig. 279) will explain the power and long duration of his flight.

The Eagle is endowed with such an enormous amount of muscular force, that it contends successfully against the most powerful winds. Raymond, the naturalist, who has been styled "the painter of the Pyrenees," relates that, having reached the summit of Mont Perdu, the loftiest peak of that range, he perceived an Eagle pass over him at surprising speed, although it was flying against a strong head-wind.

If to the weight of the body of the Eagle we add that of the victim which it clutches in its talons; if we consider that this victim is often borne by it to considerable distances, and that the Eagle will thus cross the chain of the Alps; if we also reflect that the prey is not unfrequently a chamois or a sheep, we shall be enabled to form some idea of its strength and muscular power.

The Eagle builds its nest in the clefts of the most inaccessible rocks, or on their edge, that its brood may be safe from danger or surprise. This nest is nothing but a floor, made of sticks placed carelessly side by side, bound together with some pliable branches, and lined with leaves, reeds, and heather. However, its solidity is sufficient to resist for years the decay caused by time, and to bear the load of four or five birds, weighing from seventy to eighty pounds, with the provisions brought for their sustenance. Some Eagles' nests have an area of as much as five feet square. The number of eggs laid is generally two or three, rarely four. Incubation requires thirty days.

Eaglets being very voracious, the parent birds are compelled to hunt with great assiduity. Nevertheless, should scarcity occur, the young brood do not suffer, for nature has endowed them with the faculty of supporting abstinence for many days. This peculiarity they possess in common with all birds of prey. Buffon mentions an Eagle which, having been taken in a trap, passed five weeks without anything to eat, and did not appear enfeebled until the last eight days. An English author states that for twenty-one days a tame Eagle was not fed, and that the bird appeared to have suffered little from its protracted fast.

When the young are large enough to provide for their own wants they are pitilessly driven from their paternal home; they then proceed to an unoccupied district, of which they take possession.

The Eagle is, as we have before said, endowed with immense muscular vigour; it is, therefore, able to carry off prey of considerable size, such as Geese, Turkeys, Cranes, &c.; also Hares, Kids, and Lambs. In the mountains in which Chamois are abundant they are the principal objects of the Eagle's pursuit, and it employs various stratagems to get these animals into its power; for the bird will not venture to make its attack in front, as the Chamois is well able to keep it at a distance with its horns, provided its rear is protected.

The Eagle sometimes kills its prey with the force of its swoop, without clutching with talons or beak. Again, it is stated that a blow from its wing will deprive a kid of life; it is not, therefore, surprising that its strength enables it to lift up young children, and carry them off.

Many for a long period have refused to give credence to this fact; but the evidence of persons who are worthy of all confidence will not allow of any doubt being raised on the subject. We will, however, mention a few instances.

In the Canton of Vaud two little girls, one three years old and the other five, were playing together in a meadow. An Eagle swooped down upon the eldest, and carried her off. All that immediately afterwards could be found upon a most active search was a shoe and stocking belonging to the child. Two months having elapsed, a shepherd discovered the remains of the little victim, horribly mutilated, and lying upon a rock half a league from the meadow from which she was taken.

In the Isle of Skye, in Scotland, a woman left her child in a field. An Eagle carried off the little one in its talons, and crossing over a broad lake, laid it upon a rock. Fortunately the robber was perceived by some shepherds, who came up in time to succour the infant.

In Sweden a babe was carried away under somewhat similar circumstances. The mother, who was only a short distance off, heard the shrieks of the poor little thing; but it was impossible for her to rescue it. It was borne out of her sight, and the wretched woman went mad with grief.

In the Canton of Geneva a boy of ten years old, who was robbing an Eagle's nest, was seized by one of the birds, and borne to a point six hundred yards from the spot. He was rescued by his companions without having suffered further injury than some severe wounds inflicted by the bird's talons.

In the FeroË Isles an Eagle flew away with a child (which its mother had left for a few moments), and bore it off to its aerie. Maternal love inspired the unfortunate woman with such a degree of strength as to enable her to reach the nest; but alas! to find her child lifeless.

Near New York, in America, a lad of seven years of age was attacked by an Eagle. The boy having avoided the first shock, the Eagle persevered in its onslaught; but he waited for it bravely, and gave the bird a vigorous blow under the left wing with a sickle, which killed it. When the stomach of this Eagle was opened it was found entirely devoid of food. The bird was, therefore, in a famished state, and consequently enfeebled. Its persistent boldness is thus explained, and also the ease with which it was mastered.

We must, however, confess that cases of children being carried away by Eagles are rare, for they generally avoid the vicinity of man, feeling unable to cope with him successfully. The chief objects of their attacks are newly-born lambs, which they frequently carry off in spite of the shouts of the shepherds and the proximity of his dogs. Sometimes they devote their attention to young calves; they do not, however, attempt to carry them off, but feed on them where slaughtered.

A considerable amount of ingenuity has been displayed by some men in turning to account the habit which Eagles have of storing up a quantity of provisions in their nests for the sustenance of their young. A peasant in Ireland kept himself and the whole of his family for an entire season by robbing the Eaglets in a neighbouring aerie of the stores of food which were brought to them by the parent birds. In order to prolong this singular means of livelihood, report says, he endeavoured to delay the moment when the young ones would be driven forth, adopting the artifice of cutting their wings to render it impossible for them to fly.

Eagles are very suspicious, and it is consequently difficult to get within gunshot of them. The mountaineers of the Pyrenees suffer much from the ravages they make among their flocks, and for this reason brave many dangers to destroy the young birds.

"This pursuit," says M. GÉrard, "is carried on by two men; one of the hunters is armed with a double-barrelled carbine, the other with a kind of iron pike about two feet long. At the first indication of daybreak the hunters reach the mountain-peak where the Eagle has his aerie, just at the time that the old birds are away seeking food. The first stands on the summit of the rock, and, carbine in hand, waits the arrival of the Eagle. The other makes his way down to the nest, climbing from cleft to cleft by means of cords. With a bold hand the Eaglets are grasped, still too young to oppose resistance. The parents, hearing the cries of their young, swoop down furiously, and fall upon the intrepid mountaineer, who beats them off with thrusts of his pike, whilst his companion waits a favourable opportunity to deliver his fire, which generally terminates the contest."

The Eagle has been taken in snares; but if the instrument is not fastened down securely to the ground, the bird will tear it up and bear it off. Meisner relates that an Eagle, having been caught by the foot in a fox's trap, struggled with such effect that it wrenched up the trap, and carried it away to the other side of the mountain, although the instrument weighed nearly nine pounds.

The Scotch employ a method for capturing Eagles which originated from their known voracity. In a narrow space, bounded by four tolerably high walls, they throw down pieces of raw meat. The Eagle settles to devour it. When completely gorged it becomes too heavy to fly, and endeavours to make his way out through an opening at the foot of the walls, where it is caught and held fast by a running noose, which is placed in front of the exit.

The Eagle is remarkable for its longevity; but this cannot be accurately determined. Klein mentions an instance of one of these birds which lived in captivity in Vienna for one hundred and four years; he also speaks of a pair of Eagles in Forfarshire, in Scotland, which inhabited the same aerie for such a length of time that the oldest inhabitants had always known them.

If captured young, Eagles are susceptible of a certain amount of education; but there always remains a tinge of ferocity in their nature, which renders their behaviour gloomy and sullen. When old they are absolutely untamable. In captivity they adapt their appetite to circumstances, and will even devour their own race. When nothing better is to be obtained, serpents, lizards, and, according to Buffon, bread are acceptable food to them.

Although the Eagle is so irascible by nature, it has sometimes given proofs of gentleness truly astonishing. We may instance the bird which lived in 1807 in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, which was captured in the forest of Fontainebleau. One of its feet was broken in the trap in which it was taken, and in consequence it was compelled to submit to a most painful operation, which it underwent with exemplary calmness and courage. Fully three months elapsed before it was cured, and afterwards it became so familiar with its keeper that it allowed itself to be caressed by him, and on his retiring for the night the bird roosted by his couch.

The ancient falconers of the East were not in the habit of making use of the Eagle; its want of docility and its great weight rendered it but little adapted for this exercise. Thus they rather unceremoniously class the Eagle among the ignoble birds.

Fig. 280.—Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).